sustainability

Article
Energy Management System and Control of Plug-in Hybrid
Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in a Grid-Connected Microgrid
Muhammad Roaid 1 , Tayyab Ashfaq 2, * , Sidra Mumtaz 1 , Fahad R. Albogamy 3, *, Saghir Ahmad 1
and Basharat Ullah 4

1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus,
Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan; roaidkundi723@[Link] (M.R.); sagheer@[Link] (S.A.)
2 School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
3 Computer Sciences Program, Turabah University College, Taif University, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
4 Department of Mechatronics Engineering, College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering,
National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
* Correspondence: malkaltayyab@[Link] (T.A.); [Link]@[Link] (F.R.A.)

Abstract: In the complex environment of microgrid deployments targeted at geographic regions,

the seamless integration of renewable energy sources meets a variety of essential challenges. These
include the unpredictable nature of renewable energy, characterized by intermittent energy generation,
as well as ongoing fluctuations in load demand, the vulnerabilities present in distribution network
failures, and the unpredictability that results from unfavorable weather conditions. These unexpected
events work together to disturb the delicate balance between energy supply and demand, raising
the alarming threat of system instability and, in the worst cases, the sudden advent of damaging
blackouts. To address this issue, a fuzzy logic-based energy management system has been developed
to monitor, manage, and optimize energy consumption in microgrids. This study focuses on the
control of diesel generators and utility grids in a grid-connected microgrid which manages and
evaluates numerous energy consumption and distribution features within a specified system, e.g.,
building or a microgrid. An energy management system is suggested based on fuzzy logic as a
swift fix for complications with effective and competent resource management, and its presentation
Citation: Roaid, M.; Ashfaq, T.;
is compared with both the grid-connected and off-grid modes of the microgrid. In the end, the
Mumtaz, S.; Albogamy, F.R.; Ahmad,
results exhibit that the proposed controller outclasses the predictable controllers in dropping sudden
S.; Ullah, B. Energy Management
variations that arise during the addition of sources of renewable energy, supporting the refurbishment
System and Control of Plug-in Hybrid
of the constant system.
Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in a
Grid-Connected Microgrid.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122. https://
Keywords: microgrid; distributed energy resources; energy management system; fuzzy logic control;
[Link]/10.3390/su16209122 smart grid

Academic Editors: Juan C. Vasquez,

Francesco Lo Franco and Mattia Ricco

Received: 4 September 2024 1. Introduction

Revised: 12 October 2024 Renewable energy sources (RESs) presently offer significant natural and monetary
Accepted: 18 October 2024 advantages by decreasing carbon dioxide emanations and transmission losses, making them
Published: 21 October 2024
an alluring choice for future smart grids [1]. In this unique circumstance, microgrids are
recognized as key parts of smart grids [2] and have stood out throughout the last 10 years
because of their possible impact in the near future [3,4]. The adaptation of distributed
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
energy resource (DER) systems, especially those using RESs, has altogether increased. This
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. surge is mostly determined by ecological guidelines, diminishing fossil fuel resources, and
This article is an open access article efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions [5].
distributed under the terms and Several studies have examined the idea of a microgrid (µG) [6,7]. The integration
conditions of the Creative Commons of energy storage systems (ESSs), including batteries, flywheels, and ultra-capacitors,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// alongside energy management systems (EMSs) is strongly encouraged in a µG setting
[Link]/licenses/by/ because of the intermittent nature of RESs and stochastic load demand patterns [8,9]. µGs
4.0/). using RESs can be categorized as smart grids which can work in both stand-alone and

Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122. [Link] [Link]

Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 2 of 18

grid-connected modes. In stand-alone mode, where the µG is isolated from the distribution
networks, the EMS ensures a reliable power supply to consumers. In grid-connected mode,
the µG regulates the power balance between energy generation and energy demand by
trading energy with the utility grid [10,11]. According to recent review studies [12,13],
these systems have been the subject of research for over a decade.
Fuzzy logic control (FLC) has been applied in EMS design. In addition to an EMS for
standalone configurations [14,15], an EMS with FLC for a DC microgrid is discussed in [16];
the FLC focuses on selling excess electricity from RESs while keeping the battery’s state
of charge (SOC) above half to prolong battery life. Reference [17] presents an EMS where
FLC considers daily price fluctuations, energy utilization, output levels, and time of day to
guarantee grid affordability. It is important to note that the EMSs in these studies do not
consistently address the objective of smoothing the grid power profile.
The power architecture examined in this work focuses on a grid-connected µG that
uses wind and solar energy, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and industrial and
residential loads. The accessible data incorporates 24 h records of RES power generation
and load consumption, allowing for generation and demand forecasting. This provides
a straightforward method for integrating renewable energy into existing conventional
installations by simply adding renewable generators (wind and solar) and a set of batteries
as an ESS alongside PHEVs. This study proposes an EMS design for a grid-connected µG
that uses fuzzy logic control to improve the strategy of work in [18] for better smoothing of
the grid and diesel power profiles. Some authors explored a µG with machine learning in
order to balance the use of overutilized and underutilized EV charging stations; their study
presents a dynamic allocation method for these facilities. By using heuristic algorithms and
forecasting models, the proposed method increases EV charging station utilization by about
6% while minimizing the annoyance to consumers [19]. The SOC of PHEVs estimated
using the enhanced dingo optimization algorithm with deep learning-based prediction
(EDOA-DLP) is presented in this paper. When it comes to maximizing PHEV performance
and efficiency, the suggested model outperforms current approaches by notably improving
real-time energy management and SOC prediction accuracy [20].
The simple moving average (SMA) strategy is used to smooth the grid power profile,
as demonstrated in [21]. This strategy uses a simple moving average filter with a one-
day window size to recognize high and low recurrences in the µG’s net power when
utilizing a low-pass filter (LPF) [22]. The studies in [23–25] suggest that the EMS should
be designed to smooth the energy trade with the grid while at the same time tending to
both the constraints of the ESS and the load demand. Such systems can oversee power flow
between their components, guaranteeing that the overall system works in a reliable, safe,
and economical manner.
The main contributions of this work are as follows:
1. Development of an energy management system (EMS) that utilizes fuzzy logic control
(FLC) to control the use of diesel generator (DG) and the utility grid in the suggested
system. This guarantees the best possible balance between the use of backup power
sources and renewable energy sources (RESs), which many previous studies do not
address with such dynamic control.
2. Our system strategically shifts grid usage to off-peak hours (non-peak periods) to
reduce costs during peak hours (6–10 pm). The use of the DG during peak hours
ensures uninterrupted power without relying on costly grid energy.
3. Many current systems rely solely on grid power during high-demand periods or fail
to efficiently manage DG usage. Our system improves upon this by dynamically oper-
ating the DG only when necessary, reducing fuel consumption and operational costs.
4. While previous research has frequently emphasized the difficulties in integrating
intermittent RESs (such as wind and solar power), our contribution offers a thorough
approach that makes use of these sources while also offering a reliable fallback through
the integration of DG and grid.
 operating the DG only when necessary, reducing fuel consumption and operational
costs.
4. While previous research has frequently emphasized the difficulties in integrating in-
termittent RESs (such as wind and solar power), our contribution offers a thorough
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122
approach that makes use of these sources while also offering a reliable fallback 3 of 18
through the integration of DG and grid.
5. Current energy management systems (EMSs) may not integrate such adaptive con-
5. or
trols Current energy
prioritize the management
most cost-effectivesystems and(EMSs) mayuse
efficient notofintegrate
multiple such adaptive
power sources controls
in real time. Our system fills this gap by using FLC to optimize transitions betweenin real
or prioritize the most cost-effective and efficient use of multiple power sources
energy time. Ourbased
sources system onfills
thethis
timegap by using
of use FLC to optimize transitions between energy
and availability.
sources based on the time of use and availability.
The proposed system
The proposed architecture
system comprises
architecture a photovoltaic
comprises (PV) farm
a photovoltaic with an
(PV) farm with8 MWan 8 MW
capacity, a wind farm with a 4.5 MW capacity, a 10 MW diesel
capacity, a wind farm with a 4.5 MW capacity, a 10 MW diesel generator, PHEVs generator, PHEVs with with
vehicle-to-grid (V2G)(V2G)
vehicle-to-grid and grid-to-vehicle
and grid-to-vehicle (G2V)(G2V)
capabilities adding
capabilities up to up
adding 4 MW, and aand a
to 4 MW,
utilityutility
gird, as shown
gird, in Figure
as shown 1. The 1.
in Figure PVThe
solarPVfarm
solar uses
farm a DC/AC converterconverter
uses a DC/AC to meet the to meet
specific demands of the µG. This is accomplished using the maximum
the specific demands of the µG. This is accomplished using the maximum power point power point track-
ing (MPPT)
trackingtechnique to enhance
(MPPT) technique the efficiency
to enhance of the PV
the efficiency system
of the and achieve
PV system optimal
and achieve optimal
power generation in the face of temperature and irradiation fluctuations.
power generation in the face of temperature and irradiation fluctuations. The 4.5 MW The 4.5 MW wind
windfarmfarmisisundertaken
undertakentotomeet meetthe the specific
specific demands
demands of of
thetheµG.µG.
WindWind speed
speed is taken
is taken between
between13.513.5
andand15 15
m/s.m/[Link] integration
integration of of a 15MW
a 15 MWdiesel
dieselgeneration
generation facility
facility is
is under-
undertaken
takento tomeet
meetthethe specific
specific demands of the µG µG when
when therethereisisnonosupply
supplyfrom fromRESs
RESsasasthey they are
are generally
generally installed
installedas as
a backup
a backup supply source.
supply Furthermore,
source. Furthermore, 100 cars and five
100 cars andcharging
five charging
stations are employed
stations are employedin ourinstudy.
our [Link] PHEVs
The PHEVs are charged
are chargedand discharged
and discharged whenever
whenever
energy is required, and no other resources are available. This serves
energy is required, and no other resources are available. This serves to regulate to regulate the sudden
the sudden
fluctuations that occur
fluctuations during
that occur the integration
during or sudden
the integration eventsevents
or sudden that occur during
that occur network
during network
failures. A utility
failures. grid grid
A utility is used for for
is used feeding back
feeding backexcess
excesspower
powerororfeeding
feedingin in power
power when there
there is
is not enough powerpower fromfromRESs.
[Link]
Multiplepractical
practicalloads
loadsareareconsidered
consideredinin ourourstudy;
study; for
instance,domestic
for instance, domesticand andindustrial
industrialloads loadswith
withratings
ratingsofof55MW MWand and0.16
0.16MVA,
MVA, respec-
respectively,
tively,are
areused.
[Link]
industrialload loadturnsturnsononatat33am;
am;during
duringthisthisON
ONperiod,
period,slight
slightsurges
surgesin the
in thepower
powersystem
systemare areregulated
regulatedby bythe
thePHEVs’
PHEVs’stored
storedenergy.
energy.

FigureFigure
1. Layout of the of
1. Layout system.
the system.

This study
This study uses auses a fuzzy
fuzzy logic logic technique
technique as theas the supervisory
supervisory control
control systemsystem for energy
for energy
management.
management. The intelligent
The intelligent switching
switching of theof the system
system between
between various
various operational
operational scenar-
scenar-
ios such as utility-grid-peak and off-peak modes and diesel-generator-emergency modemode
ios such as utility-grid-peak and off-peak modes and diesel-generator-emergency
ensures efficient and adequate system performance. The system is designed to feed excess
power to the utility grid when renewable power generation exceeds the load demand,
provided that the PHEVs are fully charged.
The proposed system exhibits greater efficiency and responsiveness compared to
customary hard-switching control techniques. Fuzzy logic allows a scope of output values
for additional operations of the control system rather than the binary outputs typical of hard-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 4 of 18

switching techniques, which merely switch parts of the framework on or off. Additionally,
the FLC-based EMS enhances system responsiveness by eliminating the need for separate
processes for calculations. This is a significant improvement over hard-logic techniques
which require proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers for additional calculations.

2. Energy Sources and Energy Management System

The suggested fuzzy based energy management system (EMS) replaces traditional
µGs in a methodical, technological, and cost-effective manner. This novel method improves
the energy management capabilities of microgrids by utilizing fuzzy logic, a computational
framework adept at handling complicated, uncertain, and dynamic factors.
In the rapidly changing energy paradigm, microgrid performance optimization re-
quires the combination of cutting-edge technologies and logical decision-making processes.
The FLC-based EMS effectively handles the uncertainties associated with sustainable power
sources as well as varying demand, improving overall system reliability and performance.
In case of disturbances in the system, the accessible power from the PHEVs is used to
control the grid. Batteries inside the system are charged and discharged utilizing a current
controller (CC), with the limits set at 90% for charging and 20% for discharging. At the
point when renewable energy generation is deficient, the utility grid supplies power to the
system. On the other hand, excess power from renewable energy generation is fed back
into the grid. Furthermore, a DG directly connected to the load provides backup power
when required.
The flowchart in Figure 2 shows the operational strategy for the whole system. The
system regularly checks the RESs, grid power, DG power, load, and the current state of
the PHEVs to smoothly operate the proposed system. The system checks if the renewable
energy generation is equal to the load (no difference); if so, it feeds power to the load
and otherwise goes back to point 1 to check again. If renewable energy generation is
greater than the load (difference greater than zero), it first checks for fluctuations; if there
are fluctuations, it removes them via the PHEVs, and if there are no fluctuations, then
it meets the load, and the excess power is fed back into the grid. If renewable energy
generation is less than the load (difference is less than zero), first it checks for fluctuations
and removes them via the PHEVs, and if there are no fluctuations, it checks the grid peak
hours (6–10 pm); if the current time falls inside off-peak hours, power is provided by the
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
grid, and during on-peak hours, the DG starts operating to meet the load. 5 of 19

Below is a brief description of the modeled system.

Figure 2. Proposed system operational strategy flowchart.

Figure 2. Proposed system operational strategy flowchart.
Below is a brief description of the modeled system.

2.1. Photovoltaic (PV) Model

In order to meet the specific demands of the µG, an 8 MW PV solar farm is integrated
with the DC/AC converter. A MPPT approach is integrated with the converter to maxim-
 Figure 2. Proposed system operational strategy flowchart.

Below is a brief description of the modeled system.

Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 5 of 18
2.1. Photovoltaic (PV) Model
In order to meet the specific demands of the µG, an 8 MW PV solar farm is integrated
2.1. Photovoltaic (PV) Model
with the DC/AC converter. A MPPT approach is integrated with the converter to maxim
In order to meet the specific demands of the µG, an 8 MW PV solar farm is integrated
ize power generation despite temperature and irradiance changes and to improve the ef
with the DC/AC converter. A MPPT approach is integrated with the converter to maximize
ficiency of the PV system. The PV system can reliably collect the greatest amount of powe
power generation despite temperature and irradiance changes and to improve the efficiency
from
of thesystem.
the PV solar resource usingcan
The PV system thereliably
MPPTcollect
algorithm. Figure
the greatest 3 shows
amount an illustration
of power from the of th
solar resource using the MPPT algorithm. Figure 3 shows an illustration of the PVis
PV system model. Figure 4 shows the detailed model of the PV farm that being used i
system
FigureFigure
model. 3. 4 shows the detailed model of the PV farm that is being used in Figure 3.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

[Link]
Figure PVmodel.
model.

Figure 4. PV
PV farm
farm detailed
detailed model.

2.2. Wind
2.2. Wind Turbine
Turbine (WT)
(WT) Model
Model
AA 4.5
4.5 MW
MW wind
wind farm
farm is
is integrated with the
integrated with the power
power electronics
electronics converters. The wind
converters. The wind
speed is maintained between 13.5 m/s and 15 m/s in order to maximize electricity
speed is maintained between 13.5 m/s and 15 m/s in order to maximize electricity genera- gen-
eration and improve the wind farm’s efficiency. Figure 5 shows the results of the
tion and improve the wind farm’s efficiency. Figure 5 shows the results of the wind energywind
energy model.
model.
 2.2. Wind Turbine (WT) Model
A 4.5 MW wind farm is integrated with the power electronics converters. The wind
speed is maintained between 13.5 m/s and 15 m/s in order to maximize electricity genera-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 tion and improve the wind farm’s efficiency. Figure 5 shows the results of the wind
6 of 18 energy

model.

Figure
Figure 5. Wind
5. Wind turbine
turbine model.
model.
2.3. Diesel Generator (DG) Model
2.3. Diesel Generator (DG) Model
A diesel engine and an electrical generator are usually mechanically connected in a
A diesel
diesel engine
generator. and an
A speed electrical
governor generator
is used are
to control theusually mechanically
diesel generator’s connected
output power. in a
µG systems commonly use diesel generators as backup power sources [26]. A
diesel generator. A speed governor is used to control the diesel generator’s output power.10 MW
synchronous
µG systems generatoruse
commonly anddiesel
its fundamental
generators controlling
as backup principles are modelled.
power sources [26]. Given a
A 10 MW syn-
rated power output PDG , Equation (1) can be used to determine the energy produced EDG
chronous generator and its fundamental controlling principles are modelled. Given a
by the diesel generator.
rated power output 𝑃 , Equation (1) EDGcan
= Pbe used to determine the energy produced
DG × η DG (1) 𝐸
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
by the diesel generator. 7 of 19
Here, ηDG represents the efficiency of the diesel generator. The model of the diesel generator
system is provided in Figure 6. 𝐸 = 𝑃 x η (1)
Here, η represents the efficiency of the diesel generator. The model of the diesel gener-
ator system is provided in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6. Diesel
6. Diesel generatormodel.
generator model.

2.4. Battery Storage System of PHEVs

2.4. Battery Storagehybrid
A plug-in System of PHEVs
electric vehicle (PHEV) with an energy storage system (ESS) is set
up
A in parallel,
plug-in as shown
hybrid in Figure
electric vehicle7. The motor with
(PHEV) is powered by a DC/DC
an energy storageconverter and is set
system (ESS)
inverter [27,28], and the battery is linked in parallel. Power for the PHEVs’
up in parallel, as shown in Figure 7. The motor is powered by a DC/DC converter propulsion can and
be produced by an electric motor or an internal combustion (IC) engine.
inverter [27,28], and the battery is linked in parallel. Power for the PHEVs’ propulsion can
be produced by an electric motor or an internal combustion (IC) engine.
The maximum battery current 𝐼 , ,( ) is influenced by two factors: the current
state of charge (SoC) of the battery and the maximum permissible charging/discharging
rate. 𝐼 , ,( ) represents the upper limit for the current that can be drawn from or sup-
plied to the battery. The operational decision variable, denoted by 𝑋 %( ) , ranges be-
 , ,( )
plied to the battery. The operational decision variable, denoted by 𝑋 %( ) , ranges be-
tween 0 and 1, represents the instantaneous output current of the battery, and is a propor-
tion of the maximum attainable current at a given time t. 𝐼 ( ) is expressed as follows:
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 7 of 18
𝐼 ( )= 𝐼 , ,( ) × 𝑋 %( ) (2)

Figure 7. PHEV model.

Figure 7. PHEV model.

The maximum battery current IBat,max,(t) is influenced by two factors: the current state
2.5. Load
of charge (SoC) of the battery and the maximum permissible charging/discharging rate.
A 5 MW domestic load
IBat,max, and 0.16 the
(t) represents MVA industrial
upper limit for load are considered
the current that can bein this study,
drawn from orassupplied
to the battery. The operational decision variable, denoted
shown in Figure 8. At 3 am, the industrial load is scheduled to begin running. by X ,
Bat%(tThe
) ranges between
energy 0
and 1, represents the instantaneous output current of the battery,
stored in the PHEVs will control the slight increase in power demand that occurs when and is a proportion of the
maximum attainable current at a given time t. IBat(t) is expressed as follows:
the industrial load is activated.
IBat(t) = IBat,max,(t) × XBat%(t) (2)

2.5. Load
A 5 MW domestic load and 0.16 MVA industrial load are considered in this study, as
shown
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW in Figure 8. At 3 am, the industrial load is scheduled to begin running. The energy 8 of 19
stored in the PHEVs will control the slight increase in power demand that occurs when the
industrial load is activated.

Figure 8. Load
Figure model.
8. Load model.

2.6. Utility Grid

A utility grid is integrated into the model for feeding out the excess power or feeding
in power when there is no or less power generated by renewable energy sources. The util-
ity grid is shown in Figure 9.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 8 of 18
Figure 8. Load model.

2.6. Utility Grid

A utility grid is integrated into the model for feeding out the excess power or feeding
in power
in power when
when there
there is
isno
noororless
lesspower
powergenerated
generatedby
byrenewable
renewableenergy
energysources.
[Link]
Theutility
util-
gridgrid
ity is shown in Figure
is shown 9. 9.
in Figure

Figure 9. Utility grid model.

3. Controller
3. Controller Design
Design
3.1. FLC-Based EMS
3.1. FLC-Based EMS
An FLC framework was used in the development of the EMS of the µG under discus-
An FLC framework was used in the development of the EMS of the µG under dis-
sion, as shown in Figure 1. The development of an FLC-based EMS is the main goal of this
cussion, as shown in Figure 1. The development of an FLC-based EMS is the main goal of
work. The principal aim is to reduce the quantity of fuzzy rules utilized within the system.
this work. The principal aim is to reduce the quantity of fuzzy rules utilized within the
This method seeks to manage the grid-connected µG with less complexity while improving
system. This method seeks to manage the grid-connected µG with less complexity while
the control system’s responsiveness and efficiency.
improving the control system’s responsiveness and efficiency.
It is feasible to arrange suitable supervision of µG control and facilitate effective
It is feasible
management to arrangeasuitable
by executing minimizedsupervision
group ofoffuzzy
µG control and facilitate
logic conditions effective
in the man-
FLC-based
agement by executing a minimized group of fuzzy logic conditions in the
EMS. By applying this smooth methodology, the response times are accelerated, enabling FLC-based EMS.
By
the applying
system to this smooth
rapidly methodology,
adjust the response
to modified conditions andtimes are accelerated,
demands. Increasing theenabling
sum of the
the
system to rapidly adjust to modified conditions and demands. Increasing
fuzzy set/rules in the FLC-based EMS model ensures active and useful energy management the sum of the
fuzzy
in the set/rules in the FLC-based
µG. By employing EMS control
this method, model ensures active
techniques for and useful
the µG’s energy manage-
incorporation into
ment in thepower
the central µG. Bygrid
employing this method,
can be established control
with techniquesand
dependability for the µG’s incorporation
efficiency. The leading
into the central
objective power gridEMS
of the FLC-based can be
is established
to expand thewith
usedependability
of RESs while and effi[Link]
concurrently The lead-
ing objectivepower
an adequate of thesupply
FLC-based EMS variable
to manage is to expand the use of RESs
load requirements. whilecarries
The EMS concurrently
out this
objective by effectively storing surplus power produced by RESs in PHEVs and managing
it to balance unforeseen alterations in the energy supply. The EMS assumes control of the
DG’s work to make up for the deprivation of wind power, PV power, and grid power when
the power produced by the RESs and power grid is not adequate to meet the specified
load requirements. By employing regulation switches to oversee the power grid and DG
operation, the FLC framework guarantees a reserve power supply in cases when RES
production is not accessible. The FLC approach employed in this state will be described
further in the subsection that follows. Furthermore, the control system competently keeps
the state of charge (SoC) of the PHEVs between 20% and 90%, which prolongs the lifespan
of the batteries used in the PHEVs. To enhance productivity, the considered system links
the two FLC framework designs.
1. The responsibility of FLC-1 is to oversee the DG, ensuring that the DG performs
within the specified conditions and provisions.
2. The responsibility of FLC-2 is to supervise the power grid, overseeing its working to
sustain a variation-free supply of electricity and to ensure that it remains in line with
the requirements of the system.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 9 of 18

After commissioning FLC, the system is capable of efficiently managing both the DG
and the power grid. This permits for efficient unification and tractability in reaction to
numerous circumstances, which eventually improves system operation.

3.2. Fuzzy Logic Controller-1

The two aforementioned FLC inputs are surplus power and the PHEVs’ SoC. The
energy from RESs should be removed from the demanded load to calculate surplus power.
Additional power is being generated by the RESs than is needed for energy utilization
when the surplus power is greater than zero. PHEVs or integration of the system can
be essentially achieved with the surplus power. In comparison, the DG is triggered by
the FLC framework to supply the power required by the installed load when the surplus
power is negative, showing that the demanded load exceeds the available production
capacity. By analyzing these inputs, the FLC framework uses a methodical process to make
well-informed decisions about the distribution of excess power and the start-up of the
diesel generator, ensuring a reliable and well-coordinated power supply. Excess power can
be calculated as:
Pexcess = Prenewable − Pload (3)
Pexcess represents the excess power, Prenewable denotes the energy generated from RESs, and
Pload denotes the electrical power required by a system. Power provided by the addition of
energy produced from RESs in the µG is calculated as:

Prenewable = Psolar + Pwind (4)

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
Sustainability 2024,P16,
solar
x FOR Pwind
andPEER are the
energy produced from WT and PV systems, respectively.
REVIEW Figure 10a,b
10 of 19
illustrate the MFs for inputs and Figure 11 illustrates the output of FLC-1. Table 1 demon-
strates FLC-1’s fuzzy rules.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. MFs of input to FLC-1; (a) Excess power (b) SOC.
Figure 10. MFs Figure [Link]
of input MFs of input
FLC-1; (a) to FLC-1;
Excess (a) Excess
power power (b) SOC.
(b) SOC.

Figure 11. 11.

Figure Output MF of
Output MFFLC-1.
of FLC-1.
Figure 11. Output MF of FLC-1.
Table 1. FLC-1 fuzzy rules.
Table 1. FLC-1 fuzzy rules.
Excess Power
Grid Operation Excess Power
GridNH NM
Operation NS Zero PS PM PH
NH NM NS Zero PS PM PH
Empty ON ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF
Empty ON ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF
SOC Medium OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF
 Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 10 of 18

Table 1. FLC-1 fuzzy rules.

Excess Power
Grid Operation
NH NM NS Zero PS PM PH
Empty ON ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF
SOC Medium OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF
High OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF

The acronyms NS for small, Zero, PM for positive medium, PH for positive high, NH
for negative high, and NM for negative medium can be used to represent several concepts.

3.3. Fuzzy Logic Controller-2

The control strategy incorporates an FLC framework that considers two inputs, the
time of day and the excess power. These inputs are used by the FLC to determine how
much grid electricity is available. Specifically, the controller’s behavior can be characterized
as follows:
1. The controller will cut off the grid’s electrical supply if the current time is within the
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW specified peak hours. This implies that it is feasible to use an energy storage system or11 of 19
alternate power source to meet electricity needs during times of high demand, hence
minimizing or doing away with reliance on the primary power grid.
2. On the other hand, the controller will start to activate the grid supply during off-peak
the required amount of electricity, guaranteeing a consistent and easily available en-
hours. This implies that in times of low demand, the electrical grid is used to supply
ergy source.
the required amount of electricity, guaranteeing a consistent and easily available
When deciding
energy source. whether to activate or deactivate the grid supply, the FLC framework
considers
Whenboth the time
deciding of day
whether to and the or
activate extra electricity
deactivate available.
the grid supply,This decision
the FLC aligns with
framework
the overarching
considers goal
both the toofoptimize
time day and thepower
extrausage andavailable.
electricity load management while
This decision alignsconsidering
with
the overarching goal to optimize power
the timing characteristics of the system. usage and load management while considering the
timing characteristics of the system.
Figure 12a,b illustrates the MFs for inputs and Figure 13 illustrates the MFs for output
Figure
of FLC-2. 12a,b
Table illustrates
2 shows the MFs
FLC-2’s for inputs
fuzzy [Link] Figure 13 illustrates the MFs for output
of FLC-2. Table 2 shows FLC-2’s fuzzy rules.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure12.
[Link]
MFsof
ofFLC
FLC −
−2;
2; (a)
(a) Excess power(b)
Excess power (b)Time
Time
(h).(h).

Table 2. FLC-2 fuzzy rules.

Excess Power
Grid Operation
NH NM NS Zero PS PM PH
Off Peak (AM) ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
Time Peak OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF
Off Peak (PM) ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
 Excess Power
Grid Operation
NH NM NS Zero PS PM PH
Off Peak (AM) ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
Time Peak OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 11 of 18
Off Peak (PM) ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

Figure 13.13.
Figure Output MF
Output of of
MF FLC-2.
FLC-2.

4. Table 2. FLC-2 fuzzy

Performance rules.
Analysis
The results of the proposed schemesExcess
of an island
Power and grid-connected µG are investi-
Grid Operation gated. The results are presented as four separate cases to promote understanding.
NH NM NS Zero PS PM PH
1. Case I depicts the system in island mode.
Off Peak (AM) ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
2. Case II depicts the system in grid-connected mode.
Time Peak OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF
Off Peak (PM) ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

4. Performance Analysis
The results of the proposed schemes of an island and grid-connected µG are investi-
gated. The results are presented as four separate cases to promote understanding.
1. Case I depicts the system in island mode.
2. Case II depicts the system in grid-connected mode.
3. Case III depicts FLC-1 integrated with grid-connected mode.
4. Case IV depicts FLC-2 integrated with grid-connected mode.

4.1. Case I
In the given context, the power system is operating in island mode, wherein it is
physically disconnected from the primary grid and functions autonomously. The µG is
specifically engineered to fulfill the load requirements and comprises a diverse range of
energy sources, encompassing renewable sources, a diesel generator, and PHEVs.
Figure 14 shows the total load during the day when there are events integrated into the
system at 12 pm and 10 pm. The load is the same for all the cases discussed in this paper.
In Figure 15, we introduced some sudden events into the PV and wind profiles during
the day. At around 12 pm, some shading will cover the solar panels which will last for
some minutes, and at around 10 pm, the wind speed will exceed the nominal speed range;
as a result, the turbines will be turned off for some time and will start providing power
when the wind speed is below the limit.
Figure 16 depicts that when solar panels experience a shading effect and the wind
speed is above the limit, the PHEVs will come to the rescue and will regulate the grid
during that time.
 some minutes, and at around 10 pm, the wind speed will exceed the nominal speed range;
as
as aa result,
result, the
the turbines
turbines will
will be
be turned
turned offoff for
for some
some time
time and
and will
will start
start providing
providing power
power
when the wind speed is below
when the wind speed is below the [Link] limit.
Figure
Figure 16 16 depicts
depicts that
that when
when solar
solar panels
panels experience
experience aa shading
shading effect
effect and
and the
the wind
wind
speed
speed
Sustainability 2024, is
is above the limit, the PHEVs will come to the rescue and will regulate the grid
16, 9122above the limit, the PHEVs will come to the rescue and will regulate the grid 12 of 18
during
duringthat thattime.
time.

Figure
Figure14.
[Link]
Totalload.
load.
Figure 14. Total load.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Figure
Figure15.
[Link]
Totalgeneration
Figure 15. when
generation when
Total some
somesudden
whenevents
sudden
generation events
some were
wereintroduced
sudden introduced
events into
intothe
thePV
were introducedPV andthewind
and
into wind pro-
pro-
PV and wind profiles.
files.
files.

Figure 16. PHEVs profile of Case I.

Figure 16. PHEVs profile of Case I.

4.2. Case II
In the previous case, the power system functioned in a state referred to as island
mode, characterized by its physical isolation and independent operation from the primary
grid. However, this case study examines an alternative scenario in which the system is
interconnected with a utility grid. This implies that the system now operates as a grid-
 Figure 16. PHEVs profile of Case I.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 13 of 18

4.2. Case II
In the previous case, the power system functioned in a state referred to as island
4.2. Case II
mode, characterized by its physical isolation and independent operation from the primary
In the previous case, the power system functioned in a state referred to as island
grid. However, this case study examines an alternative scenario in which the system is
mode, characterized by its physical isolation and independent operation from the primary
interconnected with a utility grid. This implies that the system now operates as a grid-
grid. However, this case study examines an alternative scenario in which the system is
connected µG, enabling interaction
interconnected with a utility and implies
grid. This integration
that with the primary
the system power grid.
now operates Figure
as a grid-
17connected
depicts the
µG, enabling interaction and integration with the primary power grid. Figure 17the
power generation in grid-connected mode when events occur during
day. The the
depicts total amount
power of power
generation generated is an
in grid-connected outcome
mode whenof the combination
events occur during ofthediverse
day.
sources of amount
The total generation. The generated
of power implementation of a grid
is an outcome system
of the results in
combination a decrease
of diverse in the
sources
utilization of the DG and assumes responsibility for the provision of electrical
of generation. The implementation of a grid system results in a decrease in the utilization power.
Solar generation
of the encounters
DG and assumes interruptions
responsibility for thearound noon
provision when cloud
of electrical [Link]
Solarprevents
generationsun-
encounters
light interruptions
from reaching around
the solar noon
panels, when
and cloud cover prevents
at approximately 10 pm,sunlight
the wind from reaching
speed exceeds
thedesignated
the solar panels, and at approximately
threshold, resulting in the10temporary
pm, the wind speed
halt of wind exceeds
turbinethe designated
operations dur-
threshold, resulting
ing this timeframe. in the temporary halt of wind turbine operations during this timeframe.

Figure
Figure17.
[Link]
Totalgeneration
generation when system isisin
when system ingrid-connected
in grid-connected mode.
mode.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure
Figure18
18 presents
presents aavisual
visualrepresentation
representation of the
of the gridgrid regulation
regulation and charging
and charging pro-
processes
14 of 19
cesses for PHEVs
for PHEVs operating
operating in grid-connected
in grid-connected modemodewhenwhen
suddensudden changes
changes to thetogenerating
the gener-
sources
ating occur
sources during
occur the day.
during the day.

Figure 18. PHEVs profile of Case II.

Figure 18. PHEVs profile of Case II.

4.3. Case III

In this scenario, we propose the development of an FLC framework for the purpose
of regulating and managing the operation of a diesel generator. The nomenclature for the
proposed FLC is FLC-1. Once the inputs, rules, and output are defined, the simulation is
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 14 of 18

4.3. Case III Figure 18. PHEVs profile of Case II.

In this scenario, we propose the development of an FLC framework for the purpose
of regulating 4.3.
andCase III
managing the operation of a diesel generator. The nomenclature for the
proposed FLC is [Link],
In this Once we thepropose
inputs,the development
rules, and outputof an are
FLC defined,
frameworkthe forsimulation
the purpose
of regulating and managing the operation of a diesel generator. The nomenclature for the
is executed on a grid-connected µG system. The attained outcomes are delineated as
proposed FLC is FLC-1. Once the inputs, rules, and output are defined, the simulation is
follows. Figure 19 presents
executed a comprehensive
on a grid-connected µG system. depiction of the
The attained optimized
outcomes performance
are delineated of
as follows.
the DG attained by employing [Link] figure enables the observation and
Figure 19 presents a comprehensive depiction of the optimized performance of the DG analysis of
the comprehensive power generation profile, thereby demonstrating the efficacy
attained by employing [Link] figure enables the observation and analysis of the com- of FLC-1
in dynamically regulating
prehensive powerthegeneration
operational parameters
profile, of the DG. the
thereby demonstrating Through
efficacythe process
of FLC-1 of
in dy-
namically regulating the operational parameters of the DG. Through
optimizing the generation from the DG, the system has the capacity to attain a power the process of opti-
supply that ismizing
boththe moregeneration from
efficient the sustainable.
and DG, the system This,
has theincapacity to attaincan
succession, a power
result supply
in a
that is both more efficient and sustainable. This, in succession, can result in a scale of pos-
scale of possible benefits, including reduced fuel expenditure, decreased emissions, and
sible benefits, including reduced fuel expenditure, decreased emissions, and enhanced
enhanced operating
operatingexpenditure
expendituresavings. Theassumptions
savings. The assumptions depicted
depicted in Figure
in Figure 19 emphasize
19 emphasize the sig-
the significantnificant
influence of FLC-1 on upgrading the power production system’s
influence of FLC-1 on upgrading the power production system’s complete complete
efficacy
efficacy and continued
and continued capability.
capability.

Figure 19. Optimized diesel generator.

Figure 19. Optimized diesel generator.
The pictorial representation of the overall production achieved by FLC-1 in the sys-
The pictorial representation of the overall production achieved by FLC-1 in the system
tem is presented in Figure 20. When comparing the diesel generator’s output to Cases I
is presented in andFigure 20. When
II, a noticeable comparing
decrease theexample
is seen. An diesel generator’s output toinCases
of FLC-1’s effectiveness I and
streamlining
II, a noticeable decrease
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER the
is seen. An example of FLC-1’s effectiveness in streamlining
power generation system is the decline in the use of DG, which may lessen reliance
REVIEW
the
15 of 19on
power generation system is the decline in the use of DG, which may lessen reliance on non-
renewable energy sources and promote a more ecologically friendly and sustainable power
generation profile. The charging
non-renewable and regulating
energy sources and promoteprocedures used by
a more ecologically the EMS,
friendly which are
and sustainable
based on the FLC powerframework,
generation are shown
profile. The in Figureand
charging 21. regulating
This graphic representation
procedures provides
used by the EMS,
which are based
a thorough explanation of howon the FLC controls
FLC-1 framework, andareoptimizes
shown in Figure 21. This graphic
the charging representa-
procedure while
also effectivelytion provides athe
managing thorough
powerexplanation
flow in the of how FLC-1 controls and optimizes the charging
system.
procedure while also effectively managing the power flow in the system.

Figure 20. Total generation with DG added to the system.

Figure 20. Total generation with DG added to the system.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 15 of 18

Figure 20. Total generation with DG added to the system.

Figure21.
Figure [Link].
[Link]
Profileof of Case
Case [Link]. The pictorial representation of the overall production
achieved by FLC-1 in the system is presented in Figure 20. When comparing the diesel
4.4. Case IV output to Cases I and II, a noticeable decrease is seen. An example of FLC-1’s
generator’s
effectiveness in streamlining
This section makes use of theFLC-2
powertogeneration
efficientlysystem
controlishowthe decline
the utilityin the
grid use of DG,
operates,
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19
which mayduring
especially lessen off-peak
reliance on (6–10non-renewable
pm) and peak energy
[Link]
Whenand promote analysis
a thorough a more ecolog-
of the
ically friendly
obtained data and sustainableitpower
is performed, is cleargeneration [Link]
that intentional The charging
are takenand regulating
to avoid usingpro-
the
ceduresgrid
power usedwhenby the EMS, which
demand are based
is highest. The on the FLC
rationale framework,
behind are shown
this decision in Figure
is supported
the recent escalation in utility unit prices, which creates a favorable circumstance for re-
21. the
by Thisrecent
graphic representation
escalation in utilityprovides a thorough
unit prices, explanation
which creates of how
a favorable FLC-1 controls
circumstance for
ducing dependence on the grid during periods of heightened demand. Through the effi-
and
reducingoptimizes the
dependence charging
on procedure
the grid while
during also
periods effectively
of managing
heightened
cient management of grid utilization specifically during periods of high demand, it be-
demand. the power
Throughflow in
the
efficient
the
comes management
system.
feasible to optimizeof energy
grid utilization
consumption specifically during
and alleviate periods consequences
the economic of high demand, it
becomes feasible to optimize energy consumption and alleviate
of increased utility tariffs. In Figure 22, at 6 pm, the grid disconnected during thethe economic consequences
peak
4.4.
of Case IV
hours and connected at 10 pm when off-peak hours started. Which, in succession, peak
increased utility tariffs. In Figure 22, at 6 pm, the grid disconnected during the will hours
and connected
enhance at 10 pm when off-peak hours started. Which,
This section makes use of FLC-2 to efficiently control how the utility grid in-
operating efficiency, improve RES consumption, and in succession,
eventually, lead to will
the enhance
operates,
operating
stitution of efficiency,
a power improve
system which RESis consumption,
both and
environmentally eventually,
friendly
especially during off-peak (6–10 pm) and peak hours. When a thorough analysis of the lead
and to
[Link] institution
The in- of
aobtained
power system
stallation of FLC-2 which
followsis both
the environmentally
broad production friendly
profiles of theand durable.
numerous The
resources
data is performed, it is clear that intentional steps are taken to avoid using the installation
which of
are utilized
FLC-2
power grid in
follows this
whenthe system.
broad
demand This attractive
production
is highest. visual
profiles
The ofrepresentation
behind presents
the numerous
rationale absolute
resources
this decision which insight
are utilized
is supported by
into the background of improved energy production and focuses
in this system. This attractive visual representation presents absolute insight on the significant part
into the
in and efficiency
background of FLC-2 inenergy
of improved vigorously regulating
production andthefocuses
various onproduction resourcepart
the significant out-in and
puts.
efficiency of FLC-2 in vigorously regulating the various production resource outputs.

Figure 22.
Figure 22. Optimized
Optimizedgrid
gridpower.
power.

The pictorial
The pictorialrepresentation
representationofofthe
theoverall
overallproduction
productionachieved by by
achieved FLC-2 in the
FLC-2 sys-system
in the
tem is presented in Figure 23. The sophisticated charging technique of PHEVs
is presented in Figure 23. The sophisticated charging technique of PHEVs and their and their
remarkable role in controlling the power grid are properly shown in Figure 24. This pic-
remarkable role in controlling the power grid are properly shown in Figure 24. This pictorial
torial demonstration presents a thorough review of how PHEVs contribute to the charging
requirements of and vigorously regulate the power grid. This assessment determines how
PHEVs may enhance power productivity, uphold grid firmness, and notably enhance the
complete objectives of green energy controlling.
 Figure 22. Optimized grid power.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 16 of 18
The pictorial representation of the overall production achieved by FLC-2 in the sys-
tem is presented in Figure 23. The sophisticated charging technique of PHEVs and their
remarkable role in controlling the power grid are properly shown in Figure 24. This pic-
demonstration torial
presents a thorough
demonstration review
presents of howreview
a thorough PHEVs contribute
of how to the charging
PHEVs contribute to the charging
requirements ofrequirements
and vigorously regulate
of and the regulate
vigorously power grid. This grid.
the power assessment determines
This assessment how how
determines
PHEVs may enhance
PHEVs power productivity,
may enhance uphold grid
power productivity, firmness,
uphold and notably
grid firmness, and enhance the the
notably enhance
complete objectives of green
complete energy
objectives controlling.
of green energy controlling.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

Figure 23. Total generation.

Figure 23. Total generation.

Figure 24. PHEVsFigure 24. PHEVs profile of Case IV.

profile of Case IV.

5. Conclusions5. Conclusions
To put itthis
To put it in a nutshell, in a nutshell,
researchthis research
presents presents a evaluation
a thorough thorough evaluation of the scheduling
of the scheduling
and execution of an FLC-based EMS. The system’s main objective is to effectively control
and execution of an FLC-based EMS. The system’s main objective is to effectively control
a DG and the power grid, ensuring reasonable and competent utilization of power. This
a DG and the power grid, ensuring reasonable and competent utilization of power. This
research efficiently exhibits the efficacy of incorporating FLC into an EMS, permitting ef-
research efficiently exhibits the efficacy of incorporating FLC into an EMS, permitting
ficient changes between the power grid and the DG based on the time of day. The power
efficient changes between
grid is utilized the
to power
improvegrid and the
its reduced DG
rate andbased on accessibility
absolute the time ofduringday. times
The of re-
power grid is utilized to improve
duced necessity. its reduced
Alternatively, therate andintentionally
system absolute accessibility
shifts between during times
utilizing a DG and
of reduced necessity. Alternatively,
RESs during the system
times of excessive demand intentionally shifts between
of power to decrease utilizing
the outcomes a
of multiplied
DG and RESs during times
power grid ofand
costs excessive demand
the prospect of power
of power to decrease
scarcities. By involvingthePHEVs,
outcomes of also
this study
multiplied power grid its
expands costs and the
analysis. By prospect
functioning ofaspower scarcities.
both power By involving
resources and users, PHEVs,
PHEVs execute
this study also two responsibilities.
expands During
its analysis. the day, PHEVs
By functioning as are
bothutilized
power at resources
different timesandunder
users,circum-
PHEVs executestances like power swings
two responsibilities. (surges).
During the Their aim is toare
day, PHEVs attain a state
utilized atof stabilitytimes
different between the
high-power
under circumstances supply swings
like power and demand by charging
(surges). and steadying
Their aim is to attainthea grid.
stateThe findings of this
of stability
research emphasize
between the high-power supply and FLC’s efficacy by
demand in achieving
charging perfect power management.
and steadying the grid. The Using an
FLC-based EMS results in minimal expenses and progression towards the use of conser-
findings of this research emphasize FLC’s efficacy in achieving perfect power management.
vational renewable energy in addition to guaranteeing capable source distribution. By
Using an FLC-based EMS results in minimal expenses and progression towards the use of
thoroughly employing the power grid and the DG as well as adding PHEVs, the EMS
conservational achieves
renewable energy
a state in addition
of stability between to guaranteeing
demand, supply, capable source
and energy distribution.
utilization. To summa-
By thoroughly rize,employing the power grid and the DG as well as
this work provides an essential understanding of and real-world adding PHEVs, the for the
functions
execution of an FLC-based EMS. The established technology considerably adds to the en-
hancement of further reasonable and environmentally friendly power infrastructure. Po-
tential improvements in the areas of power management and the combination of RESs are
made feasible by this improvement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R. and S.M.; methodology, M.R., T.A. and B.U.; soft-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 9122 17 of 18

EMS achieves a state of stability between demand, supply, and energy utilization. To
summarize, this work provides an essential understanding of and real-world functions
for the execution of an FLC-based EMS. The established technology considerably adds to
the enhancement of further reasonable and environmentally friendly power infrastructure.
Potential improvements in the areas of power management and the combination of RESs
are made feasible by this improvement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R. and S.M.; methodology, M.R., T.A. and B.U.; software,
M.R. and T.A.; validation, T.A., S.M. and S.A.; formal analysis, B.U. and F.R.A.; resources, F.R.A.; data
curation, B.U.; writing—original draft preparation, M.R.; writing—review and editing, B.U. and T.A.;
visualization, F.R.A.; supervision, S.M. and S.A.; project administration, F.R.A.; funding acquisition,
F.R.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia (TU-DSPP-2024-129).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors extend their appreciation to Taif University, Saudi Arabia, for
supporting this work through project number TU-DSPP-2024-129.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
MF member function
FLC fuzzy logic control
EMS energy management system
SoC state of charge
PHEVs plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
µG microgrid
DER distributed energy resources
V2G vehicle-to-grid
G2V grid-to-vehicle
DG diesel generator

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