Brain Facts Study Guide

This is a study guide intended to supplement study of the Brain Facts book. This document
contains questions and other information to help you prepare for competition in the Creighton
University Brain Bee.

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Preparing for the Brain Bee
We are so excited you are a Creighton Brain Bee competitor this year! The Brain Bee is an
international competition you should be proud to be a part of but it is also a deeply personal endeavor
for us. The Brain Bee represents an opportunity for us to share our love of neuroscience and our
fascination with the brain with students that we hope will be next in line to study the brain in college
and beyond. We are preparing to open our labs and school to you on Brain Day and very much look
forward to having you join us on the Creighton University campus, WELCOME!

The Brain Bee competition requires that you study from the Brain Facts book
(https://www.brainfacts.org/the-brain-facts-book). The book is free to download for independent
study. The website hosting the book also has a lot of very nice online content to enhance your study.

When we study for our college courses, studying either the textbook or our notes from lecture alone
are rarely good enough to excel in science courses. What we have found is important is to write and
rewrite notes (forming memories) and to physically, write out answers to questions related to the
subject we are studying at the time (allowing us to see how subjects relate and to test our actual
knowledge). Because we know this is a powerful way to study, we went through Brain Facts and put
this study guide together and then we revised it to give it a consistent look and flow. There is never
one way to do anything and so if this study guide does not fit with your study style, feel free to do
what best fits your brain. If you use it though, use it well! The guide is not intended to be skimmed
but to be used as a tool to test your knowledge and how well you are retaining both details and the
big picture.

It is very important that you realize that none of the students who put the study guide together will be
involved in writing Brian Bee questions and that Brain Bee questions will not be taken directly from
this guide. This is a supplemental learning guide but it is NOT some sort of magical memorization
tool to guarantee you will know everything about everything. We want to help you learn and more
than that, truly understand, how the brain works and we think this guide, in combination with intense
independent study of Brain Facts, will be a powerful combination to allow you to learn.

To support your success, below we have an outline for how to study all of the material so that
between September and January, you invest in each topic. We encourage you to follow the general
plan for independent study using Brain Facts and this study guide. Make sure you keep good notes
so that you can review old information even as you learn new information. Having studied on your
own, we are working with your school to host review sessions. The science of teaching and learning
says that people need multiple interactions with any idea to truly understand the idea. We hope you
will study on your own, review on your own, and then meet with other Brain Bee competitors to review
and enhance your understanding. Quality group study is a powerful tool for learning!

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Study Timeline

Of course, you can study however works for you (and meeting to review together more often than this
is strongly encouraged!) but this schedule will allow you to study the entire Brain Facts during the Fall
semester

October
Study Intro-chapter 5
Use the glossary to ensure you know the new/odd words you discover.
What topics do you want to understand better? Bring these to the group.

November
Study chapters 6-11
Use the glossary to ensure you know the new/odd words you discover.
What topics do you want to understand better? Bring these to the group.

December
Study chapter 12-15
Review chapters 1-5, its been a while!
Use the glossary to ensure you know the new/odd words you discover.
What topics do you want to understand better? Bring these to the group.

January
Study chapter 15-18.
Review chapters 6-11... its been a while.
As always, use the glossary and your group for better preparation.

The Bee is coming in a month! You probably took some time to rest and refresh over the holiday
season. Now it is time to review as well as finish introducing new materials. Review newest
information last. Look for themes between chapters and topic groups. Use the online content at
BrainFacts.org to help test and advance our knowledge. Spend some time thinking like a
neuroscientist. You know all this information, if you were writing the test, what concepts, facts, ideas
do you think are important? Can you explain these, well?

The Creighton Brain Bee will be a two-part competition. The first part will be a written test taken by all
competitors early on Brain Day. The written exam will be everything from multiple choice to short
answer questions. Most students are good at multiple choice but struggle with short answer. Short
answer is proof of mastery and important!

The second exam will come late in the day after lunch together and activities across Creighton’s
neuroscience community, the second half will be an oral competition by the top, written test
competitors.

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 Chapter 1: Brain Basics
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: The brain is one of our most fascinating organs as it allows us to
perceive our surroundings, coordinate vital functions, and produce actions. It makes sense that such
a powerful machine is divided into unique regions, specialized for various processes. This chapter of
the BrainFacts book is of seminal importance to understanding everything else ahead. In it we are
reminded of how different regions of the brain are specialized for unique functions, how neurons look
and interact, the role of glia, and how information is communicated and integrated between different
areas of the brain by neurons.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) The distinct and amazing appearance of the brain requires an understanding of its organization
into hemispheres and lobes. Understanding neuronanatomy and its direct tie to function
allows us to understand how each region specializes to contribute all its activity from basic to
complex.
2) The brain’s most famous cell is the neuron. It has a unique morphology and unique functions
that exist to allow communication of information neuron to neuron to ensure complex and
coordinated activity.
3) The action potential is unique to neurons as a way to extremely quickly move communication
via electricity flow in live cells using a specialized membrane and ion channels.
4) Action potentials flow through the membrane of one neuron, they do not move between cells.
Instead, action potentials cause the release of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters carry the
information flow forward to the next neuron.
5) The brain is not only made up of neurons. Glia (oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes)
are critical for brain function and neurons would die without their important contributions.

NEUROANATOMY/ MAJOR BRAIN LANDMARKS:

The brain has a very strange looking structure made up of many folded pieces of tissue and several
distinct regions. Understanding the structure and the function of these regions is the first step to
understanding how integrated function of the entire brain allows all of our daily activities to occur.

Gross Structure:
What is a hemisphere?

How is the cerebrum organized?

Why is the cerebral cortex made of so many folds and layers?

What are the main lobes in our brain, where are they located, and what are their functions? You
should be able to identify the lobes on an illustration or drawing as well as draw out and explain them
to another person.

While the lobes allow us to understand the cerebral cortex, there is more to the brain than just the
cortex. What is the forebrain (besides the cortex), what are its structures, what does each structure
do, and why is the forebrain important?

What are the structures of the midbrain and why is the midbrain important?
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What are the structures of the hindbrain and brainstem and why is the hindbrain and brainstem
important?

Which brain structures are involved in memory?

What brain region/structures are important for emotion?

Evolution:
The origins of our complex human brains can be traced back to the primitive nervous systems of
ancient vertebrates. While early vertebrates and modern lower vertebrates have simple nervous
systems formed from a fairly restricted and simple tube. At some point, these primitive brains
developed into three distinct regions (forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain), with unique overall
functions and more complex capacities for integration.

What are advantages of a brain that is more complex than a simple tube?

Neural Networks:
A group of nerve fiber tracts connecting a series of regions in the brain is called a _______________.

What is a neural network?

What are neural networks important?

What are the 4 brain waves? Brain waves are a result of neural network activity. What is each brain
wave called and what does that brain wave mean is happening?

What are reflex loops?

Why are reflex loops important?

What are some advantages of using neural circuits to coordinate brain activity?

What is the purpose of a column within the cortex?

Neurons:
What is the primary functional cell type of our nervous system?

There are 2 broad types of neurons in our brain: Excitatory and inhibitory. What is the difference
between excitatory and inhibitory neurons?

All neurons have 3 important structural components: The cell body (soma), axon, and dendrites. What
are the functions of these structures? You should be able to draw a neuron and understand all the
components both common and unique that are on the page 14 diagram!

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Cell Body:

Axon:

Dendrites:

Glia:
Glial cells are another extremely important cell type vital to our nervous system. Glia means glue,
these cells literally hold the brain together supporting everything about its structure and function. In
fact, neurons would not survive without the presence of glia. List the functions of the following glial
cells, and for extra credit, explain why each cell has its name! (this is not in Brain Facts but is super
cool!):

Astrocytes:

Microglia:

Ependymal cells:

Oligodendrocytes:

Action Potentials:
Our bodies are wired with electrical circuits and activity, similar to the wiring of our homes. The
engine that powers the electrical activity of our bodies are the ion channels found within our neuronal
membranes and which function to move charges across the neuronal membrane. Very few cells in
our bodies utilize electricity as a form of communication but neurons require speed and efficiency for
optimal function of the body, electricity is the way to go

What are ion channels? What do ion channels do? How are they specific?

What does the term membrane potential describe? What voltage does a resting neuronal have?

When are neurons known as “hyperpolarized”? When are neurons depolarized?

What is an action potential?

Neurotransmission:
Two neurons communicate with one another at a site called the synapse. One neuron’s axon extends
out to a neighboring neuron, ending at the terminal bouton. The space between this neuron’s
terminal bouton and the dendrites of the next neuron is called the synaptic cleft.

What chemical signals are released across the synapse?

What must occur for neurotransmitters to be released by a neuron?

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Neurotransmitters released by one neuron travel across the synapse and bind to ________________
on the postsynaptic neuron.

Describe some key features of neurotransmitter receptors.

What is the difference between a metabotropic and an ionotropic receptors?

What happens to the leftover neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft following an action potential?

What are the two most common neurotransmitters in our brain? Which one is excitatory? Which one
is inhibitory?

What receptors do glutamate and GABA bind to after they are released from the presynaptic cell?
There is a table that describes all the neurotransmitters we will talk about in this study guide at the
back! You will want to remember it is there!!

How do hormones effect neurons?

Genes:
Neurons look nothing like glia. Is this because neurons have different DNA than glia?

Why does the same genetic code cause one cell to be a neuron and another cell to be a glia?

What is a gene variant and why does it explain why some people have a disease and others do not?

VOCABULARY:
cerebrum, corpus callosum, cerebral cortex, cortex, hemisphere, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital
lobe, temporal lobe, hippocampus, amygdala, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus pituitary gland,
midbrain, reflex, basal ganglia, hindbrain, cerebellum, neuron, motor, sensory, medulla, brainstem,
photoreceptor, primary visual cortex, EEG, brain wave, frequency, beta wave, theta wave, delta
wave, alpha waves, spinal tract, feedback loop, excite, inhibit, reflex loop, cortical column, soma,
axon, dendrite, axonal hillock, myelin sheath, synapse, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitter,
neurotransmitter receptor, axonal terminal, glia, oligodendrocyte, astrocyte, microglia, ependymal cell,
ion, ion channel, voltage, resting membrane potential, membrane potential, hyperpolarize, depolarize,
action potential, synaptic vesicle, calcium, ionotropic receptor, metabotropic receptor, reuptake,
GABA, glutamate, dopamine, AMPA receptor, NMDA receptor, neuromodulators, DNA, gene, gene
variant/allele

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 Chapter 2: Senses and Perception
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: This chapter explains the fascinating way in which the brain
translates the energy and molecules of the world into electrical signals that allow us to perceive the
world as we do: through sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch (including pain). In each case, there are
specialized sensory organs that receive these signals from the external world. These sensory organs
use specific cells and processes in order to change external stimuli into signals that other specialized
areas of the brain use to tell us what the surrounding world is. Without sensory perception, the world
would be a dangerous place, but our brain is capable of amazing amounts of communication and
perception that, combined with conscious thoughts and emotions, allow us to understand what is
happening all around us.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Sensory information would be meaningless to us without the complex pathways and functions
of the brain. We are not only able to transduce external stimuli into electrical signals that can
run through the nervous system but can also understand, integrate, and interpret these signals
by using the thalamus (excluding smell) and cortical structures of our brain. In turn, we can
further incorporate emotion and other processes to give these perceptions meaning.
2) Vision is very complicated, involving many cell types and pathways to turn light into electrical
signals that the brain can then use to create the complex images we see in the world every
day.
3) In order to hear, the anatomy of our ears is designed to turn sound waves into pressure and
vibrations that can then be transduced and sent to complex cortical regions of the brain. This
allows us to distinguish sounds such as voices or music.
4) Taste and smell are both important for survival and are also the only sensory systems where
neurogenesis constantly occurs because of their proximity to the outside world. These systems
work together to allow us to understand complex flavors and odors.
5) Touch is an umbrella term for pain, itch, pressure, and many other sensations using variations
of the same cells and processes. The complexities of our peripheral nervous system help us to
differentiate each of these sensations.
6) All of the sensory systems are crucial to our survival, and it is therefore an area of continued
research. We continue to learn more about the normal function of these systems and how to
treat disorders that rob people of these important abilities.

VISION:
An extensively studied, system, vision is considered to be one of our most complicated senses. The
eye works similarly to a camera, with different parts of the anatomy that receive and focus images
and project these onto the retina. Once the images arrive at the retina as a two-dimensional, upside-
down image, light signals must then be transduced into electrical signals. After traveling to the retina,
the signals are then sent through the optic nerve to the thalamus and then to the primary visual cortex
for integration and interpretation, respectively. Due to the sheer amount of information entering the
eye, this sense uses more space of the cortex than any other sensory system (30%).

The 3-Layered Retina:

What are the three types of neurons in the retina?

Where are the photoreceptors located (which layer), and why is this counterintuitive?
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What is transduction?

What is the difference between rods and cones?

What are the fovea and macula?

Why is your peripheral vision less detailed?

What is the receptive field?

Processing Visual Information:

What does the “tiling” of the ganglion cells’ receptive field allow?

How is the receptive field activated? Inhibited?

What occurs when light hits the entire receptive field?

How is the perception of contrast maximized?

What occurs at the optic chiasm?

Where in the thalamus does the visual information relay through and where does it then travel to?

Visual Cortex: Layers, Angles, and Streams:

Where is the visual cortex located?

What does the middle layer of the visual cortex consist of and how does this differ from the other
layers?

What is the dorsal stream and what is it said to convey? Ventral stream?

Eyes Come in Pairs:

What is binocular vision and what does it allow you to perceive?

Which side of the brain processes the left visual field and vice versa?

Treating Visual Disorders:

What is strabismus, why does it occur, how do we treat these patients?

What is said to lie at the heart of many disorders that cause blindness?

What work is currently being done to help with blindness?

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HEARING:
Hearing, like vision, is very important for survival but also for communication and social interaction.
The ears can take in many components of sound such as pitch, volume, location, and duration and
then break this down into distinct frequencies that can be distinguished between sounds to follow a
conversation or other sound-related phenomena such as music.

Ear Basics:
What is converted into the electrical signals that allows us to perceive sound?

How does sound travel through the ear from the pinnae to the cochlea?

What is the eardrum called?

What does the oval window do?

What are the specialized receptor cells and what do they convert?

From Pressure Wave to Electrical Signal:

Where and what is the basilar membrane?

How is pitch differentiated along the basilar membrane?

What exists on the hair cells to allow the sound to become an electrochemical signal, and how does
this occur?

After the hair cells are stimulated, where do the new electrochemical signals go/what do they travel
through?

Making Sense of Sound:

What computes a sound’s direction and location?

Where is the primary auditory cortex?

What is possible beyond the primary auditory cortex?

What is the left side of the brain primarily responsible for when it comes to hearing, and how is this
relevant for stroke patients?

Treating Hearing Loss:

Why are current studies focusing on neurogenesis?

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TASTE AND SMELL:
While gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell) are often thought of as non-essential senses meant more
for enjoyment of life than survival, these senses are actually as critical for our survival as any of the
others. Both senses are more exposed than other sensory organs, and distinctly have the capability
to regenerate. Gustation and olfaction are often studied in tandem because they work closely
together, allowing us to both taste and smell the molecules we ingest when eating or breathing.

From Molecules to Taste:

How do taste buds work, where do they send the taste signals, and what is a common misconception
about detecting taste?

After going to taste regions in the brainstem, where do these signals travel?

From Molecules to Smell:

What is the pathway that odors take to the cortex from entering the nose?

How does the structure of olfactory cells allow us to distinguish so many odors?

Where is the primary olfactory cortex?

Combining Taste and Smell:

Why is the combination of these sensory systems important for us to be able to detect complex
flavors?

TOUCH AND PAIN:

The main sensory organ for touch is the skin, and the sensitivity to different types and amounts of
touch vary depending on the area and presence of sensory receptors. The touch classification
includes light touch, pressure, vibration, texture, temperature, itch, and pain. From any of these
sensations, the touch receptors connect to sensory nerve fibers of differing types that connect and
travel up the spinal cord and then to the thalamus and somatosensory cortex of the brain, where they
are then translated into what we perceive.

Cortical Maps and Sensitivity to Touch:

How is the somatosensory information that we perceive organized in the cortex?

How do neuroscientists measure the sensitivity of a person or specific area of one’s body to
touch/pain sensations?

Pain and Itch Signals:

What is pain, and why is this so important for survival?

What are nociceptors, and what can different types of them differentiate?

What are histamine receptors?

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What is the inflammatory “soup” that is discussed in this section, and why is it important?

What is neuropathic pain?

Sending and Receiving Messages:

What are the different nerve fibers, and how do they differ?

What is the ascending pathway?

Pain Management:
How does emotion play into how we perceive pain?

What are descending pain pathways, and how is the periaqueductal gray matter involved?

What are some ways the body regulates pain itself and what are some methods we have created for
this?

VOCABULARY:
retina, optic nerves, photoreceptors, ganglion cells, rods, cones, fovea, optic chiasm, cochlea, hair
cells, auditory nerve, Wernicke’s area, taste buds, cranial nerves, vagus nerves, olfactory bulbs,
neurogenesis, somatosensory cortex, nociceptors, endorphins, analgesic, cognitive behavioral
therapy

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 Chapter 3: Movement
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Movement is an integral part of everyday life and survival. It
integrates both the central nervous system and muscular systems using various circuits to either
control complex movements or initiate rapid, life-saving reflexes. People often grasp that an amazing
athlete or musician must have amazing motor skills and control in order to do what they do, but even
walking or smiling involves the same intricate patterns as those movements at the molecular level.
There are many different types of neurons, circuits, and regions of the brain that are involved in
different motor systems. There are also many diseases and injuries that affect the motor system, with
lots of research being done to help patients regain motor control.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Complex coordination between skeletal muscles (through the alpha motor neurons that control
each motor unit) allow us to voluntarily move our skeletal muscles.
2) Reflexes are extremely important, rapid responses using circuits of the spinal cord that allow
movement without conscious thought or planning.
3) The spinal cord and brainstem (through central pattern generators) allow us to perform
rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming.
4) Higher brain regions (the motor cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum) allow for
more complex movement that needs conscious thought, coordination, planning, and a
behavioral response.
5) There is a lot of research being done to better understand these processes in order to help
patients with diseases/disorders of the motor systems (including ALS, paralysis, Parkinson’s,
Huntington’s, and cerebellar degeneration, among others).

VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS:
Voluntary movements occur because of opposing actions of skeletal muscles, called agonists and
antagonists, which allow us to control our muscles for any movement such as walking or throwing a
ball. Some movements, like isometric movements, have equal opposing muscle forces, which allows
us to keep muscles still while contracting. This is all controlled by the nervous system, wherein an
alpha motor neuron synapses onto a group of muscle cells (fibers) to create a motor unit.

What are flexors, and what are extensors?

What are agonists, and what are antagonists? How does this relationship produce movement?

What is co-contraction?

What is a motor unit, and why is it the critical link between the central nervous system and skeletal
muscles?

How does ALS impact the motor system?

Other than joints, where can muscles act? What does this allow us to voluntarily control?

INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS:
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Movements that happen without conscious thought or decision are called involuntary movements.
The most fundamental of these types of movements is the reflex. Reflexes are different from
voluntary movements in that they travel through neurons near the spinal cord before signaling back to
muscle cells, rather than ascending to the brain to send a response back. These are very common
and are important for survival since they enable quick responses to dangerous stimuli, such as
touching something hot and immediately pulling your hand back.

Explain the knee-jerk reflex from the point in time when the tendon is tapped to the foot kicking
forward.

What is the purpose of muscle spindles?

Why is reciprocal inhibition important?

What is the purpose of the knee-jerk reflex beyond how it is used/assessed in the doctor’s office?

What is the flexion withdrawal reflex, and how does it work?

How are the brain and gamma motor neurons involved with these reflexes?

What are Golgi tendon organs?

VOLUNTARY AND COMPLEX MOVEMENTS:

For movements such as walking, more neuronal circuits have to work together to create smooth,
cohesive motor patterns. These usually include signals from the brain and brainstem, as well as the
spinal cord. These circuits require the use of central pattern generators, which are currently being
studied for paralysis treatment research. When movement requires more coordination and planning,
higher brain regions like the motor cortex must also be involved. At this point, behavior, emotions,
and conscious thoughts are also part of the motor movement that occurs.

Explain how locomotion is produced by spinal cord and brainstem circuits, and what types of
movement does this produce?

What do neurons in the motor cortex do to initiate movement? (Hint: what type of neuron do they
synapse with?)

What is an example of an involuntary movement, a simple voluntary movement, and a complex

voluntary movement that would require activity from multiple regions of the cortex?

Regions that Modulate Voluntary Movement:

List the other brain regions (besides the motor cortex) that are involved in complex movements.

What do the multiple basal ganglia pathways do to control movement? How is the thalamus involved
also?

Why does Parkinson’s disease or Huntington’s disease affect a patient’s movement?

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How is the cerebellum involved in motor processes?

What is a leading cause of cerebellar degeneration, and what happens due to this?

VOCABULARY:
central nervous system, spinal cord, motor unit, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), involuntary
movements, reflexes, paralysis, motor cortex, Parkinson’s disease, substantia nigra, Huntington’s
disease

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 Chapter 4: Learning, Memory, and Emotions
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER:
Learning, memory, and emotion are three very important processes in our brain that allow us to
survive and thrive. As crucial as these processes are for day-to-day life, they are the current target of
extensive research. One such study involved Henry Molaison, a patient that who sustained a
significant injury in childhood. He underwent a procedure that helped him function but also took away
some of his ability to create lasting memories. As his case shows, these three important processes
are intertwined by using the same regions of this brain in multiple circuits and pathways, all of which
allow us to understand the world we live in by utilizing stimuli in new ways based on past
experiences. Studying the different regions explained in this chapter allows us to understand more
about how these processes are connected, how they work, and how we may be able to help people
that suffer from conditions like memory loss, neurodegenerative disease, or mood disorders.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) There are many types of memory, and we have discovered that these different types are
encoded and processed in different brain regions.
2) Synaptic plasticity is a way in which we learn from our experiences, mainly through patterns of
synaptic activity called long-term depression and long-term potentiation. These patterns allow
us to form long-term memory and learn throughout our lives.
3) Emotion influences how we behave and what becomes important to us in life, and brain
regions implicated in emotional processing are closely associated with those of learning and
memory.
4) Dopamine is very important in our learning and emotional memory because it is the main
neurotransmitter of the reward pathway.
5) Different people have different emotions and different ways of processing memories, which
makes research into these areas very difficult. However, ongoing research holds promise for
helping people that have memory loss or difficulties responding properly to emotional stimuli.

LEARNING AND MEMORY:

While there is still a lot we don’t know about memory processes, we are learning more about these
mechanisms through the experiences of individual patients and control lab studies. We know that the
medial temporal lobe work in tandem with the cortex to form, organize, consolidate, and retrieve
memories. We also know that the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes process sensory
information, which can then be integrated by regions of the cortex in order to understand the world
around us and to encode new/old memories.

Declarative Memory:
What are declarative memories?

What are semantic memories?

What are episodic memories?

What does the amygdala do for memory processes?

How do the parahippocampal regions and the hippocampus play into episodic memories?
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What is working memory, and how is this different from long-term memory?

What is the function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)?

What is spatial memory, and how has it been seen to work in navigational studies?

What are place cells? Grid cells?

Nondeclarative Memory:
What is nondeclarative memory also called, and when is this used?

What evidence suggests that different types of memories are processed/encoded in different brain
regions?

What areas of the brain are used in motor skill learning?

Storing Memories in your Synapses:

What allows your brain to “re-wire” itself in response to new experiences?

What is a synapse, and what is the general idea behind how they function?

What is synaptic plasticity, and how is it seen in long-term memory formation?

What animal studies have shown evidence of synaptic plasticity encoding long-term memory, and
how was this demonstrated?

What is long-term potentiation (LTP), and in what brain region has it been most extensively studied?

What is the general mechanism behind LTP?

What is long-term depression (LTD), and how does is differ from LTP?

What is the prevailing view on how long-term declarative memory works?

How is current research proposed to be used at the end of this section?

EMOTIONS:
Emotional memory is another form of nondeclarative memory. Due to differences between cultures
and the sheer number of physiological responses caused by these patterns of activity, there are many
different approaches to studying emotions. As a whole, emotions allow us to interact productively with
the world and thrive in both survival and social settings. Over time, the emotional responses that we
learn in life become attached to certain stimuli that we then respond to with the emotional response
that we learn. Paul Eckman, an anthropologist, identified the six basic human emotions: anger, fear,
disgust, sadness, joy, and surprise.

20
Anatomy of Emotion:
What brain regions are associated with emotion, and how do they work together?

What is the function of the amygdala?

What is the function of the insula?

What is the function of the periaqueductal gray?

Motivation: Affective Decision-Making:

What is affective decision making?

Why/how does emotionally centered decision-making change with age?

Motivation: Dopamine and Reward Pathways:

What is dopamine involved in?

What brain regions are involved with the reward pathway, and what is it called other than the reward
pathway?

What does this pathway allow us to process, and how are these dopaminergic neurons activated?

Explain what is meant by the idea that the expectation of reward is more influential than the reward
itself. How does this affect dopamine signaling?

What examples are given to show that dopaminergic responses vary between people?

How can disorders or other reasons for abnormal function of brain areas such as the amygdala cause
people to have inappropriate responses to certain stimuli despite the function of the reward pathway?

VOCABULARY:
amnesia, declarative memory, semantic memories, episodic memories, long-term memory, prefrontal
cortex (PFC), working memory, short-term memory, nondeclarative memory, synaptic plasticity, long-
term potentiation, long-term depression, nucleus accumbens

21
22
 Chapter 5: Thinking, Planning, and Language
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: As soon as we wake up, we are bombarded by a variety of different
stimuli. This would be overwhelming if our brain was not able to process sensory information so
quickly. The complex association networks that our brains house allow us to understand and organize
what we see in our environment into helpful chunks of information that can guide us through our daily
tasks.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) The brain is constantly being flooded with stimulation and information which gets processed,
filtered, and interpreted in order to construct representations that prevent it from becoming
overwhelmed.
2) The brain stores information in short-term memory as simplified representations in order to
form a complex network of associations to allow one to interpret a wide variety of perceptions.
3) Certain regions of the brain are highly specialized in performing certain functions. These small
regions of the brain can work together in a highly organized fashion to connect representations
of concepts and build meaning.
4) Broca’s area, located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe, is important for speech
production while Wernicke’s are, located in the left hemisphere of the temporal lobe, is
important for speech comprehension.
5) The prefrontal cortex (PFC) of the brain is the ultimate decision maker. It takes in all the
sensory and emotional input of the brain and analyzes it in order to plan which actions and
decisions a person should do.

CONSTRUCTING REPRESENTATIONS:
Our short-term memory is only able to store a certain capacity of information, so our brains must
create simplified representations of things. Complex association circuits based off past experiences
allow us to build perceptions of the things around us, even if we have not seen the same exact thing
before. For example, we recognize a dog as a dog no matter what breed, size, or color it is. This
allows us to better understand and recognize our environment.

Semantic Memory and Concept Cells in Representations:

What is semantic memory, and what does it allow us to process?

One of the basics of semantic memory are cells referred to as “concept cells.” They work together in
associations to allow us to group similar stimuli together. Doing this allows us to see the bigger
picture. For example, a beef patty, two buns, tomatoes, and lettuce would more than likely trigger our
concept cells to picture a burger rather than see it as each of those individual ingredients. Where in
the brain are concept cells found and what do they specialize in?

How does studying a case like the case of patient H.M. help further the understanding of the
neuroscience field as a whole?

Who was DBO? What was the main neurological dilemma he faced?

Where does semantic processing occur?

23
REGIONAL SPECIALIZATION AND ORGANIZATION:
Our brains have specific regions that specialize in different functions. Damage to these areas result in
disorders that are highly specific to the function of that part of the brain. Areas around the brain, such
as the fusiform face region, allow us to group/process complex sets of stimuli.

The fusiform face area (FFA) region of the brain is in the underside of the _______________ and
damage to this area could lead to ________________ as it is critical for __________________.

What is the nearby region of the brain that is similar to the FFA region called, and what is it important
for? What would happen if there was damage to this region?

What brain regions are responsible for the processing of words? What do these regions form
together?

Why do you think that the semantic system of the brain is larger in humans than other primates? How
might this benefit us?

Words containing different meanings are processing in distinct and separate parts of the brain. For
example, “month” is processed in the same brain location as the word “week” is processed, but the
word “large” would be processed in a different location. Likewise, the visual word form area (VWFA)
region of the brain is important for our ability to put meaning to written language. What is the type of
brain imaging used to visualize these different brain regions? Why would it be important to see what
areas of the brain are active during certain tasks?

LANGUAGE PROCESSING:
In the left hemisphere of the brain, there are two important locations for language. The first is Broca’s
area, which is important for language expression. The second is Wernicke’s area, which is important
for language comprehension. These two areas work together in order to process language.

What area of the brain was seen to be damaged in Patient Tan? What is the medical term for the
specific type of language disorder he possessed?

After Broca made his discovery with Patient Tan, Wernicke discovered that injury to the left temporal
lobe caused what kind of changes in language interpretation?

________ are disorders that effect language expression or comprehension due to damage in the
_________________, specifically in ______________ or _____________.

24
Since these two areas are so fundamental in multiple aspects of our daily lives, compare and contrast
disorders in Wernicke and Broca’s areas below:
Where is the What are the Disorder name
damage seen? symptoms? and nickname
Wernicke’s Area

Broca’s Area

Pure word deafness is caused by damage to the superior temporal lobes in both hemispheres.
What sort of symptoms does pure word deafness cause? Why do these symptoms occur?

New Insights in Language Research:

Many of the insights into human language have come from studying birds. Mutations of the FOXP2
gene is harmful to both birds and humans, exemplifying the similarities between the species
production of song and speech. In birds, if FOXP2 is mutated, they are not able to produce song. In a
mutant human form, no speech would be able to be produced. What does the FOXP2 gene do in
humans, and how might it affect someone if it were to mutate?

Describe the function of each location in language that was discovered through functional imaging:
Function
Middle Temporal Lobe

Inferior Temporal Lobe

Anterior Temporal Lobe

COGNITION AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTION:

Some of the most complex brain processes occur in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Executive function
occurs here, which supervises everything going on in the brain (just like the principal of a school
watches over what everyone does). The PFC takes in all emotional and sensory information and uses
it to decide what actions to take.

What is one of the main reasons a child’s brain functions differently from adults?

What are some of the functions of the PFC?

25
Describe the three core skills of the executive function:
Function
Inhibition

Working Memory

Shifting / Mental Flexibility

Though usually gradual, when are changes in executive function most apparent?

Decision Making:
Decision making requires the three tasks of executive function to be working properly. These
decisions can be made based upon emotion or logic. Activity in the lateral PFC is highly important for
the emotionally charged decisions; helping one overcome emotionally influenced impulse decisions.
How might an underdeveloped/developing PFC effect one’s decision making, especially the lateral
PFC?

Rewards and punishment situations highly involve the ____________ region of the PFC. This region
is implicated in social behavior as well as __________.

Social Neuroscience:
Social neuroscience is the study of neural functions that handle our personal behavior. The PFC is
highly involved in the skills of social neuroscience. What are the types of processes that social
neuroscience encompasses?

__________ refers to the ability of being able to understand our thought processes and understand in
relation to the thought processes of others. This does not fully develop in childhood, being that this is
one of our more complex abilities. It gives us access to things like the “Theory of Mind” and empathy.

What is the TPJ, and what is it important for? What would happen if the TPJ was damaged?

How do mirror neurons play into our ability to mentalize?

VOCABULARY:
perception, semantic memory, concept cells, D.B.O., anterior temporal regions, temporal lobes,
agnosia, fusiform face area, prosopagnosia, parahippocampal place area, functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), visual word form area (VWFA), posterior parietal cortex, prefrontal cortex
(PFC), semantic system, lesion, frontal lobe, aphasias, Broca’s area, “pure word deafness”, FOXP2
gene, executive function, inhibition, shifting/mental flexibility, working memory, orbitofrontal cortex,
social neuroscience, mentalizing, “theory of mind”, temporoparietal junction (TPJ), mirror neurons

26
 Chapter 6: The Developing Brain
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: The embryo begins its growth through the implementation of
multiple different signals, based on their ability to switch between on and off states. This helps direct
the earliest stages of growth. Once the early stage of embryonic development is complete, these
early-stage brain cells divide to create the vast pool of cells we still carry with us today. Once the cells
have divided, they must go through migration before finally differentiating and functioning in the
proper area.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Nerve cells grow throughout embryonic development. Certain DNA includes instructions for
pieces of their development. This development is turned on and off by different genes to
produce specific cell types.
2) Through the process of proliferation, cells rapidly grow and divide allowing there to be a large
variety of neurons to be grown from only a small number of progenitor cells.
3) Neurons migrate to where they will stay long-term once proliferation is over. Around this same
time, the neural plate grows along with some parallel ridges to start the formation of the whole-
brain structure.
4) Neurons must make connections once they reach their long-term destinations in order to
determine how they function. Neurons interconnect with one another through dendrites and
axons.
5) Synapses are formed in order to allow for neurons to signal to one another while myelination
occurs in order to allow these signals to pass through the axon a hundred times faster.
6) Only about half of the neurons created during development survive long enough to be in a
living adult. These neurons die through a natural process known as apoptosis.

THE JOURNEY OF NERVE CELLS:

Nerve cells undergo multiple different processes while the embryo is developing, eventually leading
them to their permanent residences within the brain.

Formation and Induction:

Three layers, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm, appear during the early development of an
embryo. Each of these layers has an identical DNA set of developmental instructions, but each bring
about different types of tissues making up the human body. How is this possible?

27
Fill in the locations and functions (what the germ layer develops into) of each of the germ layers:
Location Functions
Ectoderm

Mesoderm Signals for the

differentiation of the
ectoderm into the
neurectoderm
Endoderm Inner-most layer Differentiates into the
organs throughout our
body

The signaling molecules found in each of the different layers help the development of specific body
regions. The closer the body area is to the source of signaling, the more likely cells are to differentiate
into a specific type or system. This highlights that signaling works in the form of a gradient and
explains how body parts remain distinct from one another, despite all cells sharing the same DNA.
For example, Sonic Hedgehog signaling (the real name of the pathway!), comes from the mesoderm
and greatly influences differentiation. What is Sonic Hedgehog signaling? Why is the concentration of
this signaling important? Describe how different amounts of Sonic Hedghehog may result in different
cell types.

Embryonic cells in the ectoderm have their fates determined to be neural tissue in a process known
as _______________.

______ cells are support cells.

Proliferation:
Cells that can divide and become an assortment of mature cells are known as ____________ and
_____________. How do these cells produce so many mature cells?

What does symmetric division result in? What about asymmetric division?

Deficits in the ability of progenitor/stem cells to switch from symmetric to asymmetric division could
result in ____________.

If there is excess cell division, it could result in a disorder called _____________.

Why would neurogenesis only be involved in things such as memory in an adult brain? What is the
benefit to this, and what would happen if neurogenesis continued to happen at the rate it did during
embryonic development in an adult brain?

Migration:
Migration begins 3-4 weeks after conception. The formation of the neural tube is one of the first
developmental events to occur following fertilization. Later in the development process (after about 7
weeks) the eyes and brain hemispheres begin to appear. As new neurons are produced through cell

28
division, they migrate from the ________ zone to the ________ zone. Once the cell division is totally
complete, the mature neurons form an ________ zone where they gradually accumulate throughout
the rest of brain development.

What parts of the brain do the parallel ridges form? Describe the step-by-step process below:
1. Cells continue to divide, and a neural plate grows with parallel ridge formation following.
2. The ridges extend along the length of the embryo, where the __________ will develop from the
“head end”, while the ______ will form along the rest of the embryo.
3. The ridges fold towards each other forming the _______________.
4. Three bulges of the tube form: ____________, _____________, and __________.

What is the most common form of neural migration? How does this type of migration work?

Making Connections:
Once birth occurs, development continues through exposure and experience. Experiences also help
to shape how neurons/neural networks interconnect. Specifically, neurons interconnect through long
processes called _______, and short extensions referred to as ___________.

Explain the differences in the functions of axons and dendrites:

Function
Axons

Dendrites

Describe the function of growth cones. What allows a growth cone to perform its duty?

There are attractive signals, which draw the growth cone in towards the area of the signaling; and
repulsive signals, which cause the growth cone filaments to collapse, and pushes axon outgrowth to
continue in a different direction. Most of the signaling molecules that cause variations in growth cone
movement are found commonly throughout a wide array of organisms. What are some of the
signaling molecules that control growth cone movement?

Synapse Formation:
Synapses are the small spaces that form between the end of an axon on one cell, and the start of
another cell. This tiny space separates the signaling portion of the axon to the receiving dendrites on
another neuron. As an electrical signal travels down an axon, a chemical messenger, referred to as
neurotransmitter, is released into the synapse. These neurotransmitters may or may not cause
changes in the postsynaptic neuron through its dendrites. You should know quite a bit about this
already, so take time to review your notes from before!

What is the role of dendrites in synapse formation?

29
Newer evidence has implicated what other cell type in the formation of synapses? How is their job
different than that of dendrites and axons from neurons?

The type of neurotransmitter released at the synapse is largely determined by the planned function of
the cell. For example, motor neurons release signals conveying motor information, which in large part
causes the release of acetylcholine. Remember, there is a table about neurotransmitters at the back
of this study guide that will be critical to review!

Myelination:
What is myelin, and what does it do for an axon?

The ions that help the propagation of the action potential down the axon can be exchanged at places
called “the nodes of Ranvier.” How does the fact that these ions can only exist at certain places on
the axon allow information to travel faster?

What is the type of conduction that leads to these signals “leaping along?”

Paring Back:
After development finishes, some of the neurons that were generated by the vast among of cell
division needs to be eliminated. In fact, only about _______ of the neurons created through
embryonic development survive long enough to function in an adult.

What are two major ways that these neurons can be pared back? (Hint: think of both the number of
cells and number of connections).

Synapses are pruned back based on how much they are used. If we have a certain synapse for
information/signals we never need, is there a purpose for it to take up space in the brain?

What could happen if the process of pruning did not occur?

VOCABULARY:
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm, neural induction, glia, Sonic Hedgehog, neural stem cells,
progenitor cells, symmetric division, asymmetric division, daughter cell, glial cell, proliferation,
neurogenesis, neural tube, hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain, ventricular zone, marginal zone,
intermediate zone, radial glia, radial migration, axons, dendrites, soma, growth cone, presynaptic
neuron, postsynaptic neuron, motor neurons, neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, myelination, nodes of
Ranvier, saltatory conduction, pared back, apoptosis, trophic factors, nerve growth factor, pruning,
astrocytes

30
 Chapter 7: Infant, Child, & Adolescent Brain
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Viewing the brain from a developmental perspective has allowed
scientists a new grasp on research for various disorders, like schizophrenia and autism. A lot of
medical anomalies have often been thought of as “adult-only problems”, but as seen by tracing the
brain as it develops, a lot of the issues we face later in adolescence and adulthood may very well
come from the first few months, or even days, of life.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Once born, the brain rapidly continues to grow and develop through cells growing,
proliferating, and differentiating. By the age of five, the child’s brain is about 90 percent of
its adult size.
2) Human brains are born less mature and developed as other animals. This allows for our
brain development to be shaped by experience and the environment, so we can adapt to
our surroundings more appropriately. This means that experiences in our lives are highly
important to who we become.
3) During adolescence, our brains act as clay which can be molded in both positive and
negative ways through our experiences. In particular, the development of the corpus
callosum may be raise the learning ability teenagers by increasing connections in the brain.
4) Though the human brain matures at different rates across individuals, the human brain is
not fully matured until about 30 years of age.
5) Plasticity allows the brain to make modifications and adapt to changes, especially during
critical periods, where external stimuli is needed in order to develop particular skills and
traits.

THE FIRST YEARS OF LIFE:

The average weight of a newborn’s brain is about 370 grams, which is less than 1 pound! The brain
continues to develop and grow outside of the womb, growing at a rate of about 1% per day
immediately following birth. This number, however, drops as the baby continues to grow. This is
because much of the expansive growth/production of cells occurs only within the first few months of
life.

An adult brain weighs about _____ pounds with nearly __________ neurons.

What is the fastest growing region of the brain? What are the important functions this area provides?

The number of neurons in the brain increases by 20-30% within the first three months after birth.
Using what you know from previous chapters, why is this growth so intense?

What is the term for the formation of synapses?

What is the role of glia cells and oligodendrocytes?

By the time the child reaches the age of 5, 90% of the brain is fully developed. The number of
synapses rapidly increases between birth and the age of two; but as the child continues to grow, a lot
of the synapses are pruned back. Are the pruned synapses randomly selected or chosen based on
something particular?
31
EXPERIENCE SHAPES THE BRAIN:
Compared to other animals, the human brain is both smaller at birth and takes longer to finish
developing. Even though our brains may develop at a slower pace than other species, this puts us at
the advantage that allows experience to greatly shape our brain (especially in the very early stages of
life).

How might our less developed brains and longer maturity time be beneficial? How might it be
disadvantageous?

What are the periods that are the most critical to the development of the brain? What happens during
these periods? What can happen if necessary external stimuli is missing?

INTO ADOLSECENCE:
As a teenager’s body is changing, their brain is also continuing to make changes as well. A
teenager’s brain is like clay, they can easily change and be molded by new experiences, both good
and bad.

A process called ___________________ occurs with further pruning of synapses during teenage
development.

What are the types of studies that prove helpful for recording someone’s development over a long
period of time? What are some of the important things that have been discovered through these
studies about the brain?

Growth of an area of the brain referred to as the _______________ may play a part in the large
capability of the teenage brain to learn. This area helps by __________ connections and connects
the right and left _________ hemispheres.

How is the enlargement of the brain/the enhanced ability to learn like a double-edged sword? What
types of negative behaviors can be seen as a result of this?

What are some of the effects / associations of frequent drug and alcohol use during adolescence?

There are a variety of different explanations for when we truly become adults; but from a
neuroscience perspective, the brain doesn’t reach full development until the age of 30. Myelination of
what area is this linked to?

PLASTICITY:
The brain is capable of responding to the environment in a myriad of ways. However, in order for
these responses to be helpful, the brain must also find ways to modify itself to favor particular
patterns of activity and corresponding behaviors. The brain accomplishes this through plasticity, and
there are several different types that can control the brain’s ability to adapt.

What is plasticity? How is it important throughout life?

Why would critical periods not occur without neural plasticity?

32
There are two main types of plasticity: experience-expectant, and experience-dependent. Describe
the different roles of the two types of plasticity:
Role Examples
Experience-Expectant

Experience-Dependent

VOCABULARY:
cerebellum, synaptogenesis, myelination, oligodendrocytes, white matter, synaptic pruning, critical
periods, competitive elimination, longitudinal studies, corpus callosum, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI),
gray matter, working memory, plasticity, experience-expectant, experience-dependent, two-photon
imaging

33
34
 Chapter 8: Adult and Aging Brain
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Although the brain completes its development around the age of 30,
it is still maturing throughout a third decade of life. This opens up new possibilities for research that
could continue to provide us answers to questions on natural aging and disease states.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) The brain, as it ages, undergoes a variety of changes at all levels of function, including in
cognition, general structure, cellular performance, and metabolic processes.
2) Oxidative stress, DNA damage, immune dysfunction and ineffective protein recycling can all
contribute to the negative effects of an aging brain.
3) Healthy brain aging is facilitated by exercise, a healthy diet and mental stimulation. Aging is
inevitable, but disease is not.

THE ADULT BRAIN:

As the brain begins to mature, it loses grey matter. This loss helps to prune back excess neurons and
synapses that were created during development. Simultaneously, other parts of the brain’s
connections are strengthened. Certain connections are myelinated, or insulated, which increases the
brain’s white matter volume. White matter includes a large area of communication between cells.
After the age of 40, the white matter of the brain has reached its maximum volume. Subsequently,
intelligence peaks between the ages of 25 and 60.

What are the most important areas of the brain to become fully developed in adulthood? What are
these regions involved in?

What is grey matter? At what stage of life is it most prevalent in the brain?

What is white matter? At what stage of life is it most prevalent in the brain?

There are two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized. Compare and contrast the two types of
intelligence, and when each are seen to reach their maximum capacity.
When it reaches max Function and processes
capacity

Fluid

Crystallized

Normal vs. Pathological Aging:

Aging is a naturally occurring, gradual process. However, aging can also be affected by disorders like
dementia. While aging is unavoidable, are age-related diseases?

What can be expected for an aging brain? What is normal/abnormal?

35
HOW THE BRAIN CHANGES:
The aging process also greatly changes how the brain works at all levels: functionally,
morphologically, and even cellularly. Many of these changes are meant to help streamline brain
function, though in advanced age, they can also result in functional decline.

Cognitive Changes:
What are examples of declarative memory? nondeclarative memory?

What is working memory?

How are working memory and attention affected by age?

Structural Changes:
What changes are seen in the individual neurons that contribute to the structural changes of the aging
brain?

What changes are seen in the cerebral cortex?

What changes are seen in the frontal and temporal lobe?

Neuronal Changes:
Describe the Rhesus monkey study and what was discovered because of it.

THE PURPOSE OF BRAIN AGING:

One major suggestion for why the brain ages is due to changes in gene expression. It is thought that
in older brains, the genes coding for plasticity are muted or downregulated, whereas these genes are
more highly expressed in younger brains.

Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage:

How can the mitochondria add to DNA damage?

Our normal mechanisms to avoid and repair DNA damage with age.

What type of damage is caused by free radicals? What type of disease is seen in relation to this type
of damage?

The brain requires a high amount of the body’s total energy; so, as we age and have less over all
energy, we therefore have energy to supply to the brain.

Immune Dysfunction:
The immune system is seen to become more dysfunctional as age increases. What brain cells
contribute to this immune dysfunction?

36
Impaired Protein Recycling:
Excessive buildup of proteins in the brain can lead to what diseases?

Healthy Aging:
What lifestyle changes can contribute to healthy brain aging?

How does mental stimulation affect aging?

VOCABULARY:
white matter, grey matter, myelination, fluid intelligence, crystalline intelligence, declarative memory,
nondeclarative memory, working memory, dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease,
oxidative stress, microglia, regeneration

37
38
 Chapter Nine: Brain States
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Regulation of the body’s ability to wake, sleep, get excited, and
focus is necessary for everyday life. The brain prompts all of these things, and balancing each of
these states is a core function of the brain.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Brain waves are the cyclic rising and falling of brain activity. These waves can be measured
by an EEG. There are 2 main states of brain activity during sleep: SWS and REM.
2) The arousal system uses hormones to maintain wakefulness at the different phases of the
sleep-wake cycle.
3) The circadian system and the homeostatic system both contribute to the body’s desire to
sleep.
4) Hormones are the internal signal for arousal, but the physical environment provides
external cues. These external cues can be from visual or auditory input.
5) A variety of sleep and attention disorders exist that affect the brain in different ways.

SLEEP:
Sleep is important for the body to recharge and remember events. Several studies in humans have
revealed that sleep-deprived people are at increased risk for a wide range of health issues including
diabetes, stress, obesity, high blood pressure, anxiety, cognitive impairment, and depression.

What are long-term effects of a lack of sleep?

What are the two main sleep states and what kind of brain functioning do they describe? How long
does each sleep state last and how does it cycle?

How does the brain regulate sleep?

Brain Areas in the Arousal System:

Arousal is a continuum that slides from sleep to excited. It is not a system that is either awake or
asleep.

Where are many of the arousal systems?

What neurotransmitters keep the brain awake?

Where are orexin-producing neurons located and what do they do? What can occur when orexin-
producing neurons are lost?

How is the balance of neurotransmitters critical for maintaining certain brain states?

How does the brain dream?

Identify and define SWS and REM.

39
How are the brain systems that keep us awake suppressed during SWS?

Sleep-Wake Cycle:
What are the two main factors that drive sleep? What is the circadian timing system regulated by?

How does the clock cycle work? How does the homeostatic system work?

How does adenosine affect the sleep wave states? How does caffeine affect arousal?

Sleep Disorders:
List and describe each sleep disorder.

What are treatments for sleep apnea?

How did researchers study narcolepsy?

How do orexin neurons control the transition between waking and sleeping? How do neurons
neighboring orexin neurons control the transition?

Arousal:
What neurotransmitters are released in response to arousal?

How does sensory input regulate arousal?

What does the reticular activating system control?

What distinguishes sexual arousal from general arousal?

Attention:
What are the two types of attention? Describe them and what brain areas are involved in each type.

List the attention disorders.

Describe hemineglect syndrome and its common causes.

What is the default mode network and how does it relate to rest? What brain areas are involved in the
default mode network?

VOCABULARY
EEG, REM, SWS, neurotransmitter, orexins, circadian system, homeostatic system, insomnia,
adenosine, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, arousal, anxiety, hormone, norepinephrine, serotonin,
dopamine, acetylcholine, histamine, visual input, auditory input, autonomic nervous system,
thalamus, sexual arousal, testosterone, estrogen, endogenous attention, exogenous attention, focus,
ADHD

40
 Chapter 10: The Body in Balance
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: The body has an amazing ability of adapting to its environmental
changes. This process is called homeostasis. The body uses its 24-hour cycle, the circadian rhythm,
to regulate the functions of the body throughout the day and night. Hormonal communication in the
brain regulates changes and balance in the body. Stress also plays an important role in hormone
levels and the behavior. Stress can induce the stress response of “fight-or-flight” physiology. Constant
stress, though, can have negative physiological effects on the brain and body.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) The circadian rhythm is extremely important for the daily function and sleep-wake cycles of the
body and brain. It is imperative that the circadian rhythm is in alignment with the 24-hour cycle
of the earth.
2) Hormones are typically released from the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal
cortex. Homones act on other tissues to carry out trigger responses.
3) Hormones are responsible for hunger, menstrual cycles, stress, and many emotions.
4) The stress response is important for handling acute situations, but too much stress can be
harmful.
5) Glucocorticoids are released by the adrenal cortex and are responsible for stress.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS:
Almost every cell in the human body has an internal clock that acts on a 24-hour cycle. Daily rhythms
are not solely determined by external factors, but instead are determined by the hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus detects signals from the photoreceptors in the retina. These signals allow the body to
align its day/night cycle with the actual day/night cycle of the earth. If the circadian rhythm falls out of
alignment with the 24-hour cycle of the earth, negative health side-effects like jet lag can occur.

What is homeostasis and what purpose does it have in the body?

How does the whole body regulate daily rhythms? How does the SCN know when it is day/night and
when to regulate the 24-hour cycle accordingly?

What is the autonomic neural pathway that sets daily rhythms?

How does the SCN signal for the release of melatonin and what is melatonin’s purpose?

What are the two steps the body does to prepare to wake from sleep?

HORMONES:
Hormones act slower than neurons, but they have the ability to affect larger areas. The
neuroendocrine system is the brain region involved in hormone release. The main sources of
hormone are the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Trophic hormones are responsible for the
release of subsequent hormones. Hormones can affect sexual arousal, hunger levels, sleepiness and
a variety of other bodily functions.
What is the difference between neurons and hormones in signaling? What is the neuroendocrine
system?
41
Describe the role of the hypothalamus and how the different structures work together to release
hormones.

What are the two molecules released from posterior part of the pituitary gland and what do they do?

What happens when other hypothalamic regions send axons to the median eminence?

Where do the tropic hormones act? Where does the other two hormones act?

What is the hormone cascade that regulates reproduction? What is the difference between male and
female reproduction feedback loops?

How does circulating levels of female sex hormones influence egg maintenance and ovulation?

What is the difference between hormones regulated by the pituitary gland and those released by
specific tissues?

How do leptin and ghrelin change eating behavior?

STRESS AND CHRONIC STRESS:

The human body reacts to threats in a stereotyped way: respiration rate and pulse increase, muscles
tense, and the body prepares for action. This is called the stress response. Prolonged exposure to
the glucocorticoids produced in the stress response can cause physiological damage such as muscle
atrophy, excess fat storage, hyperglycemia, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and sleep disorders. This
chronic stress can be triggered by starvation or outside triggers.

Describe the stress response and its purpose.

Describe each of the following branches, their function and what they produce.
Sympathetic branch:

Parasympathetic branch:

What are glucocorticoid hormones, how are they released, and where do they bind? What can occur
when glucocorticoids are overproduced?

What are the specific negative effects of chronic stress on brain tissue and function?

How is stress sensitive metabolism developed and how does it affect disease susceptibility?

VOCABULARY:
trophic hormones, stress, hypothalamus, neuroendocrine system, homeostasis, metabolism,
melatonin, pineal gland, circadian rhythm, jet lag, thyroid, adrenal cortex, gonadotropin- releasing
hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, leptin, ghrelin, somatic nervous system,
autonomic nervous system, glucocorticoid

42
 Chapter 11: Childhood Disorders
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: There are many disorders that affect the developing brain of a child,
with many of these disorders persisting well into adulthood. While many of these conditions are well-
studied and have several treatment options, those that occur during development often don’t have
any therapies. Though this chapter only includes a few of the many conditions classified as childhood
disorders, the following examples describe the range of symptoms of several of the most common
disorders.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Autism spectrum disorders develop during childhood but persist for the entirety of a person’s
life. While they are characterized by particular symptoms like reduced communication skills
and intense interests, the actual severity of symptoms greatly varies from person to person.
2) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a relatively common childhood condition that is
marked by persistent hyperactivity and subsequent inability to focus and regulate impulsive
behaviors.
3) Down syndrome is a genetic developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome
21. It is characterized by particular physical features, as well as several additional
comorbidities linked to the heart and brain.
4) Dyslexia is a common learning disability where people with typical levels of education and
intelligence struggle to read and spell.
5) Epilepsy affects around 1% of children in the United States and is caused by abnormal
activities of neurons spreading throughout the brain. Seizures may take on a variety of forms
that may even go unnoticed by those around the individual.

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS:

Autism, though considered a childhood disorder, is a lifelong condition with a wide range of symptoms
that may be mild or severe. However, there are two main symptoms used for diagnosis: impaired
social interactions and repetitive behaviors or narrow interests.

What environmental factors have been linked to an increased risk of autism in children?

How did researchers come to find that autism is partially driven by genetics and what did they
discover?

Why is autism unique in nearly every person?

Break down what the name of each gene represents and describe the impact of mutations of the
following genes on autism:
FMR1:

PTEN:

TSC1 or TSC2:

Treatments for autism target what pathway, and what is the function of that pathway?

43
What brain regions does autism typically affect and why are they important?

ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD):

ADHD is a commonly diagnosed disorder that may extend into adulthood. Common features of the
condition include inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsive behaviors that are more severe than
what would be expected of a young child.

What are the characteristics of ADHD?

How is ADHD diagnosed?

What is the influence of genes and environmental factors on ADHD?

What are the differences in how the brain functions in children with ADHD?

What are the different methods of treatment for ADHD?

DOWN SYNDROME:
Down syndrome is a genetic condition that causes development of distinct facial and body structure.
This condition is often coupled with other symptoms like hearing loss, heart defects, and early-onset
Alzheimer’s disease.

What causes Down syndrome?

What is a major risk factor for Down syndrome?

How are tests run for Down syndrome today and how do they differ from earlier testing methods?

What are the characteristics of those with Down syndrome?

What is the link between Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s?

What are the brain structures believed to be affected?

How are scientists using stem cells to find a treatment?

DYSLEXIA:
As the most common learning disabilities, dyslexia has been well-studied and defined. It affects
around 15-20% of American citizens and is characterized by a difficulty reading. This may manifest as
issues with pronunciation, significant spelling issues, or lack of fluency despite normal intelligence
and educational exposure.

What are the characteristics of dyslexia?

What areas of the brain are affected in people with dyslexia and what skills are impacted?

44
How do genes and environmental factors influence dyslexia?

What kind of treatment is available for dyslexia?

EPILEPSY:
Epilepsy, meaning “to seize”, is a condition in which a person suffers from irregular patterns of brain
activity that can disrupt consciousness for several minutes at a time. There are several different types
of seizures that can range in appearance from zoning out to inducing painful muscle spasms.

How is epilepsy diagnosed?

How do seizures occur and what do they look like?

Explain how seizures are classified and the symptoms of each subset:
Generalized seizures:
Absence/ petit mal seizures
Tonic-clonic/ grand mal seizures

Focal or partial seizures:

Simple
Complex

Secondary generalized seizures:

What are the causes of epilepsy?

What are the treatments for epilepsy?

VOCABULARY:
disorder, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, diagnosis,
environmental factors, genetics, genes, twin studies, mutations, FMR1, PTEN, TSC1/TSC2, fragile X
syndrome, cell metabolism, proliferation, mTOR pathway, biomarker, neuroimaging, cerebral cortex,
white/gray matter, oxytocin, ADHD, hyperactivity, executive functions, dopamine, methylphenidate,
Down syndrome, chromosome, trisomy, mosaicism, amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling,
Alzheimer’s disease, amyloid precursor protein (APP), hippocampus, mitochondria, dyslexia, learning
disability, “word-form area”, left occipitotemporal cortex, phonology, epilepsy, seizures, EEG,
generalized seizures, absence/petit mal seizures, tonic-clonic/grand mal seizures, muscle spasm,
focal/partial seizures, simple focal seizures, complex focal seizures, secondary generalized seizures,
dendrites, ketogenic diet, “split-brain surgery”, corpus callosum

45
46
 Chapter 12: Psychiatric Disorders
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Psychiatric disorders include a wide range of conditions that can
greatly influence mood and cognition. Anxiety and panic disorders are fairly common and cause
individuals to experience abnormally high levels of stress in a variety of non-stressful circumstances.
Mood disorders encompass persistent mood changes that usually have negative consequences for
the individual. Finally, disorders of cognition like schizophrenia completely alter a person’s ability to
correctly process information and can result in symptoms like hallucinations, paranoia, and delusions.
Treatments for each of these conditions widely vary, as there are different mechanisms underlying
each condition. Additionally, further research must still be done to identify how biology intersections
with psychosocial input to cause these disorders.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Anxiety and panic disorders include OCD, PTSD, and panic disorders, among others. These
conditions are all characterized by abnormally elevated levels of stress in situations that others
wouldn’t consider to be stressful. Alternatively, a person with an anxiety or panic disorder may
respond to stressful stimuli with increased anxiety, which makes these disorders particularly
difficult to navigate everyday life with.
2) Mood disorders include major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, two conditions in
which particular moods will persist despite changes in a person’s experiences or environment.
While major depressive disorder is characterized by intense negative emotions, bipolar
disorder encompasses both extremely positive and negative emotions.
3) Schizophrenia is a disorder of cognition in which a person may suffer from hallucinations,
delusions, paranoia, lack of motivation, and decreased emotions. Though particular genes
have been implicated in schizophrenia’s development, more research must be done to identify
its cause.

ANXIETY AND PANIC DISORDERS:

While anxiety and stress are normal, and even beneficial at times, a number of people suffer from
elevated and uncontrollable levels of anxiety that interfere with their daily lives. There are a number of
different conditions that are grouped as anxiety disorders, including PTSD, OCD, and panic disorder.
Each of these conditions include specific experiences or neuropathology that often result in the onset
of the disorder. This enables professionals to provide effective therapies for what are the most
common psychiatric disorders in the United States.

What medications are prescribed for anxiety and panic disorders? How do they work?

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder:

Describe obsessions and how they differ from compulsions.

What brain regions are involved in OCD?

What are the different treatments for OCD (both drug and behavioral)?

Panic Disorder:
What is panic disorder characterized by?
47
What is the treatment for panic disorder?

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder:

What can cause PTSD?

What are the symptoms of PTSD?

What are the physiological/brain area changes in people with PTSD?

What are the treatment approaches for PTSD?

How is PTSD linked to major depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and panic disorder?

MOOD DISORDERS:
While moods themselves are always changing and shifting, they still have great influence over our
general perception and enjoyment of life. However, individuals with mood disorder often suffer from
persistent mood changes that can’t be altered by external experiences. These disorders have ties to
both psychosocial and biological components and including major depression and bipolar disorder.

Major Depression:
What criteria must be met to be diagnosed with major depression? How long must these symptoms
persist?

What factors play a role in causing depression?

What areas and systems in the brain are affected in people with major depression?

What are the treatment options for major depression and why are they effective?

Bipolar Disorder:
What are the characteristics of bipolar disorder?

What is a manic episode, and how is this different from hypomania?

What is a depressive episode?

What are some of the risk factors for bipolar disorder?

What are the treatment options for bipolar disorder? Are they effective?

SCHIZOPHRENIA:
Schizophrenia is a chronic disorder of cognition marked by altered states of thinking, mood, and
consequently, behavior. There are both positive symptoms, which “add” abnormal perceptions like

48
hallucinations and delusions, as well as negative symptoms, which “subtract” from daily life and
include lack of motivation and expressiveness.

What are the characteristics of schizophrenia?

What is the difference between positive and negative symptoms?

What are the treatment options for schizophrenia and why are they effective?

What area of the brain seems to be impacted in schizophrenia?

How might nicotine be able to provide relief for symptoms of schizophrenia?

VOCABULARY
psychiatric disorder, resilience factors, anxiety, anxiety disorders, psychosocial, neurotransmitters,
SSRIs, serotonin, Benzodiazepines, inhibitory, GABA, dependence, OCD, recurring, obsessions,
ritualistic, compulsions, hoarding, basal ganglia, cortex, dopamine, glutamate, cognitive behavioral
therapy, deep brain stimulation (DBS), neuroleptic, Parkinson’s disease, electrodes, panic disorder,
psychotherapy, PTSD, trauma, flashbacks, hyperarousal, hormones, cortisol, norepinephrine, flight-
or-flight, neuropeptide Y, neuroimaging, stimuli, cannabinoids, oxytocin, mood disorders, major
depression, triggers, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal cortex, monoamine, chronic,
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, stress, limbic system, relapse, synapses, bipolar disorder, manic
episodes, insomnia, depressive episodes, hypomanic, mania, lithium, schizophrenia, positive
symptoms, hallucinations, delusions, negative symptoms, chlorpromazine, antipsychotic drug,
anesthetic, serotonergic

49
50
 Chapter 13: Addiction
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Drug use and abuse is extremely common resulting in many deaths
and negative consequences. The use of many drugs (illegal and legal) in excess is detrimental to
normal daily functioning as well as harmful to the brain. The main reinforcing factor of these drugs is
by activating the reward system in the brain.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Opioids are drugs that usually induce relaxation and transient euphoria. However, as a
commonly abused drug, they can be incredibly dangerous to use outside of controlled settings.
That’s not to say they aren’t important medicinal tools, though. They are commonly used for
pain relief but also must be carefully monitored.
2) Nicotine is the addictive substance found in tobacco. It works by attaching to acetylcholine
receptors, where it induces neurotransmitter signaling that results in adrenaline and dopamine
release. Though this feels pleasant while smoking, the long-term health consequences are
considerably dangerous.
3) While alcohol in moderation may not be dangerous, the addictive quality of ethanol and the
resulting behavioral impacts make alcohol abuse a significant problem in society. Ethanol
targets inhibitory GABA receptors, which works to lower anxiety and reaction time. It also
inhibits glutamate receptors, which can significantly alter mood and memory.
4) Marijuana works through THC activity within the brain to alter memory, stress levels, and
addictive behaviors after long-term use. While our brains use another form of THC,
anandamide, to signal through cannabinoid receptors, these receptors serve as mechanistic
targets in which marijuana may change cognition and perception.
5) Psychostimulants are a classification of drugs that work to excite the brain. Some of the
chemicals that fall under this classification are particularly dangerous when abused, such as
methamphetamines. Psychostimulants work by releasing dopamine into the reward pathways
of the brain. However, using them too frequently may work to destroy normal dopamine
signaling, causing these drugs to be incredibly addicting.
6) Designer and club drugs, named for their common use in party scenes and the way they avoid
being outlawed, are psychoactive drugs that have considerable and permanent effects across
the brain. These effects include damage to serotonin, memory, and pleasure circuits.

Addiction:
What is addiction defined as? What two factors fuel addiction?

What are positive and negative factors that influence addiction?

What region of the brain is affected by addiction? How does it generate habits and learned
behaviors?

Mimics and Imposters:

What are the possible effects of these drugs on neurotransmitters?

What are the biological and environmental factors that influence a person’s susceptibility to addiction?

51
OPIOIDS:
Opioid use can be traced back for centuries. Morphine, a common opiate, is the active component of
the opium plant and has historically been used to induce brief rushes of euphoria and relaxed states.
Many of the opioid drugs used today are chemically like morphine but have small changes that
change the way they act in the body.

How does heroin affect the brain and body?

Why do our brains have opioid receptors?

What do endorphins do in the body and where do they come from?

What are the medical uses of opioids, and what happens when they’re used in excess?

What is one of the main causes of the opioid epidemic, and why is it so dangerous to use drugs from
the street?

What is the most effective treatment for opioid overdose? What other treatment methods are
available for opioid addiction?

NICOTINE:
Nicotine is the addictive substance that is in tobacco. When smoked, it reaches the brain extremely
quickly where it binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Although the health hazards of nicotine are
well known, tobacco is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. Nicotine is
extremely hard to quit because of its highly addictive nature.

What does the binding of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors do?

What health risks do nicotine and tobacco produce?

How does the tolerance and the reward pathway influence nicotine addiction?

What treatment options are available for nicotine addiction and how do they work?

ALCOHOL:
Alcohol is a legal addictive substance that has a large negative behavioral impact. Clearly alcohol is
not as dangerous as some other illegal drugs, but addiction is still extremely common. Heavy alcohol
use can have extreme, negative side effects.

What are some of the behavioral and health problems associated with alcohol addiction?

What is the addictive ingredient in alcohol and how can it have both stimulatory and depressant
effects?

What receptors does ethanol target and what effects does it have?

52
What is binge drinking? What changes to the brain does chronic heavy alcohol use create?

What are the risk factors for becoming an alcoholic?

What are the treatment options for alcoholism?

MARIJUANA:
Cannabis plant is the source of marijuana from its dried leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds. Marijuana
is not harmless, even though it has been legalized in several states. Studies have found that frequent
marijuana use may alter memory, stress levels, and reward pathways. However, evidence shows that
marijuana may be an effective treatment for conditions like PTSD, as it may serve to lower chronic
stress levels and promote drowsiness.

What is the active chemical in Marijuana that has mind-altering effects and what are these effects?
What are the effects of marijuana usage in teen years? What are the effects of heavy or long-term
use?

What is the natural form of THC and what is the receptor? What does the receptor do?

What area of the brain is affected by marijuana usage and why?

What have studies found regarding marijuana usage and PTSD?

PSYCHOSTIMULANTS:
Psychostimulants are any chemicals that serve to excite the brain range from caffeine to
amphetamines. While some of these drugs can be used to effectively treat disorders like ADHD and
narcolepsy, they are also widely abused and can have dire consequences for users.
Fast uptake in the brain and wearing off in a short amount of time make drugs especially addictive.
Because they flood the brain’s reward pathways with dopamine, they are highly addictive and cause
long-lasting damage to the brain’s dopamine systems.

What are the main effects of psychostimulants?

How do Illegal psychostimulants such as methamphetamine (meth), cocaine, and crystal

methamphetamine work in the brain?

Why is meth in particular so addictive and dangerous for the brain?

How does tolerance to an increased amount of dopamine influence addiction and other health
problems?

What treatment options are available for psychostimulant addiction?

DESIGNER DRUGS AND CLUB DRUGS:

53
Designer and club drugs are synthetic substances that induce psychoactive effects. Though they
often look like illicit drugs, they can be legally bought since their chemical structures differ from those
of drugs already outlawed. This makes them incredibly dangerous, as they can permanently damage
multiple regions of the brain. These drugs include MDMA, ecstasy, LSD, Valium, and ketamine,
among others.

Describe the effects that the drugs below produce as well as their neurochemical effects.
Ecstasy:

Rohypnol and GHB:

Ketamine:

VOCABULARY:
addiction, drug abuse, opioids, overdose, dependence, tolerance, withdrawal, cues/triggers,
neurotransmitter, dopamine, limbic system, risk factors, illicit drugs, hereditary, opium, morphine,
heroin, receptors, synapses, euphoria, toxicity, pituitary gland, endorphins, codeine, oxycontin,
fentanyl, epidemic, synthetic drugs, naloxone, methadone, buprenorphine, psychosocial, cognitive
behavioral therapy, nicotine, tobacco, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, adrenaline, carcinogenic,
pharmacotherapy, varenicline, cessation, mimic, alcohol, cirrhosis, ethanol, stimulant, depressant,
intoxication, GABA receptors, NMDA receptors, diuretic, binge drinking, alcoholism, gait, cerebellum,
behavioral therapy, individual counseling, group therapy, support groups, disulfiram, naltrexone,
acamprosate, marijuana, cannabis, THC, recreational use, neurobiology, cravings, anandamide,
cannabinoid receptors, hippocampus, CBD, psychostimulants, caffeine, amphetamine,
methylphenidate, cocaine, methamphetamine, crystal meth, free radicals, prefrontal cortex, serotonin,
glutamate, microglia, oxytocin, psychoactive, ecstasy, rohypnol, GHB, ketamine, amphetamine,
mescaline, LSD, Valium

54
 Chapter 14: Injury and Illness
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Brain injuries and illness affect more people every day–either
personally or through a loved one. The treatment of these injuries and illnesses is critical to restoring
quality of life. From the first barbaric neurosurgery 6,000 years ago to the use of microscopic
instrument, radioactive dyes, and fully awake neurosurgeries, treatments have thankfully progressed.
However, treatment only progresses on the back of years of research that has and will continue to
alter and improve both treatments and therapies.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) The whole-brain, cellular, and molecular changes to normal physiology and anatomy of an
injury or an illness must be understood before treatments and therapies can be introduced.
2) Not only does the initial injury bring about damage and deficits, but the body’s natural
immunological response within the central nervous can add to the damage.
3) Few drugs have been fully approved and authorized by the FDA for the treatment of
neurological injuries and illness due to the further need for understanding the true pathology of
these injuries and illnesses.
4) Brain imaging techniques have and will continue to improve the accuracy and efficacy of
treatments and therapies.

BRAIN TUMORS:
Each year more than 79,000 people are likely diagnosed with a brain tumor. These can be either
malignant (cancerous) or benign (non-cancerous). In addition to this, more than 200,000 people will
be diagnosed with a metastatic brain tumor, which has spread from another part of the body into the
brain, in the United States alone.

What are the different types of tumors?

What defines them?

Why is the release of glutamate from gliomas so detrimental?

What are the major signs/symptoms of a brain tumor?

What are the treatment options?

List the major treatment options are surgery, radiation, targeted treatments, and chemotherapy.

Why are steroid drugs prescribed after brain tumor resection neurosurgeries?

What are researchers looking into that could improve outcomes?

NEUROLOGICAL TRAUMA:
Traumatic brain and spinal cord injuries almost always lead to significant physical, mental, and/or
cognitive disabilities. About 1.7 million people suffer traumatic brain injuries each year resulting in a
$60 billion cost of medical care and loss of productivity in patients. Few effective treatments for
55
traumatic brain or spinal cord injuries exist, and research must continually push forward to further
understand the cellular damage induced by these injuries.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI):

What could be considered a TBI?

What diagnostic scans are necessary to assess the extent of the injury?

What is the difference between a mild and a severe TBI?

What damage does a TBI cause in the brain?

What is Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE), and what is it caused by?

What are the treatment options for TBIs depending on their severity?

How does the body’s natural immune response to injury often worsen the damage caused by the
initial injury in TBI? What are researchers looking to uncover about this?

Spinal Cord Injury (SCI):

What is Methylprednisolone? Why is it important in SCI?

What are the new methods in repairing damaged spinal cords that scientists are looking into?

What are the major avenues for rehabilitation post-SCI?

NEUROLOGICAL ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME:

The HIV virus carries AIDS, which can have severe neurological effects even though the brain is not
the direct target.

What are the neurocognitive disorders that may develop from HIV (HAND)?

What damage was found in the brain of those who had died with AIDS?

What is peripheral neuropathy?

What are the treatment options for AIDS?

Is there currently a cure for AIDS?

MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS):

MS is an autoimmune, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system where one’s own body
(the immune system) attacks its own central nervous system.

What part of the nerves does MS attack and what effect does it have?
56
What is the most common time in one’s life to experience symptoms and be diagnosed with MS?

What are the symptoms and treatment for MS?

Why are steroid drugs used for short-term treatment from symptoms, but do no treat the disease?

CHRONIC PAIN:
Pain can often be acute and the side effect of another injury, illness, surgery, or disease. For others,
pain can be the disease itself. Chronic pain affects more Americans than diabetes, heart disease and
cancer combined.

What are the most common types of chronic pain?

What kind of psychological disorders is chronic pain associated with?

Does the research show that a primary form of treatment, say painkillers, or a treatment combination
of drugs, behavior, lifestyle, etc. is more effective in treating chronic pain?

What are the four main types of painkillers?

How do NSAIDs work?

How do opioids work, why are they so effective, and what are their side effects?

Describe how psychological therapies are used to treat pain.

What are the body’s natural painkillers?

How have scientists used the body’s pain control system to find new ways to treat chronic pain?

STROKE:
Strokes are a major neurological event that affect approximately 800,000 people each year, costing
about $33 billion in medical care and loss of the ability to hold employment.

What is a stroke?

What are the signs/symptoms of a stroke?

Why can strokes be so damaging and debilitating?

Why are physical, recreational, occupational, and/or speech therapy often required after a stroke?

What are the risk factors for a stroke?

How does one decrease his or her risk for stroke?

57
What is tPA and how does it work?

What is the average time of efficacy for tPA? Why do doctors race against the clock to treat strokes?

What other treatment options exist for strokes?

What are researchers looking into for stroke prevention and treatment?

VOCABULARY:
brain tumor, malignant, benign, metastatic, glioma, glioblastoma, glutamate, radiation, chemotherapy,
magnetic resonance imaging, computerized tomography, stem cells, traumatic brain injury, spinal
cord injury, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, human immunodeficiency virus, acquired immune
deficiency syndrome, HIV-associated neuro-cognitive disorders, multiple sclerosis, myelin, white
matter, grey matter, steroid drugs, anesthetics, chronic, acute, NSAIDs, opioids, neuropathy,
endorphins, cerebrospinal fluid, stroke, tPA

58
 Chapter 15: Neurodegenerative Diseases
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Neurodegenerative diseases involve a progressive destruction
and/or deterioration of nerve cells. They are much more common in older people. Scientists have
discovered that many of these diseases involve misfolded proteins called prions. These proteins then
can no longer function properly. Much is still unknown about neurodegenerative diseases’ pathology
and thus, effective treatments, therapies, and preventive measures are few and far between.
Research is actively driving the push for further understanding of these diseases.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Life expectancy continues rising due to improved healthcare, but this undeniably increases the
number of our elderly population, increasing the number of those at the highest risk for these
diseases.
2) Much still needs to be discovered about these diseases at a basic scientific level before
treatments, therapies, and preventions can be improved.
3) Many of these diseases likely begin years before they can be clinically diagnosed and/or even
be distinguished by the patient himself/herself as a deficit from normal life.
4) The exact diagnosis of many of these disorders cannot even take place until after death during
an autopsy.

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE:
This disease is a form of dementia that is irreversible and fatal. Throughout the disease, a person’s
brain undergoes untreatable progressive degeneration that impairs his or her memory and reasoning
to the point of requiring assisted living. Patients with late-onset Alzheimer’s display symptoms around
65 and patients with early-onset Alzheimer’s can experience symptoms in their 30s. Alzheimer’s is
prevalent, affecting 15-20% of people above the age of 75 and 25-50% above the age of 85. The
number of people with Alzheimer’s will only increase as average life expectancy continues to
increase.

Prevalence and Impact:

Why is the number of people with Alzheimer’s and the number of those who have died from
Alzheimer’s likely much higher than statistically can be reported?

Symptoms:
What is Alzheimer’s characterized by?

Alzheimer’s symptoms are classified by the disease’s progression. Explain each stage.
Early Stage
Mild Stage
Moderate Stage
Severe Stage

Pathology and Causes:

How is Alzheimer’s diagnosed?

59
Two possible biomarkers for Alzheimer’s have been identified. What are these biomarkers and how
do they relate to Alzheimer’s?

What are the causes of Alzheimer’s and how does it begin pathologically?

What is the amyloid hypothesis?

While the cause is unknown, the damaged axons and synapses in Alzheimer’s destroy neuronal
signal transduction, which impairs what basic functions?

How might inflammation play a role in Alzheimer’s?

Explain the genetic difference between early-onset Alzheimer’s and late-onset Alzheimer’s. Also,
briefly describe what protein each gene encodes.

Research:
The book describes the 5 FDA-approved drugs for Alzheimer’s (there has since been 1 new drug
approved since the writing of the Brain Bee Book). What are they?

What do each of these drugs target?

There is no cure and treatment will not stop the progression of the disease, but there are medications
and other treatment strategies that slow the progression. What are the hypothesized avenues for
future treatments for Alzheimer’s?

Describe the trials for active and passive immunization. How will these, hopefully, help treat
Alzheimer’s?

PARKINSON’S DISEASE:
Parkinson’s is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, and its incidence increases with
age. The average onset is around 60 years old, and the disease is much more prevalent in men.
Often, early diagnoses of the disease are overlooked as normal aging, so the disease prevalence,
like with Alzheimer’s, is probably higher.

Symptoms:
What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease?

When does cognitive decline associated with Parkinson’s usually occur?

Pathology and Causes:

Parkinson’s is a motor system disorder. What does this disease affect in the brain?

What does PARK2 have to do with early-onset Parkinson’s?

What are the genes involved and how are Lewy bodies related?

60
Why is diagnosing Parkinson’s not definitive? What is a future biomarker that may be used for
diagnosing this disease?

Research:
Why do scientists use genetically altered mice to study Parkinson’s?

Describe how stem cells may be used to treat Parkinson’s.

Describe the current treatment methods available for Parkinson’s.

AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS):

ALS, often called Lou Gehrig’s Disease, is a group of progressive and fatal motor neuron diseases.
ALS is most common between the ages of 50-70, and men are slightly more likely to develop ALS.
Military veterans are 1.5-2 times more likely to develop ALS for reasons unknown, though some
evidence indicates this may be due to environmental exposures to toxins.

Symptoms:
What are the symptoms of ALS?

Why are neither cognition nor personality affects in patients with ALS?

Pathology and Causes:

Why is voluntary muscle movement lost in ALS?

What are the genetic causes of ALS?

Research:
What are the current treatment options for ALS given that there is no cure?

What are researchers focusing on in the pathology and treatment of ALS?

HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE:
HD is hereditary and impairs voluntary movement and cognition. The Huntington’s variant is dominant
from the HTT gene. Therefore, if one parent has the Huntington’s variant and the other does not, their
children are 50% likely to develop Huntington’s.

Symptoms:
What are the signs and symptoms of Huntington’s?

How is Huntington’s detected and treated?

How are the symptoms of Juvenile Huntington’s different?

61
Pathology, Causes, and Genetics:
Mutations on what gene cause Huntington’s? What chromosome is this gene located on?

What is the normal function of the huntingtin protein?

The Huntington’s variant results in a mutation that creates several _____ on the gene. What is this
specific sequence? This sequence normally is repeated how many times? In Huntington’s, this
sequence is repeated how many times?

True or False: The greater number of repeats on the gene, then the later the onset of symptoms.

Why do these repeats cause an issue with the successful function of the protein?

Research:
Recently, research led the way for a new drug to be developed to treat Huntington’s. What is this
drug? How does it function?

What is deutetrabenzine? Does it treat Huntington’s or a specific symptom of Huntington’s?

Research is looking into potential biomarkers for Huntington’s. What are they?

A recent study points to the neurofilament light chain as a potential biomarker. What is so interesting
about this?

VOCABULARY:
prions, pathology, Alzheimer’s Disease, early-onset Alzheimer’s, late-onset Alzheimer’s, biomarkers,
amyloid-beta, tau, extra-cellular senile plaques (neuritic plaques), neurotoxic neurofibrillary tangles,
active immunization, passive immunization, Parkinson’s disease, Lewy bodies, L-Dopa, Deep Brain
Stimulation, voluntary muscle movement, motor neurons, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, atrophy,
Huntington’s disease, huntingtin, chorea.

62
 Chapter 16: Types of Research
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Research drives our current understanding of all the topics
mentioned throughout the previous chapters of the book. Research continues to offer us answers to
perplexing medical and scientific questions, possessing the capability to drastically improve our
quality of life.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Just as the brain is incredibly complicated, many of the research methods used to investigate
function are also specialized. These methods include certain types of microscopy, particular
animal models, and electrophysiology experimentation.
2) Anatomical approaches have been used to visualize neurons as both individual cells and
whole networks of brain issue. Furthermore, there are multiple imaging approaches such as
MRI technology that can visualize both brain structures and brain activity.
3) Given that neurons function through electrical signaling, research into physiology has heavily
focused on better understanding how functional consequences arise from the activity of many
individual cells. Methods like electrical stimulation, electroencephalography, and two-photon
microscopy have all been used in these pursuits.
4) As the preliminary biological data used to generate proteins, genes are a major target of
neuroscience research. CRISPR and optogenetics have both been used to alter gene
expression. While CRISPR can directly alter the genome, optogenetics modulates gene
expression using optical fibers.
5) Studying behavior requires living organisms capable of both simple reflexes and complex
social behaviors. Neuroscientific research often uses model organisms like Aplysia and
Drosophila to conduct such studies.
6) To investigate neurotransmitter function, biochemical approaches like microdialysis and mass
spectrometry are employed.
7) Human research in clinical settings relies on non-invasive tools like fMRI, MEG, NIRS, PET,
TMS, and EEG to image the brain under a wide variety of conditions.

TOOLS FOR ANATOMY:

What does anatomy study?

How is it helpful?

How did the light microscope change science and our understanding of the body?

What was the first tool used to visualize a neuron?

Before neurons were visualized, scientists believed neurons were organized in what way? How did
this change our understanding?

How are MRI’s used to study the brain anatomy?

What are the different types of MRI’s?

What did this technique add that the light microscope could not offer?

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What is histology?

TOOLS FOR PHYSIOLOGY:

What is electrophysiology?

How is electrophysiology investigated?

Why is electrophysiology often not utilized? What is the disadvantage of this?

What technique do researchers use to look at individual neurons within a living brain?

TOOLS FOR GENETICS:

What are microarrays? How do they assist researchers?

What is the Human Genome Project?

What is optogenetics? What is CRISPR? How do these different techniques provide different
information, how are they used, etc.?

What is epigenetics?

Genetics in Neurological Diseases:

Describe both Lissencephaly and Kabuki Syndrome. What genes are involved in these disorders?
What are the symptoms?

TOOLS FOR BEHAVIOR:

What are the two most common model organisms used to study behavior?

What major studies were done with the Aplysia? What did we learn from these?

What major studies were done with the Drosophila? What did we learn from these?

Why is addiction a major area of study in behavior?

What makes the study of addiction difficult?

What animal models are used to study addiction?

TOOLS FOR BIOCHEMISTRY:

What are neurotransmitters?

What is microdialysis and how does it work? When can it be utilized?

Describe the research methods of both pharmacology and mass spectrometry.

64
TOOLS USED FOR HUMAN RESEARCH:
What is a functional MRI?

What is a magnetoencephalography (MEG)?

What is Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)?

What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?

What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?

Compare and contrast all the listed methods for human research.

What are the benefits of each? The disadvantages? How are they all implicated?

VOCABULARY:
anatomy, light microscope, electron microscopy, EEG, two-photon microscopy, base pairs, genome,
microarray, DNA chip, CRISPR, optogenetics, epigenetics, lissencephaly, Kabuki Syndrome, Aplysia,
Drosophila, neurotransmitters, microdialysis, fMRI, MEG, NIRS, TMS, PET

65
66
 Chapter 17: Solving Human Problems
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: As front-line research pushes the limits of neuroscience, many
scientists want to use these discoveries to design new therapies. Much of this work looks to build
upon foundational knowledge to create innovative technologies that takes advantage of the basic
functioning of the nervous system. For example, the development of brain-machine interfaces, deep
brain stimulation, and transcranial stimulation all emerged from our knowledge of electrical signaling
within the nervous system. There are also a number of new drug targets that scientists hope may
prove effective against conditions like Alzheimer’s, ALS, and Parkinson’s. Many of these targets, like
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), and neurite outgrowth inhibitor
have been shown to play critical roles during brain development and upkeep. Perhaps manipulating
their expression in disease states could help protect or even repair the brain.

While we continue to learn more about both the healthy and diseased brain, there has also been a
push towards creating personalized medical strategies. We have identified new biomarkers and
patterns of brain activity that can predict the onset of specific diseases, as well as what genetic or life-
style habits may predispose people to disease. There are also novel treatments that are emerging as
a consequence of these discoveries. Stem cell transplants and CRISPR-guided genomic editing
serve as possible methods to both repair and prevent brain disease; however, these therapies come
with significant ethical questions that remain unanswered.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) A major reason to do scientific research is to discover new drugs or technologies that can
be used to treat injury and disease. With the staggering amount of neuroscientific research
done in the past few decades, there are a number of new treatment options that are being
used to fight all kinds of diseases.
2) Brain-machine interfaces allow patients to regain movement and sensation capabilities by
pairing certain brain activity patterns with their associated motor actions. These actions can
then be enacted by prosthetics, computers, or even remote machinery.
3) Deep brain stimulation relies on precise placement of electrodes that can help regulate
electrical signaling within the brain, making this a useful tool for diseases characterized by
disordered neuronal activity.
4) Psychoactive therapies, including transcranial stimulation and drug therapy, continue to be
refined in order to help broader clinical audiences. Though many drugs like antidepressants
and antipsychotics have barely changed since they were first designed, new targets like NGF
and BDNF may help to facilitate neuronal healing in neurodegenerative diseases.
5) While neuroimaging can sometimes show evidence of brain disease, it is rare for patients to be
diagnosable before the disease has already done considerable damage in the brain. Thus,
there is an urgent need to identify other biomarkers that can identify disease risk long before
its onset.
6) Stem cell transplant therapies and CRISPR-mediated gene replacement are both new
strategies that aim to replace or modify the cells implicated in disease. However, both methods
still need to be better described (both in terms of efficacy and ethical limitations) before they
can be used in a clinical setting.

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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES:
Though integration of man and machine may seem like something straight out of a sci-fi movie, these
kinds of therapies are slowly becoming viable treatments for a plethora of psychiatric and
neurodegenerative conditions. Brain-machine interfaces serve to rebuild the connections between
specific patterns of brain activity and their downstream consequences, leading to the development of
neuron-activated protheses. Alternatively, deep brain stimulation involves embedding remote-
controlled electrodes within misfiring regions of the brain, which can serve to overwrite faulty neuronal
activity.

Brain-Machine Interface:
Brain-machine interfaces rely on understanding the broader activity patterns of millions of neurons to
match brain activity to body function. What kinds of tools could be used to capture or describe these
patterns?

What kind of injuries or diseases could neuro-prosthetic devices be used to treat?

What are some of the current limitations of neuro-prosthetic devices?

Deep Brain Stimulation:

How does the wiring set-up used in DBS compare to that of a pacemaker?

What aspects of DBS make it a versatile treatment option for a variety of neurological conditions?

In conditions like Parkinson’s and epilepsy, regions of disrupted brain activity can often be recorded
and mapped. Does this lend itself to DBS treatment, or would there be a better therapeutic strategy
discussed elsewhere in the chapter?

PSYCHOACTIVE THERAPIES:
Psychoactive therapies are typically noninvasive therapies that aim to temporarily alter brain function
or cellular activity. These therapies include transcranial stimulation and various drug therapies.
Transcranial stimulation uses magnetic fields or electrical currents to stimulate neurons in the cortex.
In turn, these neurons can alter the activity of the deeper brain regions they project to. While the
actual therapeutic effects of psychoactive therapies remain inconclusive, drug therapy much better
characterized. While the majority of common psychiatric drugs are based on those developed in the
1950s, new targets that encourage the survival and growth of neurons are currently being
investigated. These targets include NGF, BDNF, and neurite outgrowth inhibitor. Additionally,
antibody therapies that aim to mark malfunctioning proteins for degradation by immune cells may
prove to be useful in a number of neurological diseases.

Transcranial Stimulation:
How do different methods of transcranial stimulation alter neuronal activity? Are these therapies
limited to just the cortex?

What is the current scientific conclusion on transcranial stimulation effectiveness?

68
New Drug Targets:
Are new drugs commonly made for neurological or psychiatric problems? What’s the reasoning
behind this?

Antibodies can bind to particular proteins and mark the protein for clean-up by cells like microglia.
How could this be used in a disease like Alzheimer’s or Huntington’s?

NGF and BDNF both encourage neuronal growth. Alternatively, what does neurite outgrowth inhibitor
do? Why would inhibiting this target, rather than activating it like NGF and BDNF therapies, be
effective for restoring degenerating neurons?

PREDICTIVE NEUROIMAGING, PERSONALIZED MEDICINE, AND CELLULAR MARKERS:

While diagnoses based on behavioral symptoms are frequently used to identify neurological
diseases, biomarkers and neuroimaging may enable accurate diagnosis long before significant brain
damage occurs. However, exactly what these warning signs might look like haven’t been fully
established. Much like electrocardiograms can reveal heart problems, perhaps MRI or levels of a
specific protein in the cerebrospinal fluid could be used to determine the best course of treatment for
each patient.

CELL-BASED THERAPIES:
Targeting mechanisms of disease at the cellular level may also prove useful. Specifically, there are
two novel treatment options that, while not ready for clinical use, may change the trajectory of
therapeutic research. Stem cell transplants take advantage of the inherent regenerative properties of
stem cells to essentially regrow tissues and promote survival of any surrounding cells. However,
because stem cells need very specific environmental stimulus (think back to the chapter on
neurodevelopment!) to mature into the correct cell type, further research needs to be done to refine
this strategy. Alternatively, gene replacement using viral vectors or CRISPR-cas9 technology can be
used to essentially “rewrite” a cell’s current genetic code. For conditions like Huntington’s where exact
mutations in the DNA have been connected to the disease, these strategies could be used to
eradicate the disease before it even begins. That being said, gene replacement technologies present
ethical questions our society has never encountered before. While these strategies are better refined,
we will have to decide exactly what situations truly require the use of gene replacement.

Cell Transplants:
What are stem cells, and what makes them useful for replacement therapies?

Differentiation of stem cells into mature, functional cells is a complex process that requires very
specific cell-cell and cell-environment signaling. How could this cause issues for stem cell
replacement therapies?

Gene Replacement:
Viruses traditionally use cell machinery to edit the host genome to produce more viruses. How could
this give rise to the use of viruses as vectors for gene therapies?

What kind of diseases could CRISPR be efficient in treating?

69
While effective in highly controlled environments, CRISPR can have off-target effects that lead to
unintentional edits. What concerns does this raise, both in designing new research models and in
gene therapies?

VOCABULARY:
electroencephalography, brain-machine interface, neuroprostheses, deep brain stimulation,
stereotactic frame, electrodes, psychoactive, transcranial stimulation, meta-analyses, blood-brain
barrier, nanoparticles, antibodies, inflammation, nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic
factor, neurite outgrowth inhibitor, amygdala, insular cortex, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, biomarkers, stem cells, differentiation, adenovirus, lentivirus, vector, CRISPR

70
 Chapter 18: Neuroscience in Society
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER: Neuroscientific discovery is beginning to have an effect far beyond
the boundaries of the traditional lab. As society progresses, we have to begin to consider how our
knowledge of the brain should impact our understanding of law, economics, and ethics. In particular,
questions about prisoner rehabilitation, eyewitness testimony, and polygraph tests have all been
raised in the realm of law. Risk-and-reward behaviors, along with interplay from hormones like
oxytocin, testosterone, and cortisol may influence both our individual transactions and greater
economy. Furthermore, there are a number of ethical questions surrounding medical treatments that
are beginning to emerge as a consequence of rapidly developing technology. As our understanding of
the brain grows, so too will the number of questions we have to answer.

CORE CONCEPTS:
1) Since the brain is the center of perception and cognition, it serves as the core of our human
experience. However, we aren’t isolated individuals; how we interact with others and our
society determines what kind of people we are. Neuroscience serves as a way to connect our
understanding of individual behavior to society.
2) Neurolaw aims to describe concepts like crime rates, forensic evidence, and even eyewitness
testimony with scientific accuracy. Major questions have emerged in this field involving
addiction and what qualifies as infallible evidence in court.
3) Neuroeconomics combines financial decisions with the motivation and emotional centers of our
brain. By correlating cautious or risky actions with particular patterns of brain activity or
hormone levels, we can better understand what roles these biological signs play in how we
approach financial decisions. We can also use this information to create workplaces that best
employ the talents of each employee.
4) Ethical questions involving genetic editing, equal rights to treatment, and autonomy all remain
at the forefront of clinical research. While there will never be a truly correct, universal answer
for these questions, engaging in discussion with other scientists and the more general
population may help us face these questions moving forward.

INTERSECTIONS IN LAW, ECONOMICS, AND ETHICS:

Law, economics, and ethics all serve as major cornerstones of our society. Neuroscience has a role
to play in guiding each of these fields. As we learn more about the human brain and behavior, we
have a responsibility to integrate this information to best serve others.

Neurolaw:
How does addiction represent the importance of integrating scientific knowledge into the legal
process?

How do polygraphs tell whether a person is telling the truth? Why aren’t they necessarily accurate?

Given the imperfect conclusions often drawn by polygraphs and eyewitness testimony, do you think
it’s realistic to completely remove these from the judicial process? Why or why not?

Neuroeconomics:

71
The limbic system and insular cortex are generally responsible for sensory integration, emotional
responses, and decision-making. Why would we expect to see these structures activated when
considering a major financial decision?

Our emotional states and actions can be heavily influenced by hormones. Explain how oxytocin,
cortisol, and testosterone would change a decision to make a major investment in your friend’s start-
up business.

Ethics:
A major question the scientific community must face is whether there are cases that necessitate
genomic editing. Based on the information provided in Chapters 17 and 18, what are your own
thoughts on this topic?

What ethical questions appeal to you as a young scientist?

VOCABULARY
neurolaw, eyewitness testimony, forensic evidence, infallible, polygraph tests, neuroeconomics, limbic
system, oxytocin, testosterone, cortisol, neurodiverse, unconscious bias, informed consent, human
rights

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 Appendix 1: Neurotransmitter Table
Neurotransmitter Associated Function Page Numbers
Acetylcholine Typically excitatory, best known for 10, 26, 32-33, 43-44, 52, 54, 63
controlling wakefulness, memory,
attention, heart rate, and muscle
movement
Dopamine A key modulatory neurotransmitter 10, 17, 20, 30, 33-34, 38, 40-45,
implicated in motor control, mood 52-53, 55, 60, 63
regulation, motivation, and addiction
Epinephrine Also known as adrenaline, an excitatory 36-37, 64
hormone that increases arousal and
drives the “fight-or-flight” response
GABA Very common inhibitory neurotransmitter, 10, 32-34, 40, 44-45, 64
prevents neurons from firing throughout
the brain. Also the target of ethanol, which
results in lowered anxiety and reaction
times
Glutamate Very common excitatory neurotransmitter, 10, 19, 32, 34, 40-41, 44-46, 52-
implicated in learning, memory, synaptic 53, 64
pairing during development. Also linked to
glutamate excitotoxicity, a core disease
mechanism which destroys neurons
Histamine Typically excitatory, associated with pain, 14, 32-33, 64
itch, and circadian arousal signals
Norepinephrine Typically excitatory neurotransmitter 26, 32-33, 41, 64
present in both the brain and peripheral
nervous system that is intertwined with
homeostasis through regulation of
arousal, wakefulness, mood, and blood
pressure
Serotonin A modulatory neurotransmitter with 6, 30, 32-34, 40-41, 45, 65
several proposed roles in temperature
regulation, mood, sensory perception,
sleepiness, and brain-gut communication

Neuropeptides A subtype of neurotransmitters that can 32

work in a wide variety of ways; includes
orexins, which are responsible for
controlling wakefulness

73