Programming Languages

Values and Types

Onur Tolga Şehitoğlu

Computer Engineering, METU

ODTÜ
METU
Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Outline

1 Value and Type Static Type Checking

2 Primitive vs Composite Types Dynamic Type Checking
Type Equality
3 Cartesian Product
9 Type Completeness
4 Disjoint Union
10 Expressions
5 Mappings Literals/Variable and
Arrays Constant Access
Functions Aggregates
6 Powerset Variable References
7 Recursive Types Function Calls
Lists Conditional Expressions
General Recursive Types Iterative Expressions
Strings Block Expressions
8 Type Systems 11 Summary

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What are Value and Type?

Value anything that exist, that can be computed, stored, take

part in data structure.
Constants, variable content, parameters, function return
values, operator results...
Type set of values of same kind.

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

What are Value and Type?

Value anything that exist, that can be computed, stored, take

part in data structure.
Constants, variable content, parameters, function return
values, operator results...
Type set of values of same kind.
C types:
int, char, long,...
float, double
pointers
structures: struct, union
arrays

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Haskell types
Bool, Int, Float, ...
Char, String
tuples,(N-tuples), records
lists
functions
Each type represents a set of values. Is that enough?

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Haskell types
Bool, Int, Float, ...
Char, String
tuples,(N-tuples), records
lists
functions
Each type represents a set of values. Is that enough?
What about the following set? Is it a type?
{"ahmet", 1 , 4 , 23.453, 2.32, ’b’}

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Haskell types
Bool, Int, Float, ...
Char, String
tuples,(N-tuples), records
lists
functions
Each type represents a set of values. Is that enough?
What about the following set? Is it a type?
{"ahmet", 1 , 4 , 23.453, 2.32, ’b’}
Values should exhibit a similar behavior. The same group of
operations should be defined on them.

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Primitive vs Composite Types

Primitive Types: Values that cannot be decomposed into

other sub values.
C: int, float, double, char, long, short, pointers
Haskell: Bool, Int, Float, function values
Python: bool, int, float, str, functions
cardinality of a type: The number of distinct values that a
datatype has. Denoted as: ”#Type”.
#Bool = 2 #char = 256 #short = 216
#int = 232 #double = 232 , ...
What does cardinality mean?

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Primitive vs Composite Types

Primitive Types: Values that cannot be decomposed into

other sub values.
C: int, float, double, char, long, short, pointers
Haskell: Bool, Int, Float, function values
Python: bool, int, float, str, functions
cardinality of a type: The number of distinct values that a
datatype has. Denoted as: ”#Type”.
#Bool = 2 #char = 256 #short = 216
#int = 232 #double = 232 , ...
What does cardinality mean? How many bits required to store
the datatype?

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User Defined Primitive Types

enumerated types
enum days {mon, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat, sun};
enum months {jan, feb, mar, apr, .... };
ranges (Pascal and Ada)
type Day = 1..31;
var g:Day;
Discrete Ordinal Primitive Types Datatypes values have one
to one mapping to a range of integers.
C: Every ordinal type is an alias for integers.
Pascal, Ada: distinct types
DOPT’s are important as they
i. can be array indices, switch/case labels
ii. can be used as for loop variable (some languages like
pascal)

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Composite Datatypes

User defined types with composition of one or more other

datatypes. Depending on composition type:
Cartesian Product (struct, tuples, records)

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Composite Datatypes

User defined types with composition of one or more other

datatypes. Depending on composition type:
Cartesian Product (struct, tuples, records)
Disjoint union (union (C), variant record (pascal), Data
(haskell))

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Composite Datatypes

User defined types with composition of one or more other

datatypes. Depending on composition type:
Cartesian Product (struct, tuples, records)
Disjoint union (union (C), variant record (pascal), Data
(haskell))
Mapping (arrays, functions)

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Composite Datatypes

User defined types with composition of one or more other

datatypes. Depending on composition type:
Cartesian Product (struct, tuples, records)
Disjoint union (union (C), variant record (pascal), Data
(haskell))
Mapping (arrays, functions)
Powerset (set datatype (Pascal))

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Composite Datatypes

User defined types with composition of one or more other

datatypes. Depending on composition type:
Cartesian Product (struct, tuples, records)
Disjoint union (union (C), variant record (pascal), Data
(haskell))
Mapping (arrays, functions)
Powerset (set datatype (Pascal))
Recursive compositions (lists, trees, complex data structures)

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Cartesian Product

S × T = {(x, y ) | x ∈ S, y ∈ T }
Example:
S = {a, b, c} T = {1, 2}
S × T = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}

•a • (a,1) • (a,2)
•1
•b × = • (b,1) • (b,2)
•2
•c • (c,1) • (c,2)

#(S × T ) =

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Cartesian Product

S × T = {(x, y ) | x ∈ S, y ∈ T }
Example:
S = {a, b, c} T = {1, 2}
S × T = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}

•a • (a,1) • (a,2)
•1
•b × = • (b,1) • (b,2)
•2
•c • (c,1) • (c,2)

#(S × T ) =#S · #T

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C struct, Pascal record, functional languages tuple

in C: string × int
struct P e r s o n {
char name [20];
int no ;
} x = { " Osman Hamdi " ,23141};

in Haskell: string × int

type P e o p l e =( String , Int )
...
x = ( " Osman Hamdi " ,23141):: P e o p l e

in Python: string × int

x = ( " Osman Hamdi " , 23141)
type ( x )
< type ’ tuple ’ >

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Multiple Cartesian products:

C: string × int × {MALE,FEMALE}
struct P e r s o n {
char name [20];
int no ;
enum Sex {MALE, FEMALE} s e x ;
} x = { " Osman Hamdi " ,23141 ,FEMALE};

Haskell: string × int × float × string

x = ( " Osman Hamdi " ,23141 ,3.98 , " Yazar " )

Python: str × int × float × str

x = ( " Osman Hamdi " ,23141 ,3.98 , " Yazar " )

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Homogeneous Cartesian Products

n
z }| {
Sn = S × S × S × ... × S
double4 :
struct quad { double x , y , z ,q; };

S 0 = {()} is 0-tuple.
not empty set. A set with a single value.
terminating value (nil) for functional language lists.
C void. Means no value. Error on evaluation.
Python: () . None used for no value.

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Disjoint Union

S + T = {left x | x ∈ S} ∪ {right x | x ∈ T }
Example:
S = {1, 2, 3} T = {3, 4}
S + T = {left 1, left 2, left 3, right 3, right 4}

•1 • left 1 • right 3
•3
•2 + = • left 2 • right 4
•4
•3 • left 3

#(S + T ) =

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Disjoint Union

S + T = {left x | x ∈ S} ∪ {right x | x ∈ T }
Example:
S = {1, 2, 3} T = {3, 4}
S + T = {left 1, left 2, left 3, right 3, right 4}

•1 • left 1 • right 3
•3
•2 + = • left 2 • right 4
•4
•3 • left 3

#(S + T ) =#S + #T
C union’s are disjoint union?

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C: int + double:
union number { double r e a l ; int i n t e g e r ; } x ;

C union’s are not safe! Same storage is shared. Valid field is

unknown:
x . r e a l =3.14; p r i n t f ( " % d \ n " , x . i n t e g e r );

Haskel: Float + Int + (Int × Int):

data Number = R e a l V a l Float | I n t V a l Int | Rational ( Int , Int )
x = Rational (3 ,4)
y = R e a l V a l 3.14
z = I n t V a l 12 { - - You cannot access d i f f e r e n t values - -}

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Mappings

The set of all possible mappings

S 7→ T = {V | ∀(x ∈ S)∃(y ∈ T ), (x 7→ y ) ∈ V }
Example: S = {a, b} T = {1, 2, 3}

•1 Each color is a value in the

•a mapping. Other 6 values are
•2 not drawn
•b
•3

S 7→ T = {{a 7→ 1, b 7→ 1}, {a 7→ 1, b 7→ 2}, {a 7→ 1, b 7→ 3},

{a 7→ 2, b 7→ 1}, {a 7→ 2, b 7→ 2}, {a 7→ 2, b 7→ 3},
{a 7→ 3, b 7→ 1}, {a 7→ 3, b 7→ 2}, {a 7→ 3, b 7→ 3}}
#(S 7→ T ) =

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Mappings

The set of all possible mappings

S 7→ T = {V | ∀(x ∈ S)∃(y ∈ T ), (x 7→ y ) ∈ V }
Example: S = {a, b} T = {1, 2, 3}

•1 Each color is a value in the

•a mapping. Other 6 values are
•2 not drawn
•b
•3

S 7→ T = {{a 7→ 1, b 7→ 1}, {a 7→ 1, b 7→ 2}, {a 7→ 1, b 7→ 3},

{a 7→ 2, b 7→ 1}, {a 7→ 2, b 7→ 2}, {a 7→ 2, b 7→ 3},
{a 7→ 3, b 7→ 1}, {a 7→ 3, b 7→ 2}, {a 7→ 3, b 7→ 3}}
#(S 7→ T ) =#T #S

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Arrays

double a[3]={1.2,2.4,-2.1};
a ∈ ({0, 1, 2} 7→ double)
a = (0 7→ 1.2, 1 7→ 2.4, 2 7→ −2.1)
Arrays define a mapping from an integer range (or DOPT) to
any other type
C: T x[N] ⇒ x ∈ ({0, 1, ..., N − 1} 7→ T )
Other array index types (Pascal):
type
Day = (Mon,Tue ,Wed,Thu, F r i , Sat , Sun );
Month = ( Jan , Feb ,Mar, Apr ,May, Jun , J u l ,Aug , Sep , Oct ,Nov , Dec );
var
x : array Day of real ;
y : array Month of integer ;
...
x [Tue] := 2.4;
y [ Feb ] := 28;

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Functions

C function:
int f ( int a ) {
if ( a %2 == 0) return 0;
else return 1;
}

f : int 7→ {0, 1}
regardless of the function body: f : int 7→ int
Haskell:
f a = if mod a 2 == 0 then 0 else 1

in C, f expression is a pointer type int (*)(int)

in Haskell it is a mapping: int7→int

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Array and Function Difference

Functions
Arrays: Defined by algorithms
Values stored in memory Efficiency, resource usage
Restricted: only integer All types of mappings
domain possible
double7→double ? Side effect, output, error,
termination problem.
Cartesian mappings:
double a[3][4];
double f(int m, int n);
int×int7→double and int7→(int7→double)

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Cartesian Mapping vs Nested mapping

Pascal arrays
var
x : array [1..3 ,1..4] of d o u b l e ;
y : array [1..3] of array [1..4] of d o u b l e ;
...
x [1 ,3] := x [2 ,3]+1; y [1 ,3] := y [2 ,3]+1;

Row operations: x y
√
y[1] := y[2] ; →
x[1] := x[2] ; × →
→

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Haskell functions:
f (x ,y) = x+y
g x y = x+y
...
f (3+2)
g 3 2
√
g 3
f 3×
Reuse the old definition to define a new function:
increment = g 1
increment 1
2

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Powerset

P(S) = {T | T ⊆ S}
The set of all subsets

•∅ •{3} •{2, 3}
•a
S= P(S) = •{1} •{1, 2} •{1, 2, 3}
•b
•{2} •{1, 3}

#P(S) =

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Powerset

P(S) = {T | T ⊆ S}
The set of all subsets

•∅ •{3} •{2, 3}
•a
S= P(S) = •{1} •{1, 2} •{1, 2, 3}
•b
•{2} •{1, 3}

#P(S) =2#S

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Set datatype is restricted and special datatype. Only exists in

Pascal and special set languages like SetL
set operations (Pascal)
type
c o l o r = ( r e d , g r e e n , b l u e , w h i t e , b l a c k );
c o l o r s e t = set of c o l o r ;
var
a ,b : c o l o r s e t ;
...
a := [ r e d , b l u e ];
b := a *b; (* i n t e r s e c t i o n *)
b := a +[ g r e e n , r e d ]; (* union *)
b := a -[ b l u e ]; (* d i f f e r e n c e *)
if ( g r e e n in b) then ... (* element test *)
if ( a = []) then ... (* set e q u a l i t y *)

in C++ and Python implemented as class.

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Recursive Types

S = ...S...
Types including themselves in composition.
Lists
S = Int × S + {null}

S = {right empty } ∪ {left (x, empty ) | x ∈ Int}∪

{left (x, left (y , empty )) | x, y ∈ Int}∪
{left (x, left (y , left (z, empty ))) | x, y , z ∈ Int} ∪ ...

S=
{right empty , left(1, empty ), left(2, empty ), left(3, empty ), ...,
left(1, left(1, empty )), left(1, left(2, empty )), left(1, left(3, empty ), ...,
left(1, left(1, left(1, empty ))), left(1, left(1, left(2, empty ))), ...}

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C lists: pointer based. Not actual recursion.

struct L i s t {
int x ;
L i s t * next ;
} a;

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C lists: pointer based. Not actual recursion.

struct L i s t {
int x ;
L i s t * next ;
} a;

Haskell lists.
data List = Left ( Int , List ) | Empty

x = Left (1 , Left (2 , Left (3 , Empty ))) { - - [1 ,2 ,3] list - -}

y = Empty { - - empty list , [] - -}

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Polymorphic lists: a single definition defines lists of many

types.

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Polymorphic lists: a single definition defines lists of many

types.
List α = α × (List α) + {empty }
data List a l p h a = Left ( a l p h a , List a l p h a ) | Empty

x = Left (1 , Left (2 , Left (3 , Empty ))) { - - [1 ,2 ,3] list - -}

y = Left ( " ali " , Left ( " ahmet " ,Empty )) { - - [" ali " ," ahmet "] - -
z = Left (23.1 , Left (32.2 , Left (1.0 , Empty ))) { - - [23.1 ,32.2 ,1.0] -

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Polymorphic lists: a single definition defines lists of many

types.
List α = α × (List α) + {empty }
data List a l p h a = Left ( a l p h a , List a l p h a ) | Empty

x = Left (1 , Left (2 , Left (3 , Empty ))) { - - [1 ,2 ,3] list - -}

y = Left ( " ali " , Left ( " ahmet " ,Empty )) { - - [" ali " ," ahmet "] - -
z = Left (23.1 , Left (32.2 , Left (1.0 , Empty ))) { - - [23.1 ,32.2 ,1.0] -

Left(1, Left(“ali 00 , Left(15.23, Empty ) ∈ List α ?

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

Polymorphic lists: a single definition defines lists of many

types.
List α = α × (List α) + {empty }
data List a l p h a = Left ( a l p h a , List a l p h a ) | Empty

x = Left (1 , Left (2 , Left (3 , Empty ))) { - - [1 ,2 ,3] list - -}

y = Left ( " ali " , Left ( " ahmet " ,Empty )) { - - [" ali " ," ahmet "] - -
z = Left (23.1 , Left (32.2 , Left (1.0 , Empty ))) { - - [23.1 ,32.2 ,1.0] -

Left(1, Left(“ali 00 , Left(15.23, Empty ) ∈ List α ?

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Polymorphic lists: a single definition defines lists of many

types.
List α = α × (List α) + {empty }
data List a l p h a = Left ( a l p h a , List a l p h a ) | Empty

x = Left (1 , Left (2 , Left (3 , Empty ))) { - - [1 ,2 ,3] list - -}

y = Left ( " ali " , Left ( " ahmet " ,Empty )) { - - [" ali " ," ahmet "] - -
z = Left (23.1 , Left (32.2 , Left (1.0 , Empty ))) { - - [23.1 ,32.2 ,1.0] -

Left(1, Left(“ali 00 , Left(15.23, Empty ) ∈ List α ? No.

Most languages only permits homogeneous lists.

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Haskell Lists

binary operator “:” for list construction:

data [alpha] = (alpha : [alpha]) | []

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Haskell Lists

binary operator “:” for list construction:

data [alpha] = (alpha : [alpha]) | []
x = (1:(2:(3:[])))

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Haskell Lists

binary operator “:” for list construction:

data [alpha] = (alpha : [alpha]) | []
x = (1:(2:(3:[])))
Syntactic sugar:
[1,2,3] ≡ (1:(2:(3:[])))
["ali"] ≡ ("ali":[])

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General Recursive Types

T = ...T ...

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

General Recursive Types

T = ...T ...
Formula requires a minimal solution to be representable:
S = Int × S
Is it possible to write a single value? No minimum solution
here!

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

General Recursive Types

T = ...T ...
Formula requires a minimal solution to be representable:
S = Int × S
Is it possible to write a single value? No minimum solution
here!
List example:
x = Left(1,Left(2,x))
x ∈ S?

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

General Recursive Types

T = ...T ...
Formula requires a minimal solution to be representable:
S = Int × S
Is it possible to write a single value? No minimum solution
here!
List example:
x = Left(1,Left(2,x))
x ∈ S?

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

General Recursive Types

T = ...T ...
Formula requires a minimal solution to be representable:
S = Int × S
Is it possible to write a single value? No minimum solution
here!
List example:
x = Left(1,Left(2,x))
x ∈ S? Yes
can we process [1,2,1,2,1,2,...] value?
Some languages like Haskell lets user define such values. All
iterations go infinite. Useful in some domains though.

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Value and Type Primitive vs Composite Types Cartesian Product Disjoint Union Mappings Powerset Recursive Types Type Sy

General Recursive Types

T = ...T ...
Formula requires a minimal solution to be representable:
S = Int × S
Is it possible to write a single value? No minimum solution
here!
List example:
x = Left(1,Left(2,x))
x ∈ S? Yes
can we process [1,2,1,2,1,2,...] value?
Some languages like Haskell lets user define such values. All
iterations go infinite. Useful in some domains though.
Most languages allow only a subset of S, the subset of finite
values.

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Tree α = empty + node α × Treeα × Treeα

Tree α = {empty } ∪ {node(x, empty , empty ) | x ∈ α}∪
{node(x, node(y , empty , empty ), empty ) | x, y ∈ α}∪
{node(x, empty , node(y , empty , empty )) | x, y ∈ α}∪
{node(x, node(y , empty , empty ), node(z, empty , empty )) | x, y , z ∈ α} ∪ ..

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Tree α = empty + node α × Treeα × Treeα

Tree α = {empty } ∪ {node(x, empty , empty ) | x ∈ α}∪
{node(x, node(y , empty , empty ), empty ) | x, y ∈ α}∪
{node(x, empty , node(y , empty , empty )) | x, y ∈ α}∪
{node(x, node(y , empty , empty ), node(z, empty , empty )) | x, y , z ∈ α} ∪ ..

C++ (pointers and template definition)

template < class Alpha >
struct T r e e {
Alpha x;
T r e e * l e f t ,* r i g h t ;
} root ;

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Tree α = empty + node α × Treeα × Treeα

Tree α = {empty } ∪ {node(x, empty , empty ) | x ∈ α}∪
{node(x, node(y , empty , empty ), empty ) | x, y ∈ α}∪
{node(x, empty , node(y , empty , empty )) | x, y ∈ α}∪
{node(x, node(y , empty , empty ), node(z, empty , empty )) | x, y , z ∈ α} ∪ ..

C++ (pointers and template definition)

template < class Alpha >
struct T r e e {
Alpha x;
T r e e * l e f t ,* r i g h t ;
} root ;

Haskell
data T r e e a l p h a = Empty |
Node ( a l p h a , T r e e a l p h a , T r e e a l p h a )

x = Node (1 , Node (2 , Empty , Empty ) , Node (3 , Empty , Empty ))

y = Node (3 , Empty , Empty )

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Strings

Language design choice:

1 Primitive type (ML, Python):
Language keeps an internal table of strings

Design choice affects the complexity and efficiency of:

concatenation, assignment, equality, lexical order,
decomposition

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Strings

Language design choice:

1 Primitive type (ML, Python):
Language keeps an internal table of strings
2 Character array (C, Pascal, ...)

Design choice affects the complexity and efficiency of:

concatenation, assignment, equality, lexical order,
decomposition

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Strings

Language design choice:

1 Primitive type (ML, Python):
Language keeps an internal table of strings
2 Character array (C, Pascal, ...)
3 Character list (Haskell, Prolog, Lisp)

Design choice affects the complexity and efficiency of:

concatenation, assignment, equality, lexical order,
decomposition

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Type Systems

Types are required to provide data processing, integrity

checking, efficiency, access controls. Type compatibility on
operators is essential.

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Type Systems

Types are required to provide data processing, integrity

checking, efficiency, access controls. Type compatibility on
operators is essential.
Simple bugs can be avoided at compile time.

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Type Systems

Types are required to provide data processing, integrity

checking, efficiency, access controls. Type compatibility on
operators is essential.
Simple bugs can be avoided at compile time.
Irrelevant operations:
y=true * 12;
x=12; x[1]=6;
y=5; x.a = 4;

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Type Systems

Types are required to provide data processing, integrity

checking, efficiency, access controls. Type compatibility on
operators is essential.
Simple bugs can be avoided at compile time.
Irrelevant operations:
y=true * 12;
x=12; x[1]=6;
y=5; x.a = 4;
When to do type checking? Latest time is before the
operation. Two options:

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Type Systems

Types are required to provide data processing, integrity

checking, efficiency, access controls. Type compatibility on
operators is essential.
Simple bugs can be avoided at compile time.
Irrelevant operations:
y=true * 12;
x=12; x[1]=6;
y=5; x.a = 4;
When to do type checking? Latest time is before the
operation. Two options:
1 Compile time → static type checking

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Type Systems

Types are required to provide data processing, integrity

checking, efficiency, access controls. Type compatibility on
operators is essential.
Simple bugs can be avoided at compile time.
Irrelevant operations:
y=true * 12;
x=12; x[1]=6;
y=5; x.a = 4;
When to do type checking? Latest time is before the
operation. Two options:
1 Compile time → static type checking
2 Run time → dynamic type checking

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

All incompatibilities are resolved at compile time. Variables
have a fixed time during their lifetime.

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

All incompatibilities are resolved at compile time. Variables
have a fixed time during their lifetime.
Most languages do static type checking

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

All incompatibilities are resolved at compile time. Variables
have a fixed time during their lifetime.
Most languages do static type checking
User defined constants, variable and function types:

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

All incompatibilities are resolved at compile time. Variables
have a fixed time during their lifetime.
Most languages do static type checking
User defined constants, variable and function types:
Strict type checking. User has to declare all types (C, C++,
Fortran,...)

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

All incompatibilities are resolved at compile time. Variables
have a fixed time during their lifetime.
Most languages do static type checking
User defined constants, variable and function types:
Strict type checking. User has to declare all types (C, C++,
Fortran,...)
Languages with type inference (Haskell, ML, Scheme...)

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Static Type Checking

Compile time type information is used to do type checking.

All incompatibilities are resolved at compile time. Variables
have a fixed time during their lifetime.
Most languages do static type checking
User defined constants, variable and function types:
Strict type checking. User has to declare all types (C, C++,
Fortran,...)
Languages with type inference (Haskell, ML, Scheme...)
No type operations after compilation. All issues are resolved.
Direct machine code instructions.

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Dynamic Type Checking

Run-time type checking. No checking until the operation is to

be executed.

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Dynamic Type Checking

Run-time type checking. No checking until the operation is to

be executed.
Interpreted languages like Lisp, Prolog, PHP, Perl, Python.

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Dynamic Type Checking

Run-time type checking. No checking until the operation is to

be executed.
Interpreted languages like Lisp, Prolog, PHP, Perl, Python.
Python:
def whichmonth ( i n p ):
if isinstance ( i n p , int ):
return i n p
elif isinstance ( i n p , str ):
if i n p == " January " :
return 1
elif i n p == " February " :
return 2
....
elif i n p == " December " :
return 12
...
i n p = input () /* u s e r input a t r u n t i m e ? */
month = whichmonth ( i n p )

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Run time decision based on users choice is possible.

Has to carry type information along with variable at run time.
Type of a variable can change at run-time (depends on the
language).

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Static vs Dynamic Type Checking

Static type checking is faster. Dynamic type checking does

type checking before each operation at run time. Also uses
extra memory to keep run-time type information.
Static type checking is more restrictive meaning safer. Bugs
avoided at compile time, earlier is better.
Dynamic type checking is less restrictive meaning more
flexible. Operations working on dynamic run-time type
information can be defined.

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Type Equality
?
S ≡ T How to decide?

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Type Equality
?
S ≡ T How to decide?
Name Equivalence: Types should be defined at the same exact
place.

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Type Equality
?
S ≡ T How to decide?
Name Equivalence: Types should be defined at the same exact
place.
Structural Equivalence: Types should have same value set.
(mathematical set equality).

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Type Equality
?
S ≡ T How to decide?
Name Equivalence: Types should be defined at the same exact
place.
Structural Equivalence: Types should have same value set.
(mathematical set equality).
Most languages use name equivalence.

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Type Equality
?
S ≡ T How to decide?
Name Equivalence: Types should be defined at the same exact
place.
Structural Equivalence: Types should have same value set.
(mathematical set equality).
Most languages use name equivalence.
C example:
typedef struct Comp { double x , y ;} Complex ;
struct COMP { double x , y ; };

struct Comp a ;
Complex b;
struct COMP c ;

/* ... */
a =b; /* Valid , equal types */
a=c; /* Compile error , i n c o m p a t i b l e types */

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Structural Equality

S ≡ T if and only if:

1 S and T are primitive types and S = T (same type),
2 if S = A × B, T = A0 × B 0 , A ≡ A0 , and B ≡ B 0 ,
3 if S = A + B, T = A0 + B 0 , and (A ≡ A0 and B ≡ B 0 ) or
(A ≡ B 0 and B ≡ A0 ),
4 if S = A 7→ B, T = A0 7→ B 0 , A ≡ A0 and B ≡ B 0 ,
5 if S = P(A), T = P(A0 ), and A ≡ A0 .
Otherwise S 6≡ T

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Harder to implement structural equality. Especially recursive

cases.

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Harder to implement structural equality. Especially recursive

cases.
T = {nil} + A × T , T 0 = {nil} + A × T 0

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Harder to implement structural equality. Especially recursive

cases.
T = {nil} + A × T , T 0 = {nil} + A × T 0

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Harder to implement structural equality. Especially recursive

cases.
T = {nil} + A × T , T 0 = {nil} + A × T 0
T = {nil} + A × T 0 , T 0 = {nil} + A × T
struct Circle { double x,y,a;};
struct Square { double x,y,a;};
Two types have a semantical difference. User errors may need
less tolerance in such cases.

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Harder to implement structural equality. Especially recursive

cases.
T = {nil} + A × T , T 0 = {nil} + A × T 0
T = {nil} + A × T 0 , T 0 = {nil} + A × T
struct Circle { double x,y,a;};
struct Square { double x,y,a;};
Two types have a semantical difference. User errors may need
less tolerance in such cases.
Automated type conversion is a different concept. Does not
necessarily conflicts with name equivalence.
enum Day {Mon, Tue , Wed, Thu, F r i , Sat , Sun } x ;
x =3;

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Type Completeness

First order values:

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter
Take part in compositions

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter
Take part in compositions
Return value from a function

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter
Take part in compositions
Return value from a function
Most imperative languages (Pascal, Fortran) classify functions
as second order value. (C represents function names as
pointers)

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter
Take part in compositions
Return value from a function
Most imperative languages (Pascal, Fortran) classify functions
as second order value. (C represents function names as
pointers)
Functions are first order values in most functional languages
like Haskell and Scheme .

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter
Take part in compositions
Return value from a function
Most imperative languages (Pascal, Fortran) classify functions
as second order value. (C represents function names as
pointers)
Functions are first order values in most functional languages
like Haskell and Scheme .
Arrays, structures (records)?

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Type Completeness

First order values:

Assignment
Function parameter
Take part in compositions
Return value from a function
Most imperative languages (Pascal, Fortran) classify functions
as second order value. (C represents function names as
pointers)
Functions are first order values in most functional languages
like Haskell and Scheme .
Arrays, structures (records)?
Type completeness principle: First order values should take
part in all operations above, no arbitrary restrictions should
exist.

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C Types:
Primitive
√ Array Struct
√ Func.
Assignment √ × √ ×
Function parameter √ × √ ×
Function return √ × √ ×
In compositions √ ×

Haskell Types:
Primitive
√ Array
√ Struct
√ Func.
√
Variable definition √ √ √ √
Function parameter √ √ √ √
Function return √ √ √ √
In compositions

Pascal Types:
Primitive
√ Array
√ Struct.
√ Func.
Assignment √ √ √ ×
Function parameter √ ×
Function return √ ×
√ ×
√ ×
In compositions ×

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Expressions

Program segments that gives a value when evaluated:

Literals
Variable and constant access
Aggregates
Variable references
Function calls
Conditional expressions
Iterative expressions (Haskell)

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Literals/Variable and Constant Access

Literals: Constants with same value with their notation

123, 0755, 0xa12, 12451233L, -123.342,
-1.23342e-2, ’c’, ’\021’, "ayse", True, False
Variable and constant access: User defined constants and
variables give their content when evaluated.
int x;
#define pi 3.1416
x=pi*r*r

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Aggregates

Used to construct composite values without any

declaration/definition. Haskell:
x =(12 , " ali " , True ) {-- 3 Tuple - -}
y ={ name= " ali " , no =12} {-- record - -}
f =\ x -> x * x {-- f u n c t i o n - -}
l =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4] {-- r e c u r s i v e type , list - -}

Python:
x = (12 , " ali " , True )
y = [ 1 , 2 , [2 , 3] , " a " ]
z = { ’ name ’: ’ ali ’ , ’ no ’: ’ 12 ’}
f = lambda x : x +1

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Ansi C has aggregates

only at the definition. There is no aggregates in the statements!
struct P e r s o n { char name [20] , int no };
struct P e r s o n p = { " Ali Cin " , 332314};
double a r r [3][2] = {{0 ,1} , {1.2 ,4} , {12 , 1.4}};
p ={ " Veli Cin " ,123412}; × /* not p o s s i b l e in ANSI C ! */

C99 Compound literals allow array and structure aggragates

int (* a r r )[2]; √
a r r = {{0 , 1} , {1.2 ,4} , {12 , 1.4}}; √
p = ( struct p e r s o n ) { " Veli Cin " ,123412}; /* C99 */

C++11 has function aggragetes (lambda)

void s o r t ( int a [] , int n , (* f )( int , int )) {
...
}
auto f = []( int a ) { return a +1;} ;
...
s o r t ( a r r , n , []( int a , int b) { return a -b ;});
n = f (n)

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Variable References

Variable access vs variable reference

value vs l-value
pointers are not references! You can use pointers as references
with special operators.
Some languages regard references like first order values (Java,
C++ partially)
Some languages distinguish the reference from the content of
the variable (Unix shells, ML)

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Function Calls

F (Gp1 , Gp2 , ..., Gpn )

Function name followed by actual parameter list. Function is
called, executed and the returned value is substituted in the
expression position.
Actual parameters: parameters send in the call
Formal parameters: parameter names used in function
definition
Operators can be considered as function calls. The difference
is the infix notation.
⊕(a, b) vs a ⊕ b
languages has built-in mechanisms for operators. Some
languages allow user defined operators (operator overloading):
C++, Haskell.

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Conditional Expressions

Evaluate to different values based on a condition.

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Conditional Expressions

Evaluate to different values based on a condition.

Haskell: if condition then exp1 else exp2 .
case value of p1 -> exp1 ; p2 -> exp2 ...

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Conditional Expressions

Evaluate to different values based on a condition.

Haskell: if condition then exp1 else exp2 .
case value of p1 -> exp1 ; p2 -> exp2 ...
C: (condition )?exp1 :exp2 ;
x = (a >b )? a :b;
y = (( a >b )? s i n : c o s )( x ); /* Does it work ? try y o u r s e l f ... *

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Conditional Expressions

Evaluate to different values based on a condition.

Haskell: if condition then exp1 else exp2 .
case value of p1 -> exp1 ; p2 -> exp2 ...
C: (condition )?exp1 :exp2 ;
x = (a >b )? a :b;
y = (( a >b )? s i n : c o s )( x ); /* Does it work ? try y o u r s e l f ... *

Python: exp1 if condition else exp2

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Conditional Expressions

Evaluate to different values based on a condition.

Haskell: if condition then exp1 else exp2 .
case value of p1 -> exp1 ; p2 -> exp2 ...
C: (condition )?exp1 :exp2 ;
x = (a >b )? a :b;
y = (( a >b )? s i n : c o s )( x ); /* Does it work ? try y o u r s e l f ... *

Python: exp1 if condition else exp2

if .. else in C is not conditional expression but
conditional statement. No value when evaluated!

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Haskell:
x = if (a >b) then a else b
y = ( if (a >b) then (+) else (*)) x y
data Day = Mon | Tue | Wed | Thu | F r i | S a t | Sun
c o n v e r t a = case a of
Left ( x , r e s t ) -> x : ( c o n v e r t r e s t )
Empty -> []
daynumber g = case g of
Mon -> 1
Tue -> 2
...
Sun -> 7

case checks for a pattern and evaluate the RHS expression

with substituting variables according to pattern at LHS.

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Iterative Expressions

Expressions that do a group of operations on elements of a list

or data structure, and returns a value.
[ expr | variable <- list , condition ]
Similar to set notation in math:
{expr |var ∈ list, condition}
Haskell:
x = [1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 ,12]
y = [ a *2 | a <- x ] { - - [2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,...24 ] - -}
z = [ a | a <- x , mod a 3 == 1 ] { - - [1 ,4 ,7 ,10] - -}

Python:
x = [1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 ,12]
y = [ a *2 for a in x ] # [2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,...24 ]
z = [ a for a in x if a % 3 == 1 ] # [1 ,4 ,7 ,10]

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Block Expressions

Some languages allow multiple/statements in a block to

calculate a value.
GCC extension for compound statement expressions:
double s , i , a r r [10];
s = ( { double t = 0;
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i ++)
t += a r r [ i ];
t ;}) + 1;

Value of the last expression is the value of the block.

ML has similar block expression syntax.
This allows arbitrary computation for evaluation of the
expression.

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Summary

Value and type

Primitive types
Composite types
Recursive types
When to type check
How to type check
Expressions

METU Computer Engineering Programming Languages / Values and Types 49 / 49