LEARNING AND

TEACHING
UNIT- I CONCEPT AND PROCESS OF
LEARNING
a. Meaning, concept and definition of learning:

Learning is the continuous process

happening throughout
the life of human beings.
Concept:
Man has been learning from nature, by
watching the world outside and inside him, from
what others say and do. It is essentially about what
we human beings are, why we behave the way we do
and the complexity of thought. We learn, acquire
knowledge and act from it. We also learn through
doing. This is also accumulated as knowledge.
Definition of learning:
Any activity can be called learning so far as it
develops the individual and makes him alter
behaviour and experiences different from what that
would otherwise have been.
- Woodwort
h
Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the
strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the
result of experience.
- Henry P
Smith
 b) Importance and Principles of learning
Learning is a human behaviour. Learning plays a
central role in the language we speak, our customs,
attitudes and beliefs, our goals, our personality traits
and even in our perceptions. As a consequence
learning principles are as follows:
• Learning is continuous process
• It results in improved performance
• It is purposive and goal oriented.
• It is gained through practice and
experience.
• Learning is universal. All living beings
learn
• Learning takes place both at adequate
physical and mental maturity
• Learning is also unlearning and relearning
• Learning is not maturation but is
facilitated by maturation

c) Learning process, attention, perception and

sensation and concept formation, Imagination,
Thinking and Reasoning.

Attention:
Definition:
Dumville - believes, Attention is the concentration of
consciousness upon one object rather than upon
another.
Morgon and Gilliland says, “Attention is being
keenly alive to some specific factor in our
environment. It is a preparatory adjustment for
response.
Ross says, “Attention is the process of getting an
object of thought clearly before the mind.
Span of Attention:
It refers to the number of independent, distinct or
separate stimuli that can be attended to by an
individual, at a glance viz. in a very brief period of
time. In other words it denotes the number of objects
that can exist in the focus at a time.
Shifting of attention:
One cannot continuously attend on any object for
more than 10 seconds, as attention is characterized
by fluctuation. It shifts from one object to another or
one aspect of the object to another aspect. Shifting in
attention is explained as due to sensory fatigue, brain
fatigue, periodic muscle waves etc.

Factors Affecting Attention:

Factors of Attention:
Those factors which reside in the object attended to,
are called objective factors. As these factors operate
on the individual from outside, they are also known
as ‘external factors’. Psychology of advertising
makes good use of these objective factors and the
teacher also has to use them profitably in the
classroom.
If factors that operate from within the individual then
they are called as subjective factors. They are also
called ‘internal factors’.
Determinates of attention
 Objective factors
Subjective factors
1. Size 1.
Interest
2. Intensity 2. Need
3. Change 3.
Mental Set
4. Contrast 4. Mood
5. Novelty
[Link] condition
6. Movement
7. Repetition
8. Systematic form
Sensation:
Sense organs are the gateway to human
knowledge, as we get information about the external
world, only through our sense organs. Seeing,
hearing, smelling tasting and touching are sensory
inputs we receive through our sense organs. It is the
immediate result of a sense organ being acted upon
by appropriate stimuli.
Visual / aural stimuli – eyes - seeing
Auditory stimuli – ears – hearing
Olfactory stimuli – nose – smelling
Gustatory stimuli – tongue – tasting
Tactile stimuli – skin – feeling of touch
Perception:
Perception is a psychological process in which
the sensory inputs received from the sense organs are
processed, organized and interpreted based on the
past experiences of the organism so that the nature of
the stimuli are meaningfully understood.
Perception = Sensation + Meaningful
Interpretation
Determinants of Perception:
• Mental setup
• Ongoing need
• Subjective factors: interest, suggestion
• Brain and nervous system
• Past experience
• Set or attitude
Concept formation:
Concept refers to generalized images or ideas
which stands for a group of objects that have some
common characteristic. In other words it is the
generalized idea which stands for all our experiences
with regard to a particular object, person or event.
Types of concepts:
• Simple concept: single attribute/relations
e.g. blue.
• Complex concept: more than one attribute
e.g. bike
• Concept of objects: e.g. book, house
• Concept of aspects: 1. quality (e.g.
honesty)
[Link] (e.g. greater than).
• Imaginary concepts
How are concepts formed?
There are two steps
1. Abstraction - observing and comparing
2. Generalization – the observed phenomena is
unified and named.
They are constantly modified and updated when
new reliable information’s are received.
Example: child learns concept of fruits
Methods of learning concepts:
• Discriminate learning
• Contextual learning
• Definition
• Classification
Imagination:
If we think of an object which is not before our
senses and make a picture of it in our mind, it is
imagination. Imagination consists of picturing
objects in their absence. It is a process of forming
images. What we recall when we think of an object,
a person, or a place, without it being present, to the
sense is an image. Imagination is subjective while
sensations are objective and individuals differ in their
ability to recall.
Development of imagination:
Play stimulates most powerful imagination.
Drawing, painting, drawing, cutting etc. adds to
developing imagination power among children.
Additionally language, practical subjects,
composition, poem or description, and story writing
provide opportunities for creative imagination.
Study of science provides opportunities for
imagination like investigation, observing, framing
hypothesis, testing conclusion etc.

Types of imagination
• Reproductive imagination
• Productive imagination
• Creative imagination
• Receptive imagination
Pragmatic 1. Theoretical 2. Practical
Aesthetic 1. Artistic 2. Fantasy
Imagination differs from person to person as
some have good visual images and some auditory
and some motor.
Importance of imagination:
• It guides our actions and helps to
understand the results one’s plans and
policies.
• Sympathetic feelings of people are due to
their imagination in place of others.
• It is a powerful source of enjoyment.
Dangers of imagination:
• Excessive indulgence in imagination
weakens character as it leads to fantasy
which is nothing but self-deception.
• It is dangerous in times of difficulties.
• It intensifies depression as it increases
worry. .
Thinking:
 Thinking is an activity of mind which prepares
us to advance in a situation. Man’s ability to think
and deal with complex problems makes him superior
to other animals. It includes flow of ideas which are
directed towards some end or purpose. If we let our
thoughts wander, without any definite end, it is
wishful thinking, and daydreaming.

Definition:
Valentine: Thinking...Consists essentially of a
connected flow of ideas which are directed towards
some end or purpose.
Ross: Thinking is mental activity in its cognitive
aspect or mental activity with regard to psychological
objects.
Mohsin: Thinking is an implicit problem-solving
behaviour.
Steps in thinking process:
Woodworth mentions the following steps
1. Orientation towards a goal
2. Seeking this way and that way for realizing the
goal
3. Recall of previous observed facts
4. Grouping these recalled facts into new patterns
5. Inner speech movements and gestures
Elements in thinking:
• Symbols (thinking fills in the gap between
a stimulus and response; symbols are
representations of our previous experience
with the world)
• Imagery (we form images of situations
and people)
 • Concepts (mental constructs which enable
us to make classifications)
• Language (essential for shaping our
thoughts)
Types of thinking:
• Convergent thinking
• Divergent thinking
• Egocentric (dreams, fantasy, attitudes,
beliefs, prejudices)
• Objective (trial and error, scientific
problem solving etc)
Reasoning:
Reasoning uses past experience to put in certain
order which leads to some conclusions. It involves
the process of passing from one or more judgments
to another. It is a trial and error process at the initial
stages. It is creative and reflective in higher stages,
where there is no previous knowledge.
Definition:
Garrett says, “Reasoning is step-wise thinking with
a purpose or goal in mind.”
Gates says, “It is the term applied to highly
purposeful controlled selective thinking.”
Types of reasoning:
Inductive reasoning: aims at forming concepts,
and principles from the observation of related
experiences. The following steps are involved in it.
• Observation leads to enquiry
• Analysis of known body of facts or
collected data through observation
• Formation of hypothesis
• Verification of hypothesis
Deductive Reasoning:
Applying general principles acquired through
experiences to a particular problem. E.g. a doctor
diagnoses the case of a patient with that of the
symptoms of standard diseases like malaria, typhoid
etc.
Conditioned reasoning:
Reasoning tied down by some specific
conditions such as, if there is a solar eclipse, the
street will be dark.
Categorical reasoning:
It based on some categorical statements like,
‘all robins are birds.’ ‘all birds lay eggs.’. Therefore
‘all robins lay eggs.’
Linear reasoning:
It involves straight forward relationships among
elements. E.g. if Bose is taller than Karthick, and
Karthick is taller than Dinesh, Bose is the tallest.

UNIT- II BEHAVIOURISTIC PERCEPTION

OF LEARNING
a. Trial and Error- Thorndike laws of learning
both primary and secondary, class room
implications.
Trial and Error Learning:
American psychologist, Thorndike formulated
this theory of trial and error learning. Motor learning
is the simplest form of learning. In learning to swim,
dance, drive, many wrong movements and strokes
are tried and discarded one by one till the correct
movements are established. Till then trial and error
process goes on in learning.
Experiment:
Thorndike made a puzzle box to study the way
of learning of a hungry cat. Puzzle box had bars
through which the cat could see the food kept outside
the box. The box was such that a lever had to be
manipulated to open the door to come out. The cat
tried many things but could not come out. But
accidentally it pushed the latch and the door opened.
When the cat was put in the same position, it once
again tried many ways but finally found the latch to
open. The cat slowly removed unwanted response
and learnt the correct response of opening the door of
the cage.
Law of readiness:
When a bond is ready to act, to act gives
satisfaction, and not to act gives annoyance. When a
bond which is not ready to act is made to act,
annoyance is caused.
Law of Exercise:
When a modifiable connection between a
stimulus and response is made and is accompanied
by a satisfying state of affairs, the connection
strength is increased; and the connection strength
decreases if it is followed by a dissatisfying state of
affairs.
Law of Effect:
When a modifiable connection is not made
between a stimulus and a response, over a length of
time, that connection strength is decreased. If the
result is satisfying state that will be carried again and
again. If annoying state result those responses will
be avoided.

Educational Implications:
• Motor skills and activities are learnt through
trial and error manner.
• Language learning is based on this method.
• Participation leads to more participation and
hence teacher has to encourage and motivate
students.
b) Classical conditioning – Pavlov’s classical
conditioning and class room implications.
Classical Conditioning:
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov proposed
classical conditioning theory. According to him
conditioning is the process by which an association
between a stimulus and response is learnt.
Pavlov’s experiment:
He was studying the digestive system of dogs
and during this process he noticed that the mere
sound of the footsteps of the servant who feed the
dog caused the dog to salivate. Food is a natural
stimulus of the salivary reflex. Usual salivation at
the sound of footsteps interested Pavlov so much that
he was able to demonstrate the dog can he made to
salivate to any stimulus, however strange or
unnatural it may be such as ringing of bell.
Salivation is a reflex action. If the bell is rung before
the dog it may bark.
Food (Unconditional Stimulus) Salivation
(Unconditional Stimulus)
Bell (Conditional Stimulus) Salivation
(Conditional Response)
Principles of classical conditioning:
Extinction: when food repeatedly did not follow the
bell, the dog stopped giving conditioned response,
salivation. This disappearance of S R connection is
called extinction.
Spontaneous recovery: though there is extinction of
conditioned response, it reappears spontaneously but
at a reduced intensity to conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus generalization: e.g. fear response for rat is
generalized to rabbit etc.
Stimulus discrimination: it is the learned ability of
the animal to discriminate between stimuli to give
conditioned response. E.g. the dog learned to
salivate at the sight of green light but not to red light.
Reinforcement: when conditioned stimulus (bell)
was presented alone it failed to elicit natural response
(salivation) where there is no reinforcement. When
the conditioned stimulus was presented with natural
stimulus, the former is said to be reinforced, as it was
able to elicit natural response (salivation).
Educational significance:
• For penmanship and spellings, automatic
responses are more helpful than reflective
thinking.
• Language to teach alphabets, and well
established habits are shaped by
conditioning.
• Animal trainers use classical conditioning
principles.
• The four fundamental principles of
arithmetic are taught by using beads or
such materials to count.
 • Use of flash cards, dolls, cubes, pictures
or audio-visual material is based on the
idea of conditioning.
c) Operant conditioning- Skinner’s Operant
conditioning, class room implications.
Operant Conditioning:
Skinner’s Experiments:
Skinner’s box is a cage in which a white hungry
rat is placed. A simple response of pressing a lever
was chosen as a unit of desired behaviour. The
movements of the rat were electrically recorded and
cumulative record of the behaviour of the rat was
obtained.
The rat by chance pushed the bar and got a
pullet of food. After eating that pullet, it repeatedly
pressed the bar and every time got food pullets.
Food reinforced the bar-pressing response and soon
the rat became conditioned to the response.
Reinforcement is central to operant conditioning.
The food reinforced the behaviour of pressing the
bar. Even pigeon was also studied in this manner.
The law of operant conditioning states that if the
occurrence of an operant is followed by the
presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, the strength of
operant is increased. If the response (operant) is not
reinforced, it results in the extinction of the response.
Extinction of a response means it is becoming less
and less frequent.
Schedules of Reinforcement:
This refers to the pattern according to which
reinforces follow responses. There are mainly two
types of schedules.
1. Continuous reinforcement – reinforcement is
given to every response.
 2. Intermittent reinforcement – some responses
are followed by reinforcement.
If the inter reinforcement depends on the rate at
which responses are emitted, this is called ratio
schedule. On the other hand, it depends on
passage of time, is called an interval schedule.
Further more, each of the ration and interval
schedule can be either fixed or variable. Based on
this, four kinds of schedule are formed:
• Fixed ration schedule
• Variable ration schedule
• Fixed-interval schedule
• Variable-interval schedule
Shaping:
It is a technique used to train animals to
perform acts, which are not within their normal range
of behaviour. The complex behaviour is shaped
through a series of successive approximations, each
made possible by selectively reinforcing certain
responses and not others. Thus behaviour is
gradually brought closer and closer to the designed
pattern.
Educational Significance:
• He developed a system of learning called
programmed learning using the principles of
operant conditioning.
• Desirable behaviour of the learner is to be
immediately reinforced positively to strengthen
it.
• Fear in children and unpleasant experiences in
school cause aversion to students towards
school or studies.
• Individualization of instruction.
• Behaviour or response is dependent upon
consequences. The learning process and
 environment have to be designed as to create
the minimum frustration and maximum
satisfaction to learner.
• It suggested alternatives to punishment, in the
form of rewarding appropriate behaviour and
ignoring inappropriate behaviour, for its
gradual extinction.

d) Differences between classical and operant

conditioning.
OPERAND CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING CONDITIONING
It concentrated on It concentrated on
response stimulus
With response only Even without condition
Reinforcement will be Reinforcement will be
given given
After getting of correct After stimulus
response only immediately
reinforcement is offered Reinforcement is offered
It depends on law of It depends on law of
effect continuity
Here the subject (rat, cat, Here the subject (dog) is
pigeon) is active passive

UNIT-III COGNITIVE AND HUMANISTIC

PERCEPTION OF LEARNING
a. Cognitive perspectives of learning (insightful
learning- Kohler, discovery learning of
Bruner, Developmental theory of leaning-
Piaget, Social Learning of Bandura and
Social constructivism of Vygotsky)
Insightful Learning:
Kohler’s Experiment:
He placed a hungry chimpanzee, Sultan, inside
the cage and bunch of banana was kept hanging on
top of the cage. Two sticks, one longer and one
shorter were placed in the cage. The size of the stick
is such that both the sticks have to be joined to reach
the banana. Sultan tried various means of reaching
but failed. After a while is sat down in a corner and
was playing with the two sticks. While playing,
accidentally one stick fell into the hole of the other
but not properly. This gave ‘the animal idea and it
joined the stick and reached the banana. This sudden
idea leading to the solution is called ‘insight’, a new
perception of the situation and relationship between
the sticks and the banana.
Factors influencing ‘Insight’
a) Intelligence
b) Experience
c) Presentation of the problem
d) Initial effort
Steps involved in insightful learning
a) Preparation (sensing or survey of the problem)
b) Incubation (period of apparently no action)
c) Insight or illumination (solution appears as a
flash)
d) Evaluation (verifying utility of the solution)
Educational Significance
• Educational methods have to employ solutions
that can foster understanding not merely out of
logic, reasoning but out of perception of the
problem as a whole.
• Insight learning has made learning purposeful
and goal oriented rather than automatic
responses.
 • Learner is to be motivated by arousing his
interest and curiosity to learn the task.
• Teaching has to be planned, ‘whole to part and
then from part to whole’.
• Small children are to be given concrete
materials to perceive essential relations.
• Problem solving approach in learning has to be
stressed.

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

(Swiss psychologist)
Stages of cognitive development:
According to Piaget to know an object one
must act upon it either physically or mentally and
these activities that people perform on objects are
called schemas.
Piaget speaks of four important stages of cognitive
development:
Sensory Motor stage:
This stage is mainly based on immediate
experience through the ‘senses’ and the major
intellectual activity is the sensory interaction of the
environment. The child’s activities are physical
without language, to label experience. This stage is
characterised by
• Development of sensory, motor and
perceptual skills
• Coordination of motor activities
• At first out of sight is out of mind, but
towards the close of the second year it
learns object permanence.
• Development of rudimentary memory
During sensory motor stage the child develops
practical intelligence like seeing, grasping, sucking
etc. to deal with objects in the environment and
cannot use symbolic operations.
Pre-operational stage:
The thinking of pre-operational child is characterised
by:
• Ego-centrism: Use of words which have
unique meaning for the child, which
limits the child’s ability to understand
others; point of view
• Animism: Treating inanimate objects as
living ones; e.g. children bathing, dressing
and feeding their dolls as if they are alive.
• Realism: Dream are considered real. E.g.
stuffed toys are considered real, have
imaginary friends etc.
• Centering: The child can concentrate on
only on aspect of a thing at a time.
• Due to centering they cannot understand
that objects are conserved even if they
change their positions or their shapes
altered.
• Cannot understand reversibility
• Consider their parents are omnipresent
and omnipotent.
• Inability to play any game following the
rules.
Concrete operational stage:
During this stage child starts to perform logical
manipulations. He can perform mental
representation of a series of acts. But this is only at
the concrete level. He can think mentally only those
objects which are perceivable in the real world. E.g.
a 5 or 6 year old child cannot tell the way to the
market but can lead you to the market as he walks.
• Transferability is known (if a=2b and
a=2c, then b=c)
understands de-centering (think of more
than one quality at a time)
• Can play any game according to rule.
• Evaluate crime in terms of magnitude and
not in terms of motive.
• Think that their point of view alone is
possible and real.
• Thinking is very rigid; do not understand
relativistic ideas. E.g. they believe that
morality will be the same in all cultures,
at all places, for all the time.
Formal operational stage:
During this stage thoughts become increasingly
flexible and abstract. They are able to tackle any
problem in a logical sequence. The following are the
characteristics:
Start evaluating acts in terms of underlying motives.
• Understand that the rules of any games or
social system are developed by man by
mutual agreement and hence could be
changed or modified.
• Start believing that there could be many
points of view on any problem, even
though he may not be knowing all
• Understand that nothing is absolute;
everything is relative and hence search for
the better alternative should be
continuously tried to evolve the ideal one.
Educational implication
 • Emphasis on discovery approach in
learning
• Curriculum should provide specific
educational experience based on
children’s developmental level.
• Arrange classroom activities so that they
assist and encourage self-learning.
• Do not treat children as miniature adults
• Co-curricular activities have equal
importance as that of curricular
experiences in the cognitive development
of children.
• Fruitless pushing beyond a child’s
cognitive stage as well as needless delays
should be avoided.
• Moral and intellectual growth goes
together and only after the age of 11 can
the child evaluate actions in the light of
motives.
• Activity approach at the primary classes
and concrete methods of illustration (like
use of aids, demonstrations etc.) at the
middle school level and verbal method of
teaching should be practiced only from
high school classes.

Social Learning (Albert Bandura)/ Learning by

observation:
It is also known as “Learning by Observation”.
It is proposed by “Albert Bandura” and
“Richard Waltes”
It is otherwise known as
• Learning by modelling
• Learning by imitation
 Steps in social learning:
• Attention towards model person
• Retention of model person
Verbal coding
Visual imager
• Motor reproduction
• Motivation to imitate
Conditions for effective modelling:
• Attention
• Retention
• Reproduction
• Motivation
Bruner’s theory of Instruction:
It is otherwise known as “Discovery learning”
Bruner – He proposed learning depends on two
elements
• Interest
• Curiosity
He opined that teacher should act as an advisor
in teaching learning process
Jerome Bruner steps: (contribution)
• Learning should be exploitatory (
investigate and simple)
• Teacher should act as an advisor and he
has to give the freedom to the learner
• Bruner proposed TLM should be
Enactive method (Dramatization)
Iconic method (Painting)
Symbolic method
 Motivation should be extrinsic and
intrinsic
Limitations of Bruner’s Theory:
• It is difficulty to carryout in large groups and
with slow leaners
• Some teachers may also feel chaotic
• A few students maybe quick in responding
leaving the rest behind

Educational implication:
• Learner is intrinsically motivated because he is
learning actively
• It allows students to proceed according to their
abilities
• Learners are accountable to themselves for their
abilities
• The teacher acts as a facilitator in constructing
the concept
• Learners are encouraged to think logically and
intensively

b) Humanistic perspectives of learning

(Learner centered approach- Carl Rogers)

UNIT-IV TRANSER OF LEARNING

a. Intrinsic and Extrinsic conditions of learning
curve
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Conditions of learning
Curve:
The learning curve:
The achievements in learning in relation to time
factor will be plotted to form a curve called ‘learning
curve’. The process of learning a motor skill, to
type, to learn, to play on a musical instrument and so
on are plotted. They take a particular shape.
Negative accelerated curve or convex curve:
It depicts rapid initial improvement when the
task is very simple or when the learner has previous
practice and slows down with the time if the learner
loses interest in learning due to its simple nature.

Positively accelerated curve or concave curve:

If the task is new or difficult the curve at the

beginning is slow but increases with itme leading

towards the mastery over material. The challenging

task involves the learner and makes him struggle and

thus increases enthusiasm

Concave – convex curve or S curve:

The mixed curves occur depending on the

learning material, learning environment and the

learner.

Straight line curve:

This type of curve is seldom found as it shows
constant rate of improvement either in terms of
material learnt correctly or in terms of reduction of
errors per trial.
Plateau of Learning Curve:
Plateaus: It is the practice limit for one way of
performing the task. Plateaus may be one or more in
learning a task.

D E
F
B C
A

Learning curves are generally positively

accelerated. In the curve BC denotes ‘plateau’ which
is a period of apparently no progress in learning in
spite of continued practice.
Reasons for Plateau:
In any task of learning, the rate of
learning will be slow at the start due to newness of
the task. After gaining certain degree of familiarity
with the task, there occurs a spurt in the rate of
learning and is followed by a ‘period of no progress’
called Plateau. Plateau may arise due a number of
factors like
Decline in interest and motivation, after initial
phases of learning.
Boredom and fatigue due to continued
practice.
Absence of feedback resulting in loss of
involvement in learning.
Low level of aspiration which makes the
learner satisfied with the progress already
achieved.

b) Transfer of training – concept, significance,

facilitative conditions and methods.
Transfer of Training: Concept and Significance
We acquire any knowledge or skill with the
belief that they will be useful for us in future. What
we learn is stored in our memory and put into use
when required. That what we have learnt affects our
subsequent learning. The effect of learning should
not be just specific but should be capable of being
carried over to new situations. Such a carryover of
experiences obtained in a learning situation to the
learning of another task is termed as ‘Transfer of
learning’ or transfer of training. If there is no
transfer of learning, human life will become
miserable as one will be burned to learn each and
everything separately and consequently left with no
time to enjoy the other aspects of life.
Definition of Transfer of learning
Transfer of training may be defined as the
application or carry over of knowledge, skills, habits,
attitudes etc. acquired in one situation to some other
situation for which they were not specifically learnt.

Transfer of Training:
The amount and nature of transfer is affected by
various factors and conditions.
1. Realisation of the similarity between the tasks
by learner in terms of procedure, principle,
ideal or anything facilitates and increases
transfer.
2. Intelligence is very closely related to transfer,
as he understands well and there by uses in
similar situations or vertically transfers to deal
with difficult situations.
3. Nature of instructions or training given to
pupils determines the likelihood and amount of
transfer to a greater extent.
4. Amount of transfer depends upon increase of
practice to some extent. Too much of practice
negatively affects transfer as found by Sicpolo
and Israel.
5. Time interval between the past situation and the
present situation determines the amount of
transfer. Bunch found that up to ninety days
there is good transfer value.
6. Expectation of transfer value influences
transfer. The present motives should be
integrated with long-term motives.
 7. If the material is taught in very clear and
understandable terms transfer is increased.
Methods/Types of Transfer of Learning:
There are four categories of transfer of learning
1. Positive transfer- Skills learned while
type writing facilitates working with
computers.
2. Negative transfer- Hitting in ball
badminton interferes with hitting in
shuttle badminton.
3. Zero transfer- Learning to run a machine
does not help in learning to drive a car.
4. Bilateral transfer- The possibility of
transfer of training from one hand to the
other has been studied with reference to
simple motor skills. E.g. activities such
as throwing a ball at a moving target,
mirror drawing etc. has shown that there
is a positive transfer sometimes even as
much as 50%.

C. Factors influencing learning –

learner factors, learning material,
school factors, home factors, social
factors.
Factors Influencing Learning:

• Learner Factor: Sensory abilities, health,

maturation, interest, temperament, personality,
etc.
• Learning Material Factor: figures, diagrams,
models, etc.
• School Factor: Facilities, peer group, teachers
influence, freedom, co-curricular and extra-
curricular activities, etc.
 • Social Factor: Culture of the society, peer
group, etc.

Educational Implications of Transfer of Learning:

• Curriculum should be based on the principles of
generalization and identical elements. This
would help the students to gain the experiences
and these experiences are applied to the new
learning
• Positive transfer is ensured by avoiding of
negative transfer in learning situation
• The students are trained in such a way to
identify association, similarities and
dissimilarities among the learning situations.
This will help them to transfer the previous
knowledge to the new one.
• The teacher should train the students to use
insight in learning a new task.
• The leaner is provided with multimedia and
sensory aids for proper understanding and
gaining of the required knowledge and skills
• Ideals possess a great transfer value. Therefore,
the curriculum should have the ideals to teach
the learners which will enable them to transfer
it in all activities of life.

UNIT-V MEMORY AND FORGETTING

a . Concept of memory and forgetting.
Living organisms have the unique capacity of
conserving past experiences and using them in some
way or other in their future courses of action. They
have the capacity of remembering, that is the
capacity of ‘storing’ and ‘retrieving’. All learning
implies remembering or what used to be called
‘memory’. One who has good memory is able to
learn efficiently and quickly; good learning is the
basis of good memory and good memory indicates
that efficient learning and assimilation have taken
place. We think and reason largely with remembered
facts; the very continuity of our self-perceptions
depend upon the continuity of our self-perceptions
depend upon the continuity of our memories; without
ability to remember past experiences, we would be
wanderers in a world perpetually new to us.

b . Types of memory: short-term and long-term

memory.
Meaning of ‘Memory’:

A layman may define memory simply as the

capacity to reproduce what is learnt. Psychologically
it is much more complex. Psychologists prefer the
word ‘remembering’ to ‘memory’. Remembering
is an active process of mental search. Remembering
refers to ‘retention’ of what is ‘learnt’ and
‘retrieving’ it when it is required for subsequent use.

Remembering consists of three stages or

phases. They are:

i. Learning or memorizing (known as

assimilation)

L D Nature of Learning material

E E Length or amount
A P
R E
Meaningfulness
N N
I D
N I
G N
G
 Complexity
Nature of the Learner
association

Physical condition intelligence

interest/Motivation Need

Learning methods

Rote learning/Meaningful
Learning Spaced/Massed
Whole/part Associative
Learning
Learning Learning

ii. Retention or storing

iii. Retrieving or gaining access to it (Recall or
recognition)

Kinds of Memory:

1) Memory can be incidental or intentional.

Intentional memory which involves closer
attention paid to the material memorized,
greater rehearsal and greater tendency to
categorize material and find relationship and
association between items, is superior to a
casual remembrance of observed events which
is incidental memory.
2) Memory can also be classified in terms of
degree to which it resembles the original
perception, as vivid memory or indistinct
memory. Indistinct memories influence our
behavior without our awareness.
3) Memory can be observational memory or rote
memory. Observational memory is for
concrete objects and events (e.g. Evidence of a
 witness to bomb explosion) and rote memory is
for words and symbols. Generally by memory
we seem to refer to rote memory and verbal
learning implies this aspect.
4) Memory can also be classified in terms of
duration of the retention period as short term
memory (STM) or Long term memory (LTM)
Short and Long Term Memories:

Short term memory, also called primary or

working memory, lasts for 15 to 30 seconds. We
remember a telephone number till we get the
connection to that number. We have to look at the
telephone directory, if we are to phone after a few
hours. Experimental evidences show that only 7+2
separate items can be held in short term memory at
one time (referred to as Memory span). Primary
memory is not the terminal point. Information is
being transformed to long term memory for more
permanent storage. The multiplication tables we have
learnt the poem we have memorized, our date of
birth, wedding day, our telephone number, residential
address etc. are permanently remembered because of
our long term memory.

More time and effort are essential for moving

information into long term storage. While the
capacity for STM is limited, the capacity of LTM is
unlimited. The information passed on to LTM is
placed into organized categories, where it resides,
almost permanently. There appear to be different
brain processes for STM and LTM. The transfer
from STM to LTM takes place not only because of
rehearsal and repetition but because of coding which
is the process of analyzing information and
compressing it into abbreviated form.

The operations and control process effected by the

brain in dealing with the input information passed on
to it by the receptors of our sensory organs with
respect to STM and LTM seem to be different as
illustrated by the following diagram.

Memory Model based on Information

Processing system

S
S
h E
L Incoming e
o N
M Information n
o r V
e s S
n Analysis and Needed t I
m o t
g classification, Permanently e
Filtration r R
o r i
T compressing y O
r m & m
e and coding N
y S u
r M
M Selection t l
m
Forgetting

e o E i
m r N
o a T
r g A
y Incoming e L
Information

Forgetting
 Just as, most of the visitors to our house are
allowed up to the reception hall and then sent back,
the incoming information passed on to the brain by
the sense receptors are filtered and only those
information of significance requiring our immediate
attention are fed to STM; others are momentarily
forgotten. Those information entering into STM are
immediately put into use and after that forgotten or if
considered useful and to be retained permanently, it
is processed further so as to put into organized
categories and codified and stored permanently (over
one minute up to many years) in the LTM. A certain
amount of time (about 30 minutes) appears to be
needed in transferring information from STM to
LTM. (For example, one how has received, a jolt of
the brain often does not remember the events that just
preceded the accident but will remember those that
happened 30 minutes earlier) when we remember
anything, information is retrieved from L.T.M and
put back into S.T.M. for further processing (rehearsal
and repetition), after which the information may be
again put back in L.T.M. or it may result in a
response or output. Therefore it could be inferred
that information, depending on their degree of utility
are stored either in S.T.M. or L.T.M by different
brain processes. That is why telephone numbers of
other people are registered in our S.T.M but
telephone numbers of our residence and office are
stored in our L.T.M.
Process of memory, remembering and process of
association
Theories of ‘retention’:
While memorizing is an active process,
retention is a passive stage. Some theories of
retention advocate that physical changes take place in
the brain and related nerve centers, when a memory
is stored. What are retained are not the original
experiences, but they trigger off: (a) William James
advocated the theory of brain paths which postulated
that repeated neural activity lowered the synaptic
resistance and facilitated easily further transmission
of messages by the path. (b) Memory Trace theory
advocated that sensory experience produces a highly
perishable neural response, probably electrical n
nature, called Memory Trace. If it is strengthened
in some way, it produces a more or less permanent
change, either chemical or structural, called engram.
Memory trace is a hypothetical construct which
could not be proved.

Factors affecting ‘retention’:

Apart from the neurological factors like the
formation of engram, reduction of synaptic
resistance, etc., psychological factors also play vital
part in retentive capacity for learned material. The
conditions under which some material is learned,
affect retention. Such conditions include scope of
learning material, learning time, number of
repetitions, distribution of learning, age of memory
content and unforeseen interruption to learning task
(referred to as Zeigarnik effect which states that
interrupted tasks are retained and recalled better than
completed tasks). Motivational factors like fatigue,
attitude, concentration, interest, degree of anxiety,
achievement motivation, etc. also influence
retentivity. So retentivity, the core of memory,
continues to be puzzling and not fully understood
yet.
Modes of retrieval of learned materials:
Retrieval refers to bringing back the stored
information for use as and when required. This could
be done through two modes
(i) recall
(ii) Recognition.

Recall is the production of the learned material

without any assistance. Recall and recognition are
closely related. However recognition functionally
differs from recall in that recognition starts with the
object which is given, while recall has to find it.

If a person while giving a complaint to the

Police is able to recollect and describe the features of
a thief who looted his house the previous night, it is
an example for ‘recall’. On the other hand if he
could not describe the thief but able to identify him
among the men paraded before him, it is an example
of ‘recognition;. Recognition is naturally easier than
recall and is a better measure of retention.

Methods of measuring ‘retention’:

Recall Method:
Here retention is measured by the
student’s ability to recall the learned material.
No. of non-sense syllables recalled correctly
Coefficient of retention = *
100
No. of syllables learnt

Recognition Method:
 Here the retention is measured by asking
the individual to pick out the words that he has
learnt from a list of words.
No. of non-sense words correctly recognized
Coefficient of retention = *
100
No. of words learnt

Relearning or savings method:

In this method, instead of asking the student to
recall or recognize, we ask him to relearn the same
material after an interval of time. The difference
between the number of trials needed to learn it
initially and the number of trials needed to relearn
subsequently is considered to be an index of
retention.
No. of trials needed initially – No. of trials needed
subsequently
Coefficient of retention =
No. of trials needed initially

Among the three measures of retention,

relearning is the most sensitive while recall is the
least sensitive.
Any one of the above three methods should be
selected and used to measure and compare the
retentive capacity of individuals.

Signs of Good Memory:

Psychologists point out the following five
characteristics as hall marks of good memory.

1. Rapidity: One is said to have good memory, if

he could recollect his past experiences very
quickly.
 2. Accuracy: If one could bring back the learned
materials without any distortion, he is said to
have good memory.
3. Length of Time: How long one could retain
the learned materials in memory before
retrieving them is also taken as a measure of
good memory.
4. Promptness of retrieval: If one is able to bring
back the learned materials instantly with ease
without requiring any help, he is said to have a
good memory.
5. Serviceableness: This refers to the recall of
right thing at the right place. If a candidate is
not able to tell the correct answer at the time of
interview, what will be of use if he could
recollect the correct answer after coming out of
the interview?

Memory Span:
The memory span is an index of one’s
immediate or short term memory. It represents the
quantity of a given sort of material that can be
reproduced perfectly after a single presentation. The
material used may be letters or digits and so we
speak of letter span or digit span. These are found
out by an apparatus called memory drum. Memory
span is related to what was earlier spoken of as span
of attention.

The memory span is not a fixed quantity but

varies from trial to trail. Training, grouping and
meaning helps to increase memory span. When
one’s memory span is exceeded, the time for
memorizing makes a sudden jump. Memory span
increases with age, reaching the maximum by about
25 years. Span of memory depends upon the factor
of ‘perseveration’.

Reminiscence:
Ballard has identified a phenomenon in
memory called reminiscence, which is an
improvement in retentivity and remembering due to
rest in the performance of a partially learned act.
Large reminiscence benefits are found in motor
learning than in verbal learning situations.
Reminiscence appears to be a resultant of a variety of
variables and conditions. The amount of
reminiscence increases to a maximum up to a
particular length of rest interval and then decreases,
if the length of rest increases. Much more
reminiscence is obtained following ‘massed’ pre-rest
practice than following ‘distributed’ pre-rest practice.
Reminiscence seems to increase with one’s
chronological age.
d . Forgetting: phenomena of forgetting, how to
overcome forgetting.
Forgetting
When we are not able to remember a lesson
learnt or an event experienced, we say it is due to
forgetting. Our inability to recall the learned
material, when we need it most is called
forgetting. Most of us are plagued at one time or
another with failing memory. We forget because
what we have learnt is not retained in our memory.
Thus ‘remembering’ and ‘forgetting’ are the two
sides of the same coin. We remember what we have
not forgotten and what we forgot, we do not
remember.
Why do we forget?
Sometimes we are frustrated by our inability to
recall in the examination hall what we studied in the
previous night; but at the same time we have fairly
vivid recollections of some events of our childhood.
Many wonder how these things occur.

The process of remembering consists of three

phases:
i. Learning or assimilation (to be stored in
memory)
ii. Retention
iii. Retrieval

We learn what we want to assign to the memory

storage. Retention is holding the materials learnt
in the memory system for later use. The interval
between initial storage and eventful recall is
referred to as the ‘retention interval’. The
retrieval stage refers to extraction of items, here
to fore stored and retained, for use on some task.
This retrieval may be through ‘recall’ or
‘recognition’ mode. Memory failures can be
traced to any one or all of these three processes.
Information may be improperly stored or not
stored at all. Assuming proper storage,
information might somehow be lost through the
passage of time. Finally, the information might be
stored and retained but for some reason
irretrievable when needed; it is available but not
accessible.

On the basis of empirical studies conducted on

forgetting, six different explanations (otherwise
 known as theories) have been given as causes of
forgetting. These six theories come under two
major approaches:

Forgetting

Decaying/distortion
Blocking
(Due to disuse, change in (due to
interference
Memory Trace, inadequate between
materials learnt,
time for consolidation of excited
emotion, motivated
Memory trace etc) forgetting
etc.)

Theories of Forgetting:
Theory of Decay or Disuse:
According to this theory forgetting
occurs because of fading away or decay of memory
traces in the brain created by learning, with the
passage of time, during which the material learnt was
never put into use. We meet a person and forget
his/her name after few days. We can hardly recall
what we had for our dinner two days back. All these
experiences support the idea that learned material
decays with time.
This theory is not able to explain
many of to observed phenomena. If forgetting were
due to decay of the memory traces, two things learnt
at the same time should be forgotten at the same
time. But very often we may forget one of them
sooner than the other. If forgetting were due to
decay, how is that we fail to recollect the name of a
person or the answer to a question at a given time,
but recollect the same a few minutes later? It looks
therefore that something else is also involved in
forgetting than mere decay.

Theory of Interference:
It is possible that it is not the time
itself, but what happens between learning and recall
that may cause forgetting. This is what is implied in
the theory of interference. Interference is of two
types.

1) Pro-active Inhibition: Material learnt earlier

may interfere with the recall of material learnt
later. This type of interference is called “pro-
active inhibition”.

Underwood and Ausubel conducted

experiments on pro-active inhibition and reported
that i) more the similarity between old and new
learning, greater is the interference. ii) Pro-active
inhibition is greater is the new materials are not
easily subsumable under earlier learned systems.
Results of experiments regarding Pro-active
inhibition could be tabulated as under:
Groups Step I Step Step Result
compared (Learn) II III obtained
(Lear Test
n) (Recal
l)
Control Rest or List B List B Control
Group Unrelate group
d recalled
activity more
Experiment List A List B List B number of
al Group words in
list B than
the
experiment
al group

2) Retro-active Inhibition: If the intervening

activities between the learning of a material and
our attempt to recall it interfere with the
retention of the material, then it is called ‘retro-
active inhibition’. For example, after we
started learning English, while talking in our
mother-tongue, we use English words now and
then (though well versed in mother-tongue, at
times the apt words do not come to our mind
and hence use English words instead). This is a
case of ‘retro-active inhibition’.

Results of experiments regarding retro-active

inhibition could be tabulated as under:

Groups Step I Step II Step Result

compared (Lear (Learn) III obtained
n) Test
(Reca
ll)
Control List Rest or List A Control
Group A Unrelat group
 ed recalled
activity more
number of
Experime List List B List A words in
ntal Group A list B than
the
experime
ntal group

Trace Change Theory:

Trace-change theory of forgetting grew from
research on perception. It has provided evidence that
one’s memory of what he has seen tends to change in
specific ways. Generally, change is brought about by
the three principles of perception: Closure, good
figure and symmetry. These three principles are
seen as physiological principles that are built in
respect of the functioning of brain tissues.
According to these principles, the trace laid down by
an original experience becomes a more perfect and
better balanced figure, thereby losing some of its
qualities. This change in the trace causes distortion in
the original figure when recalled.
In Bartlett’s experiment of ‘serial
reproduction’, the first subject sees the original
drawing of an owl and after an interval of 60 seconds
reproduces it from memory. The second subject sees
the reproduction of the first subject. The experiment
goes on like this for 10 subjects. Finally the tenth
subject reproduced a very nice and complete drawing
of a cat. In this experiment we could find a tendency
to produce a good, complete and meaningful form
when exact reproduction was not possible through
forgetting some detail or other. This theory forms
the basis of ‘spread of rumors’, where each one
contributes or omits something to what he has heard
before passing it on to others.

Retrieval Failure Theory:

At times, we cannot recall the name of a friend
whom we know well. But when conditions are
different the information comes back spontaneously.
This phenomenon is called the tip-of-the tongue
(TOT). If the cues that are available at the time of
learning are not available at the time of recall, the
recall suffers. Here forgetting is not like losing
something but rather it is inability to find it.
Emotional disturbances due to Fear, Anxiety,
self-consciousness, stage fright, etc. also paralyze
recall. Recall is completely blocked. It is the
phenomenon that some students face in the
examinations or at the time of interview or while
facing a big audience.

Motivated Forgetting:
We often find that incidents which cause
unhappiness are more quickly forgotten than that
those which cause happiness. Sigmund Freud
emphasized that we forget what we want to forget.
He called it as repression. In military, for example, a
type of forgetting that occurs in soldiers who were
humiliated were unable to recall those incidents is
called amnesia, which is highly selective. Similarly
Zeigarnik found that unfinished tasks are
remembered better than completed tasks (Zeigarnik
effect).

Consolidation Theory:
 Consolidation theory is a new explanation of
forgetting. It emphasizes the importance of
undisturbed period for memory traces to become
durable and permanent. If the newly formed traces
are disturbed and no time is given for consolidation,
they will be wiped out. The memory traces, like
cement take time to harden, and set. Retrograde
amnesia or backward forgetting supports the
consolidation theory. Human beings who suffer
brain injuries display retrograde amnesia. They
cannot remember what happened just before the
accident, even though their memory of the distant
past is normal. It means that the accident disrupts
immediate memories before they have a chance to
consolidate.

Ebbinghaus Experiment and Curve of forgetting

100
% Retained

75

50

25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13
Days After Learning

The curve of forgetting (also called curve of

retention) is a quantitative study of the loss of
retention after lapse of time. It applies mainly to
LTM. It varies from types of material as concepts
and principles, poetry, prose, non-sense syllables.
Etc. with the first exhibiting the slowest and last
(non-sense syllables) the fastest rate of forgetting.
Regarding information like lectures and class
instruction, it is most rapid for a short time
immediately after learning and then the rate of
forgetting slows down. According to Ebbinghaus, ½
is forgotten in the first half an hour after learning, 2/3
in 8 hours and 4/5 in a week. In an experiment on a
college lecture of 40 minutes, it was found that at the
end of the lecture students could reproduce only 62%
of the material, after 3 days 45%, after 1 week 35%
and after 8 weeks about 20% and this with reference
to attentive and well motivated class. The forgetting
curve also suggests that forgetting is never complete
and total. We do retain a portion of the material even
after a long time. The curve of forgetting tells
teachers that the best time for recall and recitation is
shortly after learning when rate of forgetting is the
highest.

The techniques of promoting better ‘memory’:

The capacity to retain cannot be improved by

any intrinsic manner. All that can be done is to
improve the methods of memorizing. A good
memory depends upon a good brain. We should try
to keep the metabolism of the brain in a good
condition. Our diet should contain calcium and
phosphorous-rich products. Some tips to improve
memory through better memorizing techniques are
given below:
i. Have the desire or motivation to learn, whatever
is learnt.
ii. Meaningful material is learnt quickly and
retained longer.
iii. Follow SQ3R methodwhile learning (survey,
questioning, recite, repeat and review)
iv. Spacing the learning periods appropriately will
help effective learning.
v. Recitation during the course of learning helps
self-evaluation. This is very useful in
memorizing, particularly in children.
vi. Over-learning (learning beyond the point of
forgetting) aids retention.
vii. Rhymes and logical associations between
different parts of the material help
remembering.
viii. Mnemonic devices (artificial associations like
abbreviations) are useful in learning when no
inherent organization or association could be
seen in the material. For example to remember
the colors in a rainbow in the order, we use the
artificial word VIBGYOR
ix. Multisensory learning is more effectively
remembered (T.V. advertisements are
remembered better than those of Radio).
x. Periodical rest and sleep immediately after
learning improve retention by helping
consolidation of memory traces. Subjects
which interfere with each other should not be
learnt in succession.
xi. Subjects of study should be arranged to avoid
interferences like Pro-active and Retro-active
inhibitions (e.g. after learning mathematics
 study a language like Tamil or English;
followed by the study of science, and then learn
social studies or any other light subject.
xii. As suggested by Mandler and Herbart,
teachers should plan the instruction such that
information is provided in organized manner
(i.e. grouping them in suitable clusters or
categories). In this connection Ausubel also
talks about ‘advanced organizers’. Learning
through concept maps is an attempt under this
principle of organization.

UNIT-VI MOTIVATION
a . Motivation –concept, types, achievement
motivation and classroom motivation.
Motivation is taken from a Latin word ‘movers’
that means to move. It is an internal force, which
accelerates a response or activity or behaviour. The
idea of motivation in learning was brought out in
Thorndike’s puzzle box experiment where it was
stated as law of readiness. Motive is an internal
force, which organises and reinforces the energy
required for any response. Motives initiate, and
reinforce the activity but also organise, conduct and
direct the activity towards a particular goal. All
biological drives have a bearing on motivation
necessary for the learning process.
Definition: ‘Motivation in school learning involves
arousing, persisting and directing desirable
behaviour.’ - C F Skinner (1947)
‘A motive may be defined as a readiness or
disposition to respond in some way and not others to
a variety of situations.’ - Rasen, Fox and Gregory
(1972)
Achievement Motivation:
Murray used the term ‘n-Ach’ or need
achievement to refer to motivation that is
instrumental in stimulating individuals, both children
and adults, to strive towards achieving some goals.

C McClelland David (1953) and Atkinson [Link]

(1958) came to the conclusion that in the individual
there is the need for achievement. N-Ach his desire,
is as basic and natural as the other biological or
socio-psychological needs
Atkinson and Feather (1966), The achievement
motive is conceived as a latest disposition which is
manifested in overt striving only when the individual
perceives performance as instrumental to a sense of
personal accomplishment.
Irving Sarnoff (1989), Achievement motive is
defined in terms of the way an individual orients
himself towards objects or conditions that he does
not possess. If he values those objectives and
conditions, and he feels that he ought to possess
them, he may be regarded as having an achievement
motive.
A person who has n-ach works hard to achieve
success. The desire to excel over others is intensified
which in turn may lead to a stronger drive or motive
to achieve something essential to beat others in the
race and consequently experience a sense of pride
and pleasure in the achievement.
Classroom Motivation:
To motivate children in the classroom for
learning is a crucial problem, which concerns all
teachers. Following are certain techniques, which
can be adopted by teachers to motivate the students:
Rewards in the form of prizes, distinctions,
grades, decorations etc. generate interest and
enthusiasms in pupils and appeal to Ego involvement
and Ego-maximization.
• Use of proper incentives
• Students should be helped to feel the utility of
what they learn by relating them to practical
life situations.
• Provide feedback as quickly as possible with
proper reinforcements.
• Help students to set realistic goals and guide
them to achieve it.
• Ensuring success to all, atleast to some extent.
• Encourage healthy competition and co-
operation
• Judicious use of A V Aids.
• Avoid excessive motivation, as it is self-
defeating.

All these will help in motivating and sustaining

student’s motivation in classroom. Besides the above
mentioned strategies suitable instruction and
practices should be adopted by teacher to be
successful.

b. Motivation and learning.

Motivation is the process of arousing,
maintaining and controlling interest in a goal
directed pattern of behavior. Motivation is basic to
all behavior including learning. It is concerned with
the ‘why’ of behavior. The success in life and
learning depends on our motivation. It stimulates us
and directs our behavior.
Good motivation in any activity ensures that we
develop an interest in the activity, feel an urge to do
it, pay attention to it and the resulting performance is
quick and efficient. On the other hand, if there is
poor motivation, we feel the activity is forced on us
against our desire. We may somehow do it or learn it
in haphazard way but our attention to the task will be
minimum, mistakes will occur in plenty and
performance will also be poor. The most important
reason for the gap between pupil’s potential and the
current level of achievement lies in the area of
motivation. According to Crow and Crow,
“Motivation is considered with the arousal of the
interest in learning and to the extent is basic to
learning”. An understanding of the nature of
motivation, types of motivation and the innovative
ability to make the best use of motivating influences
to foster pupil learning are vital to teachers if they
hope to get each pupil to make maximum use of his
or her talents. Further it helps the teacher to know
pupils, appetites and desire i.e. to become sensitive to
pupils’ needs.

c. Functions of motives, kinds of motives.

Characteristics of Motives:
By analysing the definition of motivation the
following characteristics can be inferred:
 1. Motivation is a psychological process (internal)
2. This internal process is initiated by some need
or want.
3. It directs our efforts towards goal that satisfies
the need; i.e. it helps us to select the appropriate
behaviour so as to reach the goal.
4. It brings energy mobilization is us
5. It helps to sustain the attention in one’s efforts
or task.
6. Restless to achieve the goal stops after the goal
is reached.

Classification of Motives:
Primary Motives
Motives are defined as primary and secondary
motive. Primary motives are unlearned and they are
essentially a function of maturation. Primary
motives also referred as ‘Biogenic Motives’
(physiological motives) are active throughout the
life. E.g. hunger, sex, escape from pain etc.
Secondary Motives
These are acquired by the process of learning
and they are essentially social in character e.g.
acquisition, imitation aggression adventure etc.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motive
In another classification of motives, they are
divided into ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ motives.
Psychologically all motivation is intrinsic. By
extrinsic motivation we refer to certain incentives or
reinforcements that are external. The extrinsic
incentives may consist of money or a toy or sweet.
Intrinsic motivation is inherent in the activity
itself. The task is undertaken because it is rewarding.
The task leads to goal. The task is not undertaken for
something else but performing it itself is satisfying.
Adults are intrinsically motivated to hear music, go
to temples and offer prayer etc.

d. Theories of motivation – Hull’s Drive

Reduction, Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs, Achievement Motivation-
components.
Theories of Motivation:
The process of motivation (how motives arise
and control the behaviour) has been explained by
different psychologists. While behaviourists
emphasize extrinsic motivation, cognitive theorists
advocate intrinsic motivation.
Hull’s Drive-reduction Theory:
When an organism is deprived of something, it
finds itself in a state of dis-equilibrium and a
condition of tension is created. This makes the
organism energized and it becomes active, trying
efforts to reduce or eliminate the tension. The
emerging state that is produced by tension is called
‘Drive’. The emerging source of behaviour is the
drive and learning occurs only when behaviour is
reinforced, by the reduction of some drive.
Behaviour according to Hull becomes goal
oriented by virtue of the selective reinforcement of
certain responses, resulting from the attainment of
the goal. Behaviour that does not lead to the goal on
the contrary does not remove tension and is therefore
avoided.
 Lack of something produces dis-
equilibrium in the body.

On reaching the goal need is

satisfied; motive disappears; Need takes place for that
drive reduces’ efforts ceases which lacks

Efforts are directed towards Appropriate ‘motive’

the goal. i.e. needed object corresponding to the need
appears.

Tension builds, and results in setting

the ‘drive’

For example when glucose level in blood goes

below a particular level, we are in need of it, i.e.,
food. This need for food sets the ‘hunger motive’ in
us, due to which stomach muscles start contracting
and expanding and consequently, we feel a kind of
pinching in the stomach. This tension generates
‘drive’ in individuals to make efforts in getting food.
After getting food, need vanishes, drive gets reduced
and the motive disappears. Our food-seeking efforts
come to an end. When the operation of a motive
ceases, another motive may appear and guide the
behaviour of the organism. Viz. When hunger is
satisfied, ‘thirst’ may motivate the behaviour; then
‘sleep’ may follow and so on. This ‘motivational
cycle’ is explained in the above diagram.

SE = SH x D x V x K x – I - SO
SH = 1 – 10-an
SE is reaction potential for a particular response.
D is the level of ‘Drive’
K is the magnitude of ‘reward’
V is the stimulus intensity
I is the Inhibition (resistance) developed to a
response due to repetition of the same, a number of
times.
SO is the Oscillatory reaction strength
‘a’is an empirical constant which is .03 for human
beings; this value is greater for animals.
‘n’ is the number of reinforced trials required to form
a habit. Only when the value of SE crosses a
particular minimum value (called Threshold
potential) response will occur. Among the values
SH, D, K, V if anyone is zero, Se will become zero
and no response is possible. Hence we cannot firmly
say that a response will appear if a stimulus is
presented. Response will emerge only when SE
crosses the threshold.
Before hull propounded his theory it was believed
that reward and praise alone can reinforce behaviour.
But Hull argued that escape from pain need reduction
etc. also serve as reinforces.
Functions of motives:
1. Motive arouses interest
2. It activates drive in order to reach the target
3. It enhances performance
4. It sustains interest in the target
5. It satisfies the Ego.
Theory: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow proposed theory of need
gratification and growth motivation. According to
him,
• Human needs are many and multiple; all are not
of equal importance, i.e. needs can be arranged
hierarchically.
• The organism will aspire for higher order needs
only when the lower order needs get fulfilled.

Maslow classified and arranged needs in a hierarchy

as lower order needs assume priority and higher level
needs become functional after lower level needs are
satisfied. Thus the hierarchy of human needs can be
represented pyramidically as follows:

Self
actuali-
 Aesthetic Needs

Achievement Needs

Esteem Needs

Affiliational Needs

Safety and Security Needs

Physiological Needs (survival needs)

Physiological Needs:
These are lower in the motivational hierarchy,
which include need for food, water, oxygen, sleep,
sex, sensory satisfaction etc. These are vital for
survival and hence should be fulfilled before the next
higher order motives become prominent.
Safety and Security needs:
These include shelter, clothing and personal
safety, security of the future, routine, regularity etc.

Affiliation needs:
Every individual likes to have some relations
with others in order to talk, chat, make love, and be
recognized etc. It refers to the individual’s hunger
for affection. A person, who is not loveable because
of his behaviour, needs to be loved most.
Esteem needs:
In all of us there is a desire for strength
mastery, competency etc. leading to a feeling of
independence and freedom. We want to be high in
the eyes of others. Satisfaction of this self-esteem
need generates feeling of worth, confidence and
adequacy. Lack of satisfaction of this need results in
discouragement, feelings of inferiority and
inadequacy.
Aesthetic needs:
This is concerned with appreciation of order
and beauty. One whose lower order needs are fully
satisfied or known that he need not bother about
them, derives pleasure in beauty, nature etc. Tagore,
Wordsworth etc are best examples for this.

Self-Actualization needs:
Fulfilling one’s individual nature in all its
aspects. One who is talented in one specific area
feels uneasy, if that talent is not nurtured and
utilized. He wants to attain perfection in that area.
The highest level of functioning occurs when a
person is self-actualized. People can be motivated
towards self-actualization only when the lower order
needs are satisfied.

Educational implications of Maslow’s theory:

• The lower order needs are to be satisfied if the
child is to focus on achievement or get
motivated to learn.
• Ventilation, lighting, furniture blackboard, mid-
day meals etc. are vital for motivation.
 • Individual tents to raise his goals after success
and lower them after failure; so teachers should
maintain realistic level of aspiration by
providing graded assignments ensuring to
include certain amount of success for every
pupil.
• Teacher should enhance attraction by using A
V Aids and minimize dangers of growth needs.
• Curriculum should be designed to suit the local
population to make it effective and interesting
for students to learn.
• Learning by doing should be followed to a
greater extent.
• Participation leads to further participation.

e. Fear of failure and hope of success

Children tend to raise their confidence when
attained success and lowers them when faced with
negative results. Fear of failure will add huge
pressure on individual especially when they are low
achievers. This results in severe depression and
hence teacher has to help the students to set targets
according to their abilities and constantly guide them.
People who are low in self-confidence has to be
motivated to believe that they can achieve and hence
set new targets to reach their goals. Hope of success
will give positive feelings about themselves which
will boost their ego. Teacher has to carefully mentor
the students to make sure that children are attaining
their reasonable targets.
f. Motivation in the classroom context-
praises and blames rewards and
punishments, feedback/knowledge of
results, level of aspiration.
Praise and Blame:
These are verbal rewards and punishments.
Praise being pleasant stimulus, facilitates learning
especially if it is from a loved person or from a
person of high esteem and prestige. Blame being
unpleasant hampers learning. But things happen may
be vice-versa, depending upon the
1. Nature of person
2. Gender
3. Intelligence and
4. Age and other factors.
Reward and Punishment:
These are two potent and powerful incentives,
which influence the future conduct or learning of an
organism. Rewards help to ‘stamp in’ the desired
responses. Rewards may be in the form of gifts,
prizes, money, certificates or other objects of value to
individual.
Punishment is supposed to ‘stamp out’ the S-R
connection as suggested by Thorndike. It is based on
physical pain and embarrassment and loss of status.
Punishment has to be simple and reasons for
punishment are to be clearly acknowledged by the
individual to be effective. This makes it a deterrent
for wrong doers, but increase in the intensity of
punishment beyond a limit will disrupt learning.
Feedback:
Feedback plays an important role in any
communication to be effective. It gives new ideas,
insights, and reflections about a particular event or
thing under consideration. In classroom teacher gets
feedback from the students in terms of their
behaviour during the class, their performance in
exams, and their behaviour at different situations, etc.
Formal feedback could be obtained in the form of
feedback forms while informal feedback can be
obtained through interactions, discussions etc.
Teacher has to device ways and means to collect
feedback in order to be effective.

Knowledge of results:
It is believed that children have to be informed
about their performance as soon as possible. A
psychological study says that examination papers
have to be corrected and given within three days, as
this would help the students to refer and reflect upon
the answer script meaningfully. Delay in giving
results decays the motivation and curiosity to know
about it. During evaluation proper comments should
supplement the marks so that it gives valuable
insights about the mistakes and positives in the
answer script. Hence as teachers one should be
aware of the above and implement them regularly.
Levels of Aspiration:
Frank defines level of aspiration as ‘the level of
future performance in a familiar task which an
individual, knowing his level of past performance in
the task, explicitly undertakes to reach’.

Hoppe F defines it as ‘the degree of accomplishment

consciously striven after by an individual’.
In general, normal people set their level of aspiration
little above their present level of performance, raise it
after success and lower a little after experiencing
failure. Abnormal people and people dominated with
excessive fear of failure set their future goals either
unrealistically too high or low.

UNIT-VII INTELLIGENCE
a to e.
Definition:
Ability of an individual to direct his behaviour
towards a goal. - Binet
Ability to adjust oneself successfully to a
relatively new situation. -William James

Adaptation to physical and social environment

- J Piaget
Intelligence is the ability to learn
- Calvin
All round thinking capacity or mental
efficiency. - P E Vermon
“Intelligence is the aggregate or the global
capacity of the individual to act purposefully to
think rationally and to deal effectively with the
environment.”
- D W Wechsler
Theories of Intelligence:
Unitary theory or monarchic theory:
According to monarchic theory, intelligence is
regarded as an adaptiveness which enables a creation
to adjust itself to changing environment. This is a
popular view which regards intelligence as a single
unit or a unitary faculty that determines the level of
man’s achievement in any intellectual enterprise he
may undertake. An inborn all round mental
efficiency is a sign of intelligence.
Two factor theory:
An English psychologist, Charles Spearman in
1904 developed the two factor theory.
Intellectual abilities comprise two factors. ‘G’
factor – general ability or common ability and
‘S’factor – a group of specific factors.
‘G’ factor is universal inborn ability which is
constant from birth and varies from individual to
individual. It is used in every life activity and the
greater the ‘G’ factor greater the success in life.
‘S’ factor is part of the whole performance. It
is learned and acquired in the environment and varies
from activity to activity in the same individual. In
general individual differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.
Anarchic of Multifactor theory:
American psychologist E L Thorndike
developed multifactor theory. Intelligence, is
forming a number of actual or potential specific
connections between specific stimuli and responses.
It suggests intelligence as a combination of numerous
separate elements or factors each one being a minute
element of an ability. There is no such general
intelligence but there are only many highly
independent specific abilities which go into different
tasks.
He distinguishes four attributes of intelligence
Level: It refers to task difficulty. If the test items are
arranged in sequential order of increasing difficulty
then the high that we can attain on this ladder of
difficulty determines the level or altitude of
intelligence.
Range: Range or width refers to a number of tasks, at
any degree of difficulty that we can solve. It is the
breadth of experience. Range is represented by items
of equal difficulty.
Area: Area in a test means the total number of
situations at each level. It is summation of all ranges
at each level of intelligence.
Speed: Seed is the rapidity with which we can
respond to test items. Speed and altitude are
positively correlated.
Group factor theory of Intelligence:
Thrustone was a prominent propagator who
says certain activities comprising a group of sub-
skills, which form a group, the term ‘group factor’.
He found correlations of appropriately 60 separate
tests and differentiated nine such factors:
Verbal factor: Concerns with comprehension of
verbal relations, words and ideas.
Spatial factor: Involved in any task in which the
subject manipulates an object imaginatively in space.
Numerical factor: Ability to numerical calculations
rapidly and accurately.
Memory factor: involves the ability to memorize
quickly.
Word fluency factor: Involved whenever the subject
is asked to think of the isolated words at a rapid rate.
Reasoning: Found in tasks that require the subject to
discover a rule or principle.
Inductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning
Perceptual factor: Ability to perceive what is
exactly there.
Problem-solving ability factor: Ability to perceive
the problem and solve it.
Vernon’s Hierarchical theory:
Vernon developed another factor analytic view
of organisation of intelligence on the basis of
empirical data. He suggests that intelligence test
measure an overall ‘G’ factor as well as two main
types of mental abilities.
Ved: Verbal, numerical and educational.
K.M: Practical, mechanical, spatial and physical.
Broad major group factors G factor

Minor group Ved KM

Specific 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1

Factor

Structure of Intellect by Guilford:

Mind is composed of at least three
dimensions, operations, contents and products.
Every intellectual ability, in the structure, is
characterized in terms of type of operations, the
content and the resulting product.
Operations:
Cognition: Discovery, rediscovery or recognition of
information is the most (fundamental) important
operation in learning process.
Memory: Retention and recall of what is recognized.
It is a primary mental process.
Divergent production: Searching for all possible
situations and varieties of thinking. It is also a
component of creativity which shows the relationship
between intelligence and creativity.
Convergent production: Generation of information
from the given information. Conventionally
accepted and best outcomes are emphasised. The
given information fully determines the response.
Evaluation: Making decisions or judgements
concerning criteria as to goodness, correctness,
suitability or adequacy of what we know, what we
remember and what we produce in productive
thinking.
Contents:
Figural: Concrete material perceived through
senses, spatial and linear relationships. Visual
material has properties of size, form and colour.
Things we hear or feel provide other figural
material.
Symbolic: Symbolic content is composed of
letters, digits and other conventional signs,
usually organized in general patterns such as
the alphabet or the number system.
Semantic: Semantic content is in the form of
verbal meanings or ideas for which examples
are unnecessary.
 Behavioural: Content includes human
behaviour and interaction with other people to
understand non-verbal behaviour.
Products:
When a certain operation is applied on certain
kind of content six kinds of product may be the
resulting factors
Units: A Segregated whole. Number of [Link].,
students in Andhra Pradesh during a year
produces a unit.
Class: A Set of objects with common
properties. Circular shapes of hairless animals,
edible foods.
Relations: A connection between two things.
Eg. The wind on lake is the greatest in late
afternoon after the sun has warmed water.
System: A Complex pattern or organisation of
independent parts or units. An essay or an
outline for an article is a system including
divergent and convergent thinking.
Transformation: change or revision of one’s
knowledge. All birds fly – knowledge.
Penguin is a bird that can’t fly – revised taking
the exceptional class of bird.
Implication: A prediction or expectation from
a given information. Eg. If one has the
experience of being misled into wrong answers
by multiple choice test items, then one may
decide to be more careful if such test is
announced.

Thus Guilford structurally presented five categories

of mental operations working on four kinds of
contents giving rise to six kinds of products. The
total outcome of 120 factors i.e. by 4 contents X 5
operations X 6 products are traced.
Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman:
• Knowing one’s emotions: self-awareness
• Managing emotions:
• Motivating oneself:
• Recognizing emotions of others: empathy
• Handling relationships
Theory of multiple intelligence by Howard
Gardner:
• Linguistic Intelligence
• Logico – Mathematical Intelligence
• Visual Spatial Intelligence
• Musical Intelligence
• Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence
• Intra-personal Intelligence
• Inter-personal Intelligence
• Naturalist Intelligence
Testing of Intelligence:
Intelligence Quotient
Termon associating with M A Merrill
revised Binet’s scale of Intelligence again in
1937. This scale used the concept of
intelligence quotient. It involves the following
concepts:
Chronological age is the physical age of a
person, counted from the date and time of his
birth. It is counted in terms of years, months
and hours.
Mental age is an index of intelligence.
Mental age means that a given child’s
performance in a contest is like the
 average performance in the same test of
children of a given chronological age.
E.g. if Rubesh is 8years old, first she must be given
intelligence test starting from 4 or 5 years age test. If
she does all the items of these tests and also of 6,7
and 8 years age tests, tehn she must be given the test
meant for 9 years. If that test consists of eight items,
and she does 6 items correctly, her mental age is 8+
6/8 or 8.75.
Intelligence Quotient (I Q):
Intelligence quotient is synonymous with
intelligence. It means a child’s mental age divided
by its chronological age multiplied by 100.
Intelligence quotient I Q = (Mental age /
Chronological age) X 100
= (8.75 /8) X 100 =
109.375 = 109 I Q

Constancy of Intelligence Quotient:

I Q remains remain the same for all the ages
and hence it is very much possible to predict the
future mental age of children.

[Link]. I.Q Classification

1 0-20 Profound
2 21-35 Severe
 3 36-50 Moderate
4 51-70 Mild
5 71-90 Borderline
6 91-110 Average
7 111-120 Above Average
8 121-130 Genius
9 130+ Gifted

Test of Intelligence

Individual tests Group test

Verbal test Non-verbal test Verbal test

Non-verbal test

Eg. Binet scales porteus maze test eg. Army alpha test eg.
Army beta

Eg. Wechser Culture fair

tests

intelligence scale eg. Ravens

Progressive Matrices

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale:

Verbal subtests:
1. Information
2. Comprehension
3. Digits Forward; Digits Backward
4. Arithmetic Reasoning
5. Similarities
6. Vocabulary
Non-Verbal tests:
1. Digit symbol test
 2. Picture Completion test
3. Picture Arrangement
4. Block design test
5. Object assembly test
Group Test of Intelligence:
Group tests may be verbal or non-
verbal or combination of both like individual tests.
Army Alpha test:
This is a verbal group test (1917).
The test consists of 8 sections. In each section there
are several items.
1. Following Directions 12 items
2. Arithmetic Problem 20 items
3. Practical Judgement 16 items
4. Synonyms and Antonyms 40 items
5. Disarranged Sentences 24 items
6. Number Series Completion 20 items
7. Analogies 40 items
8. General Information 40 items
9. Different durations of time are fixed for
different sections.
Alexander’s Group of Performance Test:
1. Koh’s Block Design Test
2. The Cube Construction Test
3. The Pass Along Test
Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test:
1. Maze test
2. Cube analysis
3. Letter arrangement series.
4. Digit-symbol substitution
5. Number checking
6. Pictorial completion
7. Geometrical constructions
8. Army Beta Test
Advantages of group tests:
 They save time by testing hundreds
and thousands of the subjects together.
No expert is needed in administering
them.
Less costly in terms of
administration
Disadvantages:
They are not as accurate as
individual tests. Validity and reliability of group
tests is less than that of individual tests. There is
possibility of cheating.
They are not suitable for small
children.
Speed and reading ability may
influence the test score
All the members of the group may
not clearly understand the instructions.
Several influencing factors at the
time of testing may not come to tester’s notice.
Uses of Intelligence Tests:
1. In the classification of students
2. In educational guidance
3. In vocational guidance
4. In vocational selection
5. Use in clinics
6. To diagnose backwardness
7. Research
Limitations of Intelligence Test:
1. Most of the tests measure intelligence only
indirectly through language spoken or printed.
2. Children from better homes are likely to score
better than those from poor ones as they have
 good exposure to develop language and
comprehension.
3. Intelligence tests are useful in the selection of
an occupational level rather than of a particular
occupation.
4. Use of tests are interpretation of scores need
careful handling because of the possible errors
involved in prediction.
5. Intelligence is only one factor to be considered
in the problem of vocational selection.
6. The tests are better measures of the ability of
children at some socio-economic levels than at
others.
7. Intelligence tests are also not adequately
standardized and don’t predict with absolute
certainty the success in school or industry.
Exceptional Children:

Human nature is multifaceted and flexible.

Most of the human beings have average capacities

and moderate traits. Some deviate from the average

and typical people in physical abilities, mental

capacities, emotionality, and specialized talents.

These deviations give rise to multifarious problems

of adjustment to normal procedures of treatment at

home, school and social settings. Hence special care

is needed to help these children whom we call

‘exceptional children’.
Definition:

An exceptional child is he who deviates from

the normal or average child in mental, physical and

social characteristics to such an extent that he

requires a modification of school practices or special

educational services or supplementary instruction in

order to develop to his maximum capacity.

- Kirk S A

An exceptional child is he who deviates, physically,

intellectually, emotionally and socially so marked

from normal growth and development that he cannot

be benefited from a regular classroom programme

and needs special treatment in school.

- Cr
ui
ch
sh
an
k
W
M
Classification of Exceptional Children:

Depending upon the dimensions of the

individual, these exceptional children can be

classified as follows:

Intellectually exceptional -
Gifted
- Sl
ow
lea
rn
er
- M
ent
all
y
ha
nd
ica
pp
ed
Physically exceptional -
Bli
nd and
near
Bli
nd
- Sp
ee
ch
im
 pai
re
d
- Or
th
op
edi
cal
ly
ha
nd
ica
pp
ed
- Ce
re
br
al
Pa
lsy
- De
lic
ate
(P
hy
siq
ue
)
pe
rso
ns.
Socially exceptional -
Juvenile delinquent
- Pr
ob
le
m
 chi
ldr
en

Gifted Children:

Gifted children have high potentiality to excel in

various areas of knowledge and adequate provisions

should be made for their learning. A gifted child is an

asset of incalculable value to the society.

Definition:

A talented or gifted child is one who shows

consistently remarkable performance in any

worthwhile line or endeavour. Thus we shall

include not only the intellectually gifted but also

those who show promise in music, the graphic

arts, creative writing, dramatics, mechanical skills

and social leadership.

- The fifty-seventh yearbook of the National

Society of the study of education in USA

 The talented or gifted is one who shows

consistently remarkable performance in any

worthwhile line of endeavors. - Harringhurst

Identification of Giftedness:

Gifted could be identified through

a. Informal methods using observations of

teachers, parents, their group members
and neighbours.
b. Formal methods using individual or group
tests of intelligence and achievement test
batteries of various areas. They are more
intelligent than the average people.
Characteristics of Gifted children:

[Link] better than the average children.

[Link] mental superiority.
[Link] many sided interests.
[Link] are more trustworthy and sincere and
less inclined to boast of their knowledge.
5. They receive high grades.
6. Have more positive attitudes.
7. They participate in more curricular activities.
8. They are more mature in their reaction to
external world.
9. Exercise greater independence.
[Link] greater ego-strength.
[Link] adjusted, more confident and
concerned with abstract ideas.
Educating the gifted:

a. Acceleration Approach
 1. Admitting gifted children to

kindergarten or first grade according to

mental age rather than chronological age.

2. Skipping grades such as promoting the

gifted child.

3. Telescoping grades i.e. programming to

cover 5 years curriculum in 3 years.

Early admission to secondary schools or

colleges.

b. Enrichment Approach
Enrichment approach implies the

opportunity for understanding special

projects and investigations. It is

considered to be better than acceleration

approach. Various procedures of

enrichment are

1. Encouraging teachers to challenge the

gifted child with extra assignments and
 to provide an opportunity to participate
in other than class activities.
2. Grouping gifted children in a class and
giving them problems requiring
independent research and thought
rather than memory process drills.
3. Employing a special teacher for the
gifted in a school to identify, to assist,
to counsel and to conduct special
classes.
4. Offering additional languages, foreign
languages, computers in the elementary
school.
5. Encouraging teachers to hold high
standards of achievement for the gifted
children.
c. Special Group Approach
1. Placing the gifted child in a special
school.
2. Self-contained special classes within
the regular
school.
3. Offering advanced courses for superior
students.
4. Offering honours courses.
Slow Learners or Backward:

Slow learners usually don’t get benefit

from the classroom teaching. Teacher can identify

them by their facial expression, inattention, and

failure to respond simple questions in the class.

These children are a great liability to the society if

they are left like that. The slow learners inevitably

turn into educationally backward.

Types of Backwardness:

1. The dull have intellectual deficiency with 80 to

90 I.Q.
2. General backwardness due to adverse
temperamental attitudes or acquired or extrinsic
conditions.
3. Specially backward in one or two subjects but
average in other subjects.
Identification of Slow Learners:

1. Teachers observations in daily classes or

outside to know the child’s behaviour and
reactions to various situations and child’s co-
curricular, recreational and other interests.
2. If one’s educational ration is below 85, he is a
slow learner.
Educational age

Educational ratio = ----------------------- X 100

Mental age

Normal child has it between 85 to 115.

Educational age is obtained by administering

scholastic tests meant for various grades and

 mental age is obtained by using an

intelligence test.

3. Intelligence tests either verbal or non-verbal

or both the tests if used with a thorough

knowledge of testing technique and of the

principles underlying, they give a true picture

of the mental principles underlying.

4. Scholastic tests to diagnose the deficiencies in

school achievement, reading, writing,
spellings, composition, arithmetic, and
language comprehension, i.e., general and
specific problems can be recognized and
proficiency in significant skills can be
estimated.
5. Personality tests to assess emotional
characteristics, emotional stability,
sensitiveness, persistency, assertiveness,
attention to details and son on.
6. Medical examination of disabilities and
physical ailments to identify if they have
defective vision, audition and speech, which
cause difficulty to respond to the stimuli
around them in an appropriate manner.
Causes of Backwardness or Slow Learning:

a. Environmental factors:
1. Poverty at home.
 2. Prevalence of poor intellectual
conditions, emotional and moral
conditions
3. Ineffective way of teaching and
unsuitable methods of teaching.
b. Personal factors:
1. Sub-normal body development, slow
reaction time, poor motor skills and
muscular coordination.
2. Low intelligence.
3. Excitability, impulsiveness, lack of
attention and sustained application,
lack of emotional balance.
4. Undesirable habits of behaviour.
Education of Slow Learners:

The experience of educators confirms that

there are many children who are poor in learning or

achievement. They need special help. As the causes

for slowness may vary the provision for students

education may have to vary too. There are two

approaches in helping slow learners

1. Segregated approach

2. Integrated approach

Segregated Approach:
 It aims at personal adequacy, social

adequacy, self-confidence and good work habits,

which are not fundamentally different from those

of general education. These services need three

requisites:

i. Trained Personnel
ii. Special Curriculum
iii. Special Facilities
Integrated Approach:

Segregation of students with some

backwardness is not thought as psychologically,

socially and economically unsound. NPE of 1986

has an objective of educating a sizable number of

disabled in common with other children and

sponsored a scheme of ‘integrated education’ for the

disabled either full-time or part-time as it can serve

as follows:

1. Slow learners and underachievers can be

stimulated and can follow the normal children

through normal mental development.

 2. It ensures social integration and helps to
achieve some basic social qualities.
3. Due to facility of interaction with the average,
high achievers and fast learners they have
emotional adjustment and accept and acquire a
sense of competency.
4. It maintains the principle of equality.
5. It brings academic integration with its active
atmosphere.
Multiple Defects:

Children who has more than one defect either

physically or mentally comes under this category.

E.g. A person who is deaf as well as lack of growth

of limbs this case is named as multiple defects.

At the early stage if it is detected and if it comes to

be limited in degree of defect, then it can be cured

are corrected. But otherwise one needs to train them

based on their ability and it cannot be cured.

Identification:

If it happens to be a physical

problem it should be identified at the birth

At certain cases due to polio attack

multiple defects may arise
 Accidents also lead to this kind of
problem.
At pre-natal stage this can be seen
and can be corrected at certain cases.
Characteristics:
Orthopedically impaired:
Abnormalities due to sickness hence
not interested, lack of confidence, poor self-concept
Cripples on physical abnormality
e.g. Low in self-confidence, poor motivation
Hearing impaired:
Difficult to follow directions
Not paying attention, lack of
involvement
Hesitancy to participate in large
groups; usually withdrawn person
Problems in understanding speech;
language difficulty, etc.
Visually impaired:
Blind: doesn’t like to move out, limited skill
Partially blind: loneliness, depression
Colour blind: cannot visualize colour
Mentally challenged:
Intellectually abnormal having an
IQ range of 75 or below
Due to low IQ, they have low
maturation level and cannot do average work.
 They are slow in memory,
generalization, conceptualization, perception
language ability, imagination etc.
Short attention span when compared
with normal person
Note: If the child comes in any two or more of the
above category of defects they come under multiple
defects and they have a combination of the above
characteristics.
Educational Programmes:
Blind: For partially blind, one can have segregated
class, cooperative plan; partially sighted people
needs suitable light in class
Hearing impaired:Hearing impaired should be

seated near teacher, teacher should maintain face to

face contact, proper supporting aids should be

provided.

Orthopaedically handicapped: equality of

educational opportunities, proper facilities should be

provided in school, programmes must recognise the

handicaps

Develop initiative and self-reliance, minimum

retention etc.
Mentally retarded: Depending upon degree of

impairment, provide opportunities, consider alternate

activities/ exercise that can be utilized with less

difficulty, train them in field skills like buttoning,

bathing, brushing, dressing etc. based on their level.

Juvenile Delinquency:

Delinquents come under socially handicapped

category, delinquency is a rebellion and an

expression of aggression which is aimed at

destroying, breaking down or changing the

environment. Juvenile delinquency is the behaviour,

on the part of boys and girls under 18 which society

does not accept and which is generally judged to

require some kind of admonishment, punishment, or

corrective measures. It is a sign of disordered

development, a form of maladjustment.

Definition:
 A child is to be technically regarded as a

delinquent when his antisocial tendencies are so

grave that he ought to become the subject of official

action. - Cyril Burt

Juvenile delinquents are persons who habitually

respond to serious and prolonged frustration in

aggressive ways. - Plant J S

Delinquency in any form of behaviour is

detrimental to the well-being of society. - Arun K

Sen

Types of delinquents:

A. The organic delinquent: Brain Pathology

may result in lowered inhibitory controls and

violent behaviour. These children are often

hyperactive, impulsive, emotionally unstable

and unable to inhibit action when strongly

stimulated.
 B. The mentally retarded delinquent:

Occasionally low intelligent fall prey to the

suggestions of brighter socio-paths who

exploit them.

d. The psychohtic delinquent: Due to

prolonged emotional and social withdrawal,
after a long frustration, results as a by-
product of personality disorder.
e. The socio-pathic delinquent: Majority of the
juvenile delinquents come under this, and
show typical antisocial personality. They
are impulsive, defiant resentful, and
incapable of establishing and maintaining
close interpersonal relations. They lack
inner conscience and reality controls and are
unable to profit from their experiences in a
constructive manner. The following are
some of the major reasons for delinquents:
1. Unhealthy family relationships
2. Delinquent sub-culture, lack of
values in home, neighbourhood,
peer group, poverty, dull homes etc
3. Member of delinquent gangs.
4. Disinterest in studies and disrespect
for teachers.
5. Not understanding teachers.
6. Unemployment
7. Media effects

f . Creativity – Factors of creativity, fostering

creativity among school children.

 Meaning of ‘Creativity’:

Creativity is the capacity of the individual to

discover or produce new ideas. It may also

include restructuring or rearranging the old idea.

The only precaution for renaming an expression as

creative is that it should not be a mere repetition

or reproduction of what has already been

experienced or learned.

Ausubel defined creativity as “a rare capacity

for developing insights, sensitivities and
appreciations in a circumscribed content area of
intellectual or artistic activities”.

Torrance speaks of creativity as a mental

process of seeing or creating most unforeseen and
novel relationships between two or more things or
ideas. In fact according to Torrance two stages are
involved in this process (i) to shake and throw things
together, and to discriminate from a variety of
different possibilities and (ii) to synthesize and bring
together elements in a new and original ways.

Bruner states that all forms of creativity grow

out of a combinational activity, a placing of thing in
new perspective.
 Drevdahl defines creativity as the capacity of a
person to produce compositions, products or ideas
which are essentially new or novel and previously
unknown to the producer.

In the words of C.R. Rogers “Creative process

is the emergence in action of a novel relation or
product, growing out of the uniqueness of the
individual on the one hand, and the materials,
events, people or circumstances of his life on the
other”.

Nature (Characteristics) of Creativity:

1. The end product of creative thinking should be

something tangible such as a poem, a piece of
music, a scientific theory or a new mechanical
or electrical contrivance.
2. Everyone possesses creative powers to some
degree.
3. Although creative abilities are natural
endowments, yet they are capable of being
nourished or nurtured by training or education.
4. Any creative expression is a source of joy and
satisfaction to the creator. There is perfect
individuality in one’s creative expression.
5. The creator is the person who is able to make
ego involved statements like ‘it is my idea’, ‘I
have solved the problem’, etc. In creative
expression, there is complete ego involvement.
6. Creativity involves divergent thinking, having
freedom for multiplicity of responses, choices
and lines of action. By travelling on the
 routine, beaten track one cannot create but only
reproduce or repeat.
7. The field of creative expression is very wide. It
covers all the aspects of human
accomplishments like scientific inventions and
discoveries, composing of poems, writing of
stories and dramas and good performance in the
field of dance, music, painting, sculpture,
political and social leadership, business,
teaching and other professions.
8. The important components of creativity as
identified by J.P. Guilford and Torrance are i)
ideational fluency; ii) originality iii) flexibility;
iv) divergent thinking; v) persistence; vi) self-
confidence; vii) sensitiveness; and viii) ability
to see relationships and make associations.

Dimensions of Creativity:

According to Guilford and Torrance,

Creativity has the following dimensions (or
components)

- Spontaneous flexibility (ability or

disposition to produce a great variety of
ideas, freedom from inertia).
- Fluency (this aspect is quantitative I nature
which is related with fertility of ideas).
- Sensitivity to problems (seeing defects,
needs, deficiencies, seeing the odd or the
unusual).
 - Originality (calls for remote associations or
relationships; remote either in time or in
logical sense).
- Elaboration (ability to work out the details
of a plan, idea or outline).
- Redefinition (ability to define or perceive in
a way different from the usual established or
intended way or uses)

Stages in the Creative process:

Graham Wallas and Patrick (independently)

have indicated four stages of creativity. They are
preparation, incubation, illumination and verification
(and revision if needed).

1. Preparation: In the preparation stage, the

problem is defined and explained. It means
orientation with the problem and involves
purposeful study, discussion with others and
acquisition of facts. Relevant facts and
materials considered essential are gathered.
The plan of action is formulated. Creative
work is largely work of diligence and industry.
Perspiration, rather than inspiration is proper
preparation. No painter, poet, scientist or
novelist has reached great eminence overnight
and almost every creative thinker reports that
he worked laboriously during his early days.
2. Incubation: This stage is characterized by
overt behavior. During this stage one can make
rest or sleep or do even some other problem.
Just as nothing is added to the egg but only it is
 kept warm, so during the period of incubation
no new knowledge or experience is added to
the existing stock. During this stage there are
no external disturbances. It is common
experience that we sometimes forget an
important name. If recalling is postponed, later
on it comes to our mind. Hurry and
compulsion are fatal to creativity. In
incubation, the mind is relaxed. If incubation is
hastened it will result in abortion.
3. Illumination: Incubation leads to illumination.
During this stage, there is the sudden
appearance of the solution to the problem. In
the case of the chimpanzees in Kohler’s
experiment, there was the sudden dawn of
insight, resulting in the connection of the sticks
with the fruit. So illumination implies insight.
Illumination may occur any time even during
dreams.
4. Verification: Then comes the final stage, that
of verification. During this stage, we determine
whether the solution is the correct one or not;
sometimes the solution needs some
modification. This is the evaluation of the
solution of the problem. Then in light of the
results of verification or testing, revision is
made till the solution is workable. These stages
should not be considered as rigid and fixed.
One may get the illumination without passing
though incubation. In certain cases, they cycle
has to be repeated till they get at the solution.
Creativity as a natural endowment needs
stimulation and nourishment.
Differences between Intelligence and Creativity

1. It has been established that convergent

thinking is the basis of intelligence, whereas
divergent thinking forms the basis of
creativity. Divergent thinking is stimulus free
and often goes beyond the data i.e. divergent
thinking searches for many possible responses
for a given stimulus. Convergent thinking on
the other hand is stimulus bound and is limited
to the data given. Tradition and rules of logic
deal with convergence in thought, with
conclusion following the premises. But
originality is identified with divergent thinking.
In convergent thinking, an individual has the
tendency to find out the one most appropriate
idea or socially approved response whereas
divergent thinking allows as many responses as
possible.
2. It has been observed that highly creative
persons are usually found to possess
intelligence to a high degree but is not essential
for an intelligent person to be creative. One
may possess high intelligence without having
creative abilities. On the other hand, an
adequate level of intelligence is a necessary
condition for being creative. A mentally
retarded cannot be expected to be creative.
 3. In intelligence testing, the speed and accuracy
of the cognitive behavior is emphasized while
in creative tests novelty, flexibility, originality,
fluency and elaboration are give more weight
age.

Thus it could be concluded that intelligence and

creativity and related (having low positive
correlation) but not synonymous.

Identification of the creative children

The term ‘creativity’ cannot be used

synonymously with giftedness. Creativity in all its
shapes and forms is the highest expression of
giftedness that may or may not be found in a
particular gifted child. Creative children could be
identified by employing any of the two approaches:

i. Making use of tests of creativity;

ii. Making use of non-testing devices like
observation, interview, rating scale,
personality inventory, check lists, etc.

Use of Tests of Creativity

Today there are many specific tests are

available for assessing creativity, the notable ones
being Paul Torrance’s Minnesota tests of creative
Thinking, Remote Associative Test, Wallach and
Kogan’s creativity Instruments, Guilford’s test of
creativity and Baquer Mehdi’s Test of creative
Thinking. They employ generally verbal and non-
verbal items. Verbal items are like the following:
 1. Unusual uses of ordinary things like a tin can or
a card board box
2. Possible consequences of an impossible event
[(e.g. if sunlight is a liquid]
3. Producing ideas for improving a toy to increase
the fun for children
Non-verbal items include

a. Picture construction test

b. Incomplete figures to be completed
c. Using cut-outs repeatedly to produce new
figures

Use of Non-testing techniques

The following external characteristics are

spotted in creative individuals:

i. Keen observation
ii. Indulge in activities with total devotion
iii. Keen desire to listen others
iv. Using analogies much in their speech
v. Energetic and enthusiastic, spending a lot of
time in reading, writing, drawing etc.
vi. Not readily accepting what other say
vii. Examining the presented idea from different
angles
viii. Verbal fluency
ix. Richness inflow of ideas and speed in
associating apparently disconnected ideas
and things
 x. Flexible and adaptive in free atmosphere but
appear to be restive under rigid conditions
xi. Exhibiting feelings and emotions openly and
express ideas however bizarre these may be
in a free manner.
xii. Low distractibility
xiii. Always puzzled about something and
absorbed in thinking
xiv. They never cast aside any solution merely
because at first appearance it looks
unconventional and foolish.
xv. Mon satisfied with a single solution to a
problem and seeks other possible solution.

Fostering creativity among children

Creativity is an attribute that leads to solving
problem in new ways; therefore, the educational
objectives, the methodology of learning and
stimulating environment and the evaluative
techniques, all have to be reconstructed so that the
creative abilities of students may be developed. The
following are the blocks to creative thinking, which
have to be removed:

a. High standards of achievement for low levels of

work such as routine skills of unimportant
material;
b. Inflexibility of assignments and methods of
work;
c. Over-emphasis on school marks, and
d. The authoritarian teacher.
 Gallagher makes the following suggestions for
the development of creativity of pupils:

i. Organize the curriculum primarily on the

basis of concepts rather than facts;
ii. Allow more individual assignments under
competent supervision;
iii. Bring the students in contact with the best
talent and knowledge available from the
teaching staff;
iv. Follow the general philosophy that truth is
something to be sought for rather than
revealed;
v. Provide in-service teacher education for
more competence in both subject mastery
and method of teaching.

Torrance suggests five steps for fostering

creativity among pupils:

1. Be respectful of unusual questions.

2. Be respectful to imaginative unusual ideas.
3. Show your pupil that their ideas have value.
4. Occasionally pupils do something for practice
without the threat of evaluation.
5. Evaluate with causes and consequences.
Instead of saying, “this is good” and “that is
bad”, point out the consequences that this and
that lead to and children evaluate the goodness
or badness or various results.

Use of special technique called “Brain storming”

for facilitating the production of novel ideas was
suggested by Osborn in 1963. Brain storming which
consists of having group members suggest ideas as
rapidly as possible, prohibiting criticism,
encouraging speaking out and evaluating at a later
session, holds possibilities that have not yet been
thoroughly tested.

Bruner as well as Suchman suggest the use of

discovery and inquiry methods in teaching in order to
foster creativity among children.

Wallach and Nathan Kogan believe that the

game like, relaxed, untimed and evaluative situation
is necessary for the fullest expression of creativity.

Demos and Gowan held that instructor’s role in

furthering the student’s creativity is a protective and
nurturing one and appears to consist of the following
steps or phases.

1. Inspiration: Inspire the students to learn to

disagree or emulate.
2. Stimulation: Provide for exciting and new
experiences in the curriculum.
3. Psychological safety and freedom: Provide a
warm, safe and permissive atmosphere in which
the creative students feel accepted.
4. Guided discovery: Provide direction to a level
and area where it is most effective for learning
by independent discovery on the part of the
student.
5. Encouragement: Develop child’s ideas
through constructive criticism and refer to
 competent authorities, to book and other
sources.

Summing up the above, it could be sated that

the following are the techniques of promoting
creativity among the children.

i. Freedom to express without any hesitation or

fear
ii. Encourage originality and flexibility;
welcome unusual ideas however silly they
may be
iii. Encourage enquiry spirit in children
iv. Test items in examination should not test
pupils’ memory power alone; they should be
challenging and stimulate pupils’ divergent
thinking [(e.g.) Instead of asking the
traditional question “what are the
advantages to India due to the
Himalayas?” frame questions like “If the
Himalayas were not there what would
have happened to India?” which develop
lateral thinking in students.]
v. Ensure an unthreatening classroom
atmosphere where there is no room for
punishment, scolding or ridiculing.
vi. Develop healthy study habits and self
learning in children; plan instructional
strategies that require the students to
increasingly use the school library and
laboratory.
 g . Impact of growth and Development on

intelligence.

“Intelligence does not remain stagnant or inert, it

changes and develops”. Intelligence goes on
developing rapidly in childhood and comes to a
standstill at 16. Again the intelligence of very bright
children develops more rapidly and through a longer
period than that of an average intelligent one.
Intelligence ceases to develop after maturity is
attained and is on the wane with ole age. There is
difference of opinion as to the definite age level
when intelligence is fully developed. According to
Binnet it is 15. According to Terman Merrill it is
16. Intelligence develops both in depth and width.
In the light of the actual intelligence testing, it can be
said that as both depth and width of intelligence are
subject to change, the latter is more, as compared to
the former. For example, the height or depth of
intelligence as determined by mental capacity or the
vertical intelligence when he is 40 is equal to that
when he was 16 though his horizontal intelligence
resulting from knowledge and skill arising out of
interplay of intelligence and environmental situations
continues to become wider and wider. It should be
realized that what is measured through intelligence
tests is vertical intelligence only.

UNIT- VIII GROUP DYNAMICS

Group Dynamics:
Man is born into a social world of persons and
groups; lives and moves as a member of a social
group; satisfies most of his fundamental needs
through group, also feels acute frustration from these
groups and transforms his nature influenced by the
people or influences others.
Definition:
Sherif and Sherif
Group is a social unit which consist of a
number of individuals who stand in more or less
definite status and role relationships to one another
and which possesses a set of values and norms of its
own regulating behaviour to the group.
Kinball Young
It is not a mere aggregate of individuals such as
are enumerated in a census report but it is an
association of persons with some degree of give and
take i.e., inter-stimulation and response among the
members.
Properties of Group
1. Members of a group are aware of the presence
of each other and respond to each other. They
have the sense of accommodation and
togetherness; their behaviour is determined by
this feeling.
2. Group are formed to need recurrent problems
and satisfy recurrent needs of individuals.
3. They have common interests and common
objectives.
4. They have high degree of solidarity and
persistent group loyalty, sense of obligation,
readiness to sacrifice for the group, sympathy,
imitation, suggestion, and sense of devotion.
5. They may participate in similar activities.
6. They share a set of values and share a common
purpose.
7. They have a set of norms to hold their place
and perform their roles effectively. Thus the
 functions and powers are distributed among the
members according to their capabilities.
Group Dynamics
Dynamics, means force. Group dynamics
refers to forces operating in the groups; the factors
and conditions that give them that particular structure
and functioning in relationships among the members
of the group. Group dynamics is related to the field
theory of Lewin.
Teachers role
1. Teacher has to understand the classroom as a
unit behaving in the classroom context, which
is shaped by many forces.
2. These forces may be statutory requirements of
the institution, the rules of the institution.
3. Cultural factors and social customs of the
community.
4. To set up appropriate classroom climate, to
bring in an atmosphere, which encourages
openness and creative self-expression, satisfies
needs and promote involvement. Have ideas of
how defensive climate retards growth, increases
emotional conflict and increases defensive
behaviours.
5. To use the group energy of students and direct
it towards goal oriented output is another
determinant of group dynamics.
6. Teacher has to be sensitive to the friendships
being formed on biased grounds, with caste,
class, religious, and community feelings. He
has to use them as opportunities to change their
biased attitudes and values.
7. Teacher has to prepare pupils of different levels
to learn and to be motivated in learning when
they are in class.
8. Has to relate class groups with other groups
outside or inside to foster interactive abilities.
9. Encourage individual efforts and see that they
are discussed in small groups to generate ideas
with regard to every body’s work.
10. He must be aware of the group techniques
to improve group involvement:
a. Buzz sessions: Stimulate discussion a
small group of five or six students discuss
over a topic within the purview of
classroom.
b. Brainstorming: To allow for free flow of
possibilities with regard to any issue
without any fear of evaluation.
c. Role play: Students enact a situation
where they handle a problem form
different perspective to create new
perceptions in the members of the group.
d. Recreational experiences: Opportunities
for a variety of group activities like group
singing, dance, drama, picnic and so on to
develop the morale of the group.
e. Student parliament, student assembly, or
student self-government, cooperative
store run by them develop the group to be
sensitive to their responsibilities.
11. Teacher facilitates change in group
structure and functioning depending on the
necessity of the situation and requirements of
students to improve the functionality of the
members.
12. While planning, the suggestions flow
from different members. These have to be
discussed logically to suit the situation to
enhance democratic spirit among the members
of the group.
Definitions:
Cart Wright, D and Zhandee, A
“It is defined as a field of inquiry dedicated to
advancing knowledge about the nature of groups, the
laws of their development, and their
interrelationships with individuals, other groups and
larger institutions.”
Krech and Crutchfield
“Change that take place within the group”
Characteristics of class as a group:
Sociometry
It the way of measuring the socio-gram. It talks
about the process and procedure to be followed in
analysing social grouping patterns and social
attitudes etc.
Socio-gram
It gives very rough and ready manner of getting
a working knowledge of the social structure of the
class. Each child in a classroom may be asked to
mention the name of another child with whom he
would like to play, or would like to study or would
like to go on a picnic or would like to visit during
vacation or would like to share his experience and so
on. For each of these aspects of life different socio-
grams can be drawn.
First and second choice can be asked for.
Example
A C
F

Helping an isolate
M X

K
Y
 N

R O

A person who has lot of friends and gains lot of

attention is called a ‘star’.
A person who has limited friends and doesn’t mix
with the crowd and is always seen alone is called an
‘isolate’.
Helping an isolate:
An isolate person need proper guidance and support.
He needs to be given attention and should be helped
to make friends and the teacher has to be careful not
to harm him as he will in general be very moody and
low in self-esteem and confidence. Sufficient
opportunities and encouragement needs to be
continuously be given to help him overcome his
social interactions.
Concept of Guidance and Counseling:

Definition:
Andrew and willey: “Guidance refers to organised
group of services established for the purpose of
assisting each student to attain his maximum
potential development and adjustment”.
Carl M Morns
“Guidance is the process of assisting the individual
determining, analyzing and understanding his
capacities, problems and needs in the light of their
knowledge helping him to make wise choices and
adjustment.”
Mathewson
Guidance is educative and developmental with
emphasis on systematic learning process.
Bearnard and Fullmer
Guidance and counseling are designed to enhance
growth processes and sometimes to interrupt self-
defeating behaviours which would seem to impede
optimum self-realisation.

Crow and Crow

“The fundamental of all guidance is the help or
assistance given by a competent person to an
individual so that the latter may direct his life by
developing his point view, make his own decisions
and carry out those decisions.”
Principles of Guidance:
According to Gilbert Wrenn and Willis Dugan, the
following are the important principles of Guidance:
• Guidance is connected with the ‘whole’ student
and not with his intellectual life alone.
 • Guidance is concerned with all students, not
only with ‘special’ or ‘problem’ students. I.e.
guidance is universal.
• Guidance is concerned primarily with
prevention rather than cure.
• Guidance is more than just the activity of a
specialist; it involves the whole school staff.
• It is concerned with choice and decisions to be
made by individuals; it does not attempt to
solve problems on behalf of concerned
individuals.
• It is centred on the individual and not his
problem.
• Guidance is counsel and not ‘compulsion’.
• It is a continuous process throughout the life of
each student.
• Guidance is the dynamic aspect of education.
Types of Guidance
The primary function of guidance is that, an
individual is helped to understand his assets and
liabilities, his strengths and weakness in that context.
Hence guidance has many classifications.
Educational guidance, vocational guidance, personal
guidance, leadership guidance etc.

1. Educational Guidance
2. Vocational Guidance
3. Personal Guidance
Educational Guidance:
Definition:
C C Dunsmoor and L M Miller says, “Educational
guidance is primarily concerned with the student’s
success in his educational career. It relates to the
students adjustment to school and to the preparation
and carrying out of suitable educational plans in
keeping with his educational needs, abilities and
career interests.”
Authur J Jones, “Educational guidance is concerned
with assistance given to pupils in his choices and
adjustments with relation to schools, curriculum,
courses and school life.”
Ruth Strong, “Educational guidance is intended to
aid the individual in choosing an appropriate
programme and in making progress of it.”
According to Myers it is the process not a
method or set of methods. It helps pupils to get the
best of the educational opportunities consistent with
their talents and traits. Further educational courses
are also explored so that planning ahead
educationally is possible. Effective educational
guidance implies that the guidance counselor has in
his possession all possible information about the
pupil, can provide effective training in study
techniques to pupils and anticipate difficulties, which
may arise and prepare pupils in advance to meet
them successfully.

It is concerned with helping the individual to plan

wisely his educational programme and to put himself
in position to carry forward successfully that
programme along lines that society considers
wholesome both for itself and for him.
Vocational Guidance:
Definition:
Meyers, says vocational guidance is a form of
human conservation which is aimed at wise use by
the individual of priceless native capacity and the
results of costly training provided by the school for
the good of the individual and of society.”
According to National Vocational Guidance
Association – USA, Vocational guidance is the
process of assisting the individual to choose an
occupation, prepare for it, enter upon and progress in
it. It is concerned primarily with helping individuals
make decisions and choices involved in planning a
future and building career decisions and choices
necessary in effecting satisfactory vocational
adjustment.
Vocational guidance involves complete and
comprehensive knowledge of each pupil, nature of
jobs and the psychological characteristics needed for
success, achievement and job satisfaction in different
jobs, relevant data about vocational opportunities,
type of training needed, advancement opportunities
etc. Aptitude tests play a significant part in
vocational guidance. Vocational guidance helps
choosing broad vocational areas for which one is fit
and does not point to single specific jobs.
Personal Guidance:
It is defined as, “the assistance offered to the
individual to solve his emotional, social, ethical and
moral as well as health problems.” Personal
guidance does not exclude social life of the
individual. Problems of the individual social health,
emotional and social adjustments, economic and
social relationships etc. have place in it.
At elementary stage, the problems of health,
feeling of security, social acceptance, discipline, self-
discipline, and leisure time activities are taken into
account. At high school stage they are encouraged to
assume responsibility for their own welfare as well as
for others, to know more about their society and
culture. With increase in age and experience
adolescent boys and girls have to attain social
maturity. They have to know their potentialities as
well as their limitations.
Counseling:
Types of counselling:
There are three types of counselling they are as
follows
1) Directive counselling
It is where the counselor plays a major role and
hence it is known as counselor centred method. The
counselor helps the counselee to make decision in
keeping with his diagnosis. He tries to direct the
thinking of the counselee by informing, explaining
and interpreting and suggesting. E.g. doctor treating
patient.
Steps in directive counseling
Analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling,
and follow up.

Limitations:
• The counselee always depends upon
counselor
• No scope for fresh learning

Scope: this method is useful to treat young children

and seriously disturbed persons.
2) Non-directive counseling

Carl R Rogers is the chief exponent of this method.

Here the counselor’s role is passive. It is the client or
counselee centred method. Counselee takes active
part in the process of therapy. He gains insight into
his problems with the help of counselor. The
counselee is made aware of the fact that the
counseling situation does not have the answers but it
provides opportunities to solve his problems himself.
Limitations:
• The passive attitude of the counselor
might irritate the counselee and he may
become reluctant to express his feelings.
• It is time consuming
• This method is not suitable for people
with serious personality problems, young
children and intellectually inferior.

3) Eclectic approach
Eclecticism in counseling has more than one
meaning. One concept is the counselor chooses the
approach he will use for a particular counselee. His
approach involves a unique combination of
procedures for each individual with whom he works.
His selection of directive or non-directive approach
depends on the appropriateness of the technique at a
given time for a particular individual. F C Thorne
popularized this approach in which at the initial stage
directive counseling is followed and followed by
non-directive method.
UNIT- IX TEACHING AS A PROCESS
a) Concept, Meaning and definitions of
teaching.
Meaning:
• Teaching derived from: to teach
which means to instruct
• Process in which one individual
makes something known to another
individual
• Teaching is a bipolar process
• Teaching is a tripolar process
Concept:
• Teaching is an important part of the
process of education
• Its special function is to impart
knowledge, develop understanding
and skill
• Teaching includes all the activities
of providing education to other
Definition:
“Teaching is an intimate contact between
a more mature personality and less mature one
which is designed to further the education of
the latter.” – [Link]
“Teaching is a system of actions intended
to induce learning.” – [Link]
b . Types of teaching:
• Inspirational method
• Expository methods
• Natural learning method
• Individualized method
 • Group method
• Encounter method
• Discovery method

c. Principles of teaching.
• Principle of motivation
• Principles of activity
• Principle of individual difference
• Principle of creativity
• Principle of selection
• Principle of division
• Principle of revision and practice
• Principle of correlation
• Principle of connecting with life
d. Levels of teaching- Memory level,
understanding level and reflective level.
Memory level of teaching:
• The facts and the information of the
cognitive level
are forcibly supplied to the brains of the pupils
• Signal learning, chain learning and
stimulus response
Learning are emphasized
• Teacher – centered
• Both essay type and objective type
examinations
areused to evaluate the learn contents
• This level has the maximum level
of motivation
 Herbart’s model of memory level of
teaching:
• Herbart was the exponent of
memory – level teaching
• Herbert described the following
steps for the
Presenting the model of memory level of teaching.
1. Focus
2. Syntax
3. Social system
4. Support system
Understanding level of teaching:
• Teacher tries to present his instructions at
the understanding
Level
• Makes the pupils understand the
generalizations, principles
And facts
• Teacher tries to provide more and more
opportunities to
Develop the intellectual behaviors of the pupils
• Both pupils and the teachers participate in
developing the
Lesson while teaching occurs at the understanding
level
Morrison’s model of understanding:
The model of understanding – level teaching
was indoctrinated by Morrison, it is named as
“Morrison’s teaching model”
Structure of understanding level:
Focus
Syntax
Exploration
Presentation
Assimilation
Organization
Recitation
Social system
Support system

Reflective level of teaching:

• Includes both understanding memory and
understanding
level teaching
• The management of teaching at memory
and understanding
level taken place before reflective level teaching
starts
• It means “Problem – centered” teaching
• Provide opportunities for developing
intellectual behaviour
• Teacher creates a problem before the
pupils, then pupils
start solve it by formulating and testing their
hypotheses as a result of their own motivation and
activeness
Hunt’s model of reflective level of teaching:
• For developing reflective level of
teaching the credit goes to hunt
• This teaching model is named as hunt’s
model of teaching
Structure of reflective model:
• Focus
• Syntax
• Social system
• Support system
UNIT- X EFFECTIVE TEACHING
a. Concept, Meaning and definitions of
Effective teaching.