PL2-Reviewer LANDMARKS

Topic 6.2: IMAGE OF THE CITY AND ITS ELEMENTS What makes the landmark a land mark?
What does the city’s form actually mean to the people who live there? • Singularity “one in the context”
What can the city planner do to make the city’s image more vivid and memorable to the city dweller? • Contrast “with the surroundings”
To answer the questions, Kevin Lynch supported it by studies of three American cities: Boston, Jersey City • Clarity of general form
and Los Angeles, in his on of the most influential books, The Image of the City. • Differs in form end shape and height from surroundings
NODES
KEVIN LYNCH • Concentrations, which gain their importance from being the condensation of some use or physical
• He is an American urban planner and author. His writings focused on complex relationships between character.
humans and their cities. • E.g.-primary junctions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths,
• He work on the perceptual form of urban environment and an early proponent of mental mapping. moments of shit from one structure to another.
MENTAL MAP
• Individual’s own map of their known world None of Lynch’s elements exists in isolation.
IMAGE OF THE CITY ALL COMBINE TO PROVIDE THE OVERALL IMAGE:
• Mental image of an environment which is held by the citizens Districts are structure with Nodes
Edges define Districts
• Composite of everyone’s observations and sense.
Paths introduction to Districts
Nodes sprinkled by Landmarks
Nodes emphasizes the connection between Paths

Designers who deal with urban planning should study the people’s perception and the structure of the city, and
improve the legibility and imageability of the city. In terms of information design, the designers should design
clear and sufficient wayfinding for navigating people smoothly. It can make flows of the traffic and the
pedestrians better and improve the public image of the city. As Lynch insists, if urban design and the citizens
interact each other well, the city will bring more enjoyable daily lives to everyone.

Topic 7: THE RESPONSIVE ENVIRONMENT

What is RESPONSIVE ENVIRONMENT?
• This is a helpful tool for architecture and urban planning, written by Ian Bently, Alan Alcock, Paul
Murrain, Sue McGlynn, and Graham Smith in 1985.
What are the essential qualities of the city image? • The idea that the built environment should provide its users with an essentially democratic setting,
1. LEGIBILITY enriching their opportunities by maximizing the degree of choice available to them. We call such
• The ease with which people understand the layout of a place places responsive.
• To understand the layout of the city, people make a mental map. • Many factors affect the choices people can make when it comes to the design of a place, this
2. STRUCTURE, IDENTITY AND MEANING (VISIBILITY) corresponds to the 7 Qualities of Responsive Environment.
• STRUCTURE – spatial relationship between the object and the observer 7 QUALITIES OF RESPONSIVE ENVIRONMENT
• IDENTITY- strong feature that can be identified easily 1. PERMEABILITY
• MEANING – kind of emotional influence on the observer from the object. • where people can go and where they cannot
3. IMAGEABILITY (PUBLIC IMAGE) • The extent to which an environment allows people a choice of access through it.
• The quality of physical object, which gives a observer a strong vivid image. • Permeability provides opportunities to explore a setting by encouraging freedom to walk.
ELEMENTS OF A CITY The quality of robustness influences the degree to which one can use a setting for different
1. PATHS – channels along which the observer moves. purposes, over short and long periods of time.
2. EDGES – linear elements not used as paths by the observer • ADVANTAGES OF SMALL BLOCKS: Small blocks give more choice of routes than one
3. DISTRICTS – medium to large sections of the city which the observer mentally enters “inside of” with large blocks
4. NODES – strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter
5. LANDMARKS – point reference, but in this case the observer does not enter within them
PATHS:
Why PATHS are important element in the city image?
• Concentration of users
• Other elements are arranged along them
• UNCLEAR PATHS=UNCLEAR CITY IMAGE
• Containing significant buildings and façade
EDGES
• Bodies of water (such as an ocean, river, or lake)
• Landforms (such as mountains and hill)
• Manmade structures (such as buildings, railroad tracks, walls, or highways)
• The strongest edges are continuous in form.
• VISUAL PERMEABILITY- Visual permeability between public and private space canal so
DISTRICTS
enrich the public domain. If wrongly used, however, it can confuse the vital distinction
• Medium to large parts of the city which share the same characteristics style-spatial form, topography-
between public and private altogether
colors-texture, urban fabric.
 • PHYSICAL PERMEABILITY - Physical permeability 4. ROBUSTNESS
between public and private spaces occurs at entrances • the degree to which people can use a given place for different purposes.
to buildings or gardens. This enriches public space by • Places which can be used for many different purposes.
increasing the level of activity around its edges Key Points
• THE INTERFACE: EFFECTS ON PRIVATE SPACES: a. Large – Scale Robustness
For the public/private interface to make private life richer, • concerns the ability of the building as a whole, or large parts of it, to be changed in use.
instead of destroying privacy altogether, it is vital that its
degree of permeability is under the control of the private
users. Bedford Square, London.
Used to be mostly residential apartments and now also contain
Normal Building Elements: offices and embassies. It also used to house a School.

• level changes
• windows
• porches
• curtains b. Small – Scale Robustness
• concerns the ability of particular spaces within the building to be used in a wide range of
• blinds
ways.
• sound reducing
• glazing
Hotel Chadstone Function Hall, Melbourne
It can serve for a variety of purposes,
e.g. venues for talking engagements and seminars, wedding
• LINKS TO SURROUNDING AREA: In any project large enough to have more than one
receptions, culminating programs, and parties.
block, people can potentially move through the site from its surroundings, from one side to
another. The first step in design, therefore, is to analyze the layout of routes in the
surrounding area; define the access points onto the site, and note their relative importance
in terms of where they lead.
c. Hard and Soft Areas
2. VARIETY
• the range of uses available to people
• Places with varied forms, uses, and meanings. • “hard” area are areas that don’t change function during the building’s life (like elevators,
• Variety unleashes variety. A space characterized by a variety of uses tends to be staircases), these areas are positioned strategically in order to not restrict the use of the
characterized by a variety of forms, sounds, smells, meanings, people, behaviors and so remaining spaces.
on. • While “soft” area are easier to change and adapt to the users’ wants and needs through
• Variety depends on 3 main factors: the time.
✓ Range of activities-demand
✓ Possibility of supplying affordable
✓ Space extent to which design encourages positive interactions
It also depends on feasibility: economic, political, and function
EXAMPLES:
• Business and Commercial Centers
• Mixed-use Buildings and Blocks

3. LEGIBILITY
• how easily people can understand what opportunities it offers
d. Active and Passive Areas
• Legibility is the quality that makes a place graspable.
• “active” areas are indoor areas that can attract interactions and contribute to the outdoor
✓ How easy it is for a person to construct a mental map of their environment
✓ The degree of choice offered by a place depends directly on how legible it is activities in the public spaces, sometimes through visual contact to make the space more
✓ Important at two levels: Physical Form and Activity Patterns interesting for the passerby. These areas are usually observed on the ground floor of
building, where it shares an edge with the public space.
EXAMPLES:
Barcelona, Spain e. Indoor Robustness
• The layout of the city can be easily understood and important buildings stand out and serve • Can prevent buildings from being used and then destroyed like consumer items.
as a landmarks. • By accommodating a greater range of uses, robustness can make the building stand longer
and save energy in the long run.
• It is perceived as a valid tool for the attainment of sustainability.
• In their discussion of indoor robustness, Bentley et al. pay high attention tot issues of
housing robustness. They declare that residential units should be flexible enough to meet
people’s changing needs during their entire lives.
f. Outdoor Robustness Key Points:
• Designing concerns should. Also, focus on issues of outdoor robustness both in public and I. All senses (Visual and Non-Visual Richness)
private. • There are two ways for users to choose from different senses of experience:
• By providing plenty of opportunities for public contact, such as neighboring and casual a. Focusing their attention on different sources of sense of experience on different
socializing, outdoor robustness helps solve one of our society's most serious social occasions.
problem - isolation. b. Moving away from one source to another.
• SENSE OF MOTION
• Robustness in public outdoor space - mainly concerned with the edge of the space - where
✓ Gained through movement.
most activities take place
✓ Mostly relevant to large spaces:
• makes it possible for gatherings to occur naturally in public. outdoor places, and circulation routes
To foster robustness, the public edge of the building should: within buildings.
• accommodate activities that can benefit from interaction with the public space ✓ The Centre Pompidou, by Piano and
• or can contribute to the animation of the public space itself Rogers, uses escalators to provide a
5. VISUAL APPROPRIATENESS variety of movement sensations;
• the detailed appearance of the place makes people aware of the choices available experienced in relationship both to
• This is important because it strongly affects the interpretations people put on places: close-up parts of the building itself and
whether designers want them to or not, people do interpret places as having meaning. A to the distant city.
place has visual appropriateness when these meanings help to make people aware of • SENSE OF HEARING
choices. ✓ Which user have limited control.
• Concern with designing the external image of a place. ✓ Best restricted to spaces large enough for
• A vocabulary of visual cues must be found to communicate levels of choice. people to escape altogether from the sound
• Interpretations can reinforce responsiveness by: sources involved.
✓ Supporting the place’s legibility ✓ In this house by Charles Moore, the floor
✓ Supporting the place’s variety finishes are designed to make different
✓ Supporting the place’s robustness sounds underfoot, whilst the volumes of the
various internal spaces are designed to
provide a variety of reverberation times. The
result is a rich acoustic environment
throughout the house as a whole.
• SENSE OF TOUCH
✓ Voluntary and Involuntary.
✓ packed into the smallest of spaces, but variety
of air movement and temperature should be
reserved for large ones.
✓ Portland Square, by Lawrence Halprin, uses
water to provide a rich range of tactile
experiences. This is also achieved in Helen
Teague’s project for an infants’ school, with its
variety of different floor textures and door
handles.
• SENSE OF SIGHT
✓ Most dominant in terms of information
input and is the easiest to control.
✓ The picture on the right offers visual
richness than the picture to the left
which looks monotonous due to its
uniform design and character.
• SENSE OF SMELL
6. RICHNESS
✓ Cannot be directed.
• people’s choice of sensory experiences
✓ Can only be achieved by moving away
• A variety of sense-experiences that users can enjoy. Richness is present whenever a
milieu offers the choice of noticing a wealth of positive sensory experiences. from one source towards another
• Richness is the interesting quality of something that has a lot of different features or ✓ A large herb garden that is filled with
aspects. There are only two ways people can choose from different sensory experiences if highly scented plants, whose aroma is
the environment itself is established as broadly outlined. Firstly, by focusing attention on concentrated within the wind-free
different sources of sense and experiences on separate occasions. Secondly, by moving space. In urban places, the potential of
away from one source towards another. cafes, bakeries, and the like open to
the outside can be sources of rich
smell along the area.
 II. Visual Contrasts and Distances URBAN OPEN SPACES
•
VISUAL CONTRAST • All types of spaces in the town including paths, squares, gardens, and parks.
✓ A particular surface consists of only one element. It contains no choice of things • Importance of Urban Open Spaces:
to be looked at, and therefore no visual richness. ✓ They give shapes to the city
✓ As the number of elements in a given ✓ They provide space needed for recreation
✓ surface increases, so does richness. By the time the surface contains about five ✓ They provide places for economic activities
elements', there is plenty of choice of thin as to look at, so the surface seems rich. ✓ They preserve natural beauty
✓ But when the number of elements exceeds a certain level, the various elements ✓ They create chances for interactions between people
begin to be read together, as a single pattern or super-element. When this 20 TYPES OF URBAN SPACES
happens, richness of experience is reduced. (Positive Spaces)
✓ Landscapes around the buildings provides visual contrast through the right 1. NATURAL/ SEMI-NATURAL URBAN SPACE
placement of softscapes and landscapes. • Conventional urban space shapes accessible to all and can accommodate a wide range of
✓ Visual events depend on visual contrasts, which can be created by differences of activities.
colour or tone on a two-dimensional surface, or by three dimensional variations of 2. CIVIC SPACE
the surface itself. • Urban natural and semi-natural features that are normally owned by the State
• DISTANCES 3. PUBLIC OPEN SPACE
✓ The range of likely viewing distances affects the range of scales at which richness • Managed open place that is usually green, accessible to everyone, even if it is temporarily
must be considered. Where the surface will be seen at long range, large-scale restricted.
richness is necessary; whilst at close range, richness must be achieved by small- (Negative Spaces)
scale elements and subdivisions. So, to maintain richness from long- range to 4. MOVEMENT SPACE
close-range we need a hierarchy of elements from large-scale to small scale. • Space dominated by movement needs, largely for motorized transportation.
7. PERSONALIZATION 5. SERVICE SPACE
• the extent to which people can put their own stamp on a place • Space dominated by modern servicing requirement needs.
• The stamp of people’s own tastes and values. 6. LEFTOVER SPACE
• Refers to designs that encourage people to put their own mark on the places where they • Space left over after development, often designed without function.
live and works on the places where they live and work 7. UNDEFINED SPACE
• Ability we are given to customize an environment on a large or small scale • Undeveloped space, either abandoned or awaiting redevelopment.
• Makes a person’s pattern of activities more clear (Ambiguous Spaces)
• It is usually practice in private spaces but can also express in public spaces 8. INTERCHANGE SPACE
• TYPE: • Transport stops and interchanges, whether internal or external
✓ Users personalize in two ways: 9. PUBLIC “PRIVATE” SPACE
-to improve practical facilities. • Seemingly public external space, in fact, privately owned and to greater or lesser degrees
-to change the image of a place. controlled.
• WHY? 10. CONSPICUOUS SPACE
✓ People personalize a building’s image for two main reasons: • Public spaces designed to make stranger feel conspicuous and potentially unwelcome.
- as an affirmation of their own tastes and values: affirmative personalization 11. INTERNALIZED “PUBLIC” SPACE
- because they perceive its existing image as inappropriate: remedial personalisation • Formally public and external uses, internalized and often privatized
• CONSTRAINTS: 12. RETAIL SPACE
• Privately owned but publicly accessible exchange spaces
✓ tenure
13. THIRD PLACE SPACES
✓ building type
• Semi-public meeting and social places, public and private
✓ technology 14. PRIVATE “PUBLIC SPACE”
• Publicly owned but functionally and user determined spaces
Topic 8: SPACE IN URBAN DESIGN, URBAN AESTHETICS AND URBAN PATTERN 15. VISIBLE PRIVATE SPACE
CONCEPT OF SPACE
• Physically private, but visually public space
TWO MEANINGS OF SPACE:
16. INTERFACE SPACES
1. Time or duration
• Physically demarked but publically accessible interfaces between public and private
2. Area or extension
spaces
TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF SPACE:
17. USER SELECTING SPACES
1. Mental Space (experiential) -image of physical space
2. Physical Space (existential) – defined and continuous, unbounded extensions in three directions, • Spaces for selected groups, determined and sometimes controlled by age or activity.
regarded as void of matter or without reference to it. (Private Spaces)
THREE TYPES OF SPACE: 18. PRIVATE OPEN SPACE
1. Place-space: Major spaces that portray a sense of definite location or position • Physically private open space
2. Path-space: Major transition spaces which are directional: corridor, connector, passageway 19. EXTERNAL PRIVATE SPACE
3. Transition-space: minor spaces which process a change from one condition to another (between • Physically private spaces, grounds and gardens
two destinations, between exterior and interior, between nature and buildings) 20. INTERNAL PRIVATE SPACE
• Private or business space
PROXEMICS SPECIFIC PLANNING AND DESIGN GUIDELINES OF MORE SUSTAINABLE URBAN FORM AND
• The study of measurable distances between people as they interact. This has something SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
to do with the study or our use of space and how various differences in that use can make 1. COMMUNITY DESIGN
us feel more relaxed or anxious • Is a responsive to today’s need for a broader and more integrated perspective in
SPACE IN URBAN AESTHETIICS addressing design issues at the neighborhood level.
CONCEPT OF AESTHETIC • Is an approach to urban development at present typically emphasize land use segregation,
• The creative arrangement of the elements of a town in a beautiful and functional manner. site engineering, surveying and lot yield efficiency.
• In relation to public spaces and places aesthetics related to the attractiveness of an area 2. MOVEMENT PATTERN
and in particular the combined effects of various elements such as the quality of the • Means a repeated sequence of movement ideas, a rhythmic movement sequence, a spatial
architectural and landscape design, the quality of views and vistas, and the arrangement design on the floor or in the air, or a specific relationship or grouping of people.
of elements such as furniture in the public realm. Important Factor that Movement Pattern Targets:
ELEMENTS OF AESTHETICS • Emphasis on Connectivity, Amenity, and Integration
1. EXTRACTED FORM • Controlling Vehicular Access along Arterial Routes and Neighborhood Connectors
• Harmony between buildings and nature • Local Streets Classifications
• Example: basic slopes, angle of hills, vegetation/tree canopies, and rock outcrops • Network Connectivity and Management
2. VISTAS AND SITE SUPREMACY • Control of Vehicle Speed in Local Streets
• View of landscape from the city • Intersection Controls
• Example: beautifully framed countryside (panorama) • Pedestrian Movement Networks
3. EXPRESSION • Walkable Catchments Measure Efficiency
• Space markers/symbolgy/ornamentation/detail • Safe Routes to Schools, Bus Stops and Station
• Example: owers and minarets; landmarks; accent of urban landscape and skyline • Cyclist Movement Network
4. ENTRANCE/APPROACH • Movement Network for Users with Disabilities
• Profound impact of cities on the visitor who traverses long, crowded streets/water 3. LOT LAYOUT
5. COLOUR AND LIGHT • Is a plan showing the present or intended use of a piece of land, and the position of roads,
• Choice of colour to reflect aesthetic sensibility; quality of natural light an important visual buildings, and other important structures
factor • Different Types of Lot Layouts:
6. WATER ➢ Lot Layouts for Housing Diversity and Density
• Proximity to water and possible interplay a natural asset; water edges, harbours, ➢ Lots for Special Uses and Future Residential and/or Business Intensification
shorelines, islands, canals etc. ➢ Lot Layout to Front Parks and Natural Areas
7. GEOMETRY ➢ Lot Layout to Front Major Streets
• Form and relationships of angles, lines, curves etc. 4. PUBLIC PARKS AND OPEN SPACES
8. HUMAN SCALE • Are spaces used by a wide range of people living and/ or working in urban areas contribute
• How each inhabitant would use space and how they would feel in it significantly to quality of life. They also contribute towards legibility, identity and a sense of
HOW TO ACHIEVE? place that helps build communities.
• Create attractive and welcoming streets by designing active, interesting and welcoming • Guidelines for Public Parks and Open Spaces:
street frontages with contiguous development ➢ Wider Range of Parks and Other Open Spaces
• Use buildings to frame public places and form a distinct street frontage which creates a ➢ Changing the Current Space Requirements for Public Parks Playgrounds and
pleasing pedestrian edge and human scale. Community Facilities
ENCOURAGE: ➢ Natural Areas and Cultural Features
• Planting of broad canopy trees along streets to provide shade, improve the visual amenity of the ➢ Visual Supervision of Parks-Promoting Safety
street and create a pleasant environment for pedestrians and cyclists. ➢ Joint Parkland and Drainage Provision
• Creation of stimulating and attractive routes by designing walking and cycling routes to, and around, ➢ River Easement, Foreshore Reserves and Regional Open Spaces
local landmarks and points of interests. 5. URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT
• Parks and open spaces designed to provide pleasant places for people to sit, meet and talk. • Takes into consideration the total water cycle, facilitates the integration of water factors
AVOID: early in the land planning process, and encourages all levels of government and industry
• Inactive development, such as carparks, service areas. And blank facades fronting streets and to adopt water management and urban planning practices that benefit the community, the
pedestrian and cycling routes. economy and the environment
• Spaces with no seating or other elements for sitting • Guidelines for Urban Water Management:
• Street verges with insufficient space for street tree planting and public furniture ➢ Water-Sensitive Urban Design
• Poorly maintained parks and open space ➢ Design Guidelines for Major Water Systems
SPACE IN URBAN PATTERN ➢ Guidelines for Minor Systems
URBAN PATTERN ASPECTS OF URBAN PATTERN
• Is a ecological system characterized by complex interactions among social, economic, institutional, 1. IMAGEABILITY- the quality of a place that makes it recognizable and memorable.
and environmental variables. 2. FORM-FUNCTION RELATIONSHIP- form is the visual appearance of a building-line, outline, shape,
• The pattern of the city is the way how different functions and elements of the settlement form are composition-while function is the structural and functional requirements of a building; it goes hand-
distributed and mixed together spatially. in-hand.
3. URBAN FORMS AND STRUCTURE- Linear, radial, grid, cluster, etc.
4. OBJECTIVES OF URBAN FORM- includes growth, meaning and identity.
5. GROWTH AND DECLINE URBAN GROWTH- descries how people move from central urban areas
to low-density areas outside of the city.
URBAN FORM THE THREE MODELS OF URBAN STRUCTURE
• Spatial pattern or arrangement of individual elements such as buildings, streets, parks and other 1. BURGESS CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL
land uses, as well as social groups, economic activities, and public institutions within an urban • By E.W.Burgess, a University of
area Forms of Urban Spaces Chicago Sociologist, in 1925. The city
FORMS OF URBAN SPACES grows in a radial expansion from the
1. COMPACT DEVELOPMENT center to form a series of concentric
2. SCATTERED DEVELOPMENT zones or circles such as in Chicago.
3. LINEAR DEVELOPMENT ➢ CBD (cope, loop)
4. POLYNUCLEAR DEVELOPMENT ➢ Zone of transition
5. LEAPFROGGING DEVELOPMENT ➢ Homes of factory workers
URBAN STRUCTURE ➢ Residential zone of high-
• Arrangement of land uses in urban areas. class apartment buildings or
• Also refer to URBAN SPATIAL STRUCTURE. single-family dwellings
ELEMENTS OF URBAN STRUTURE ➢ The commuter zones
1. Natural Environment ➢ The process of invasion and
2. Topography succession explains the
3. Soil Types (Bearing Capacity) successive rings
4. Wate Courses (rivers and lakes etc.) 2. HOYT MODEL or SECTOR MODEL
5. Types of Vegetation • By Homer Hoyt, an economist in 1939.
6. Climate and micro climate Hoyt examined the spatial variations in
7. Environment Characteristics household rent in 1942 American
8. Landscape feature cities.
TYPES OF URBAN STRUCTURES/PATTERNS • Modification of the concentric zone
1. GRID IRON or RECTANGULAR PATTERN model of city development. The
• Type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each benefits of the application of this model
other forming a grid. include the fact it allows for an outward
progression of growth.
2. RADIAL or CONCENTRIC SYSTEM 3. MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL
• Offers a method of organizing visual material by arranging • Developed by two geographer
it around a central point. Features of radial city patterns Chauncy Harris and Eduard Ullman
include in 1945. Cities tend to grow around not
➢ Inner outer ring roads linked by radiating roads one but several districts’ nuclei.
➢ Core has the business area • A city might start with a single central
➢ Industrial area interspersed within the residential business district (CBD), but over the
➢ Periphery has green belts. time the activities scatter and gets
3. LINEAR SYSTEM modified. The scattered activities
• Urban plan for an elongated urban formation. The city attract people from surrounding areas
would consist of a series of functionally specialized parallel and act as smaller nuclei in itself.
sectors. These small nuclei gain importance
4. MULTI-CENTERED SYSTEMS and grow in size and start influencing
• The city grows several independent points rather than from the growth of activities around them.
one central business district
5. IRREGULAR SYSTEM
• No set pattern, develops due to relief, e.g. goes around hilly areas
6. POINT
• Means all the road direction is different than after all the road is foregather

7. POLY NUCLEAR
• Idea of strategic planning for a
network of cities and towns,
encapsulated in the poly-nuclear
urban region concept