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MATHEMATICAL
TOOLS

Almudena Díaz
4thESO
 MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

To solve problems in Physics and Chemistry we must know some mathematical

tools and some basic concepts.

GEOMETRIC SHAPES:

It will be necessary to
calculate on more than one
occasion areas, volumes,
determine the length of
geometric elements, etc.
 Hexagon Pentagon Cube Sphere

A - /- 6ar A- - 6 a ' V- - a '

Orthohedron Cone Square pyramid

A 2am + 2bh + lba A - - a ' + 2as

V - bah

Table 1. Perimeters, areas and volumes of the most common figures that you can find in the Physics and Chemistry tests.
ANGLES
The relationships between degrees and radians are as
follows: 1º = 0.0175 rad
1 rad = 57.296º.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ANGLES
As for the arrangement of the straight lines, we find the following relationships:

Parallel straight lines cut by a secant Perpendicular lines Parallel lines

The following angles are the same. Lines perpendicular to two given secant lines SUPPLEMENTARY
form the same angle. One angle is acute
and the other
CORRESPONDING
obtuse.
On the same side,
one internal and the other external. SUPPLEMENTARY
One angle is acute
and the other
INTERNAL ALTERNATES obtuse.
Opposite and internal sides.

EQUALS
Both angles 135º EQUALS
EXTERNAL ALTERNATES Both angles are
Opposite and external sides. are acute.
acute.

Secant lines
Opposite at the vertex. equal two by two.
Regarding the angles that we can determine in a circle, we have:

"ulodë These relationships

Inscribed angle. Ângulo serńiinscritoAng
semičircunfereficia
. between anğći1o,s tea
yän a veriïr muÿ
The inscribed angle is half All angles inscribed in the bién;.par ejemğİó,
The semi-inscribed angle is equal to All źangles inscribed at
of the central angle that same capable arc are ën.šituäciones eh.,läs
half the central angle in a semicircle that spans the same arc.
spans the same arc. congruent. you haveto.
are straight.
.œlcular force , aàí
ëri.pla.nos
.inclińados and in Öptihã.
.geoméóiœ.

18O^
RIGHT TRIANGLES (90º angle): The Pythagorean Theorem relates the lengths of
all the sides of the triangle but there is also another way to know them, from the
trigonometric ratios.
In the figures the sine (sin), cosine (cos) and tangent (tan) of the angles § and y
of the right triangle are used. They are ratios (fractions) formed by the lengths
of two sides of the triangle that are called trigonometric ratios.
opposite side
—• sinQ= —; sinY"—
hypotenuse a a

ntetocon b
fOS=
hypotenuse n o

catetoopuesto
caktocontiguo
Example
If you type the angle 30º and press the key without, you will get as a result SHIFT key, second function

0,5. If you found this angle in a right triangle, you would know that
the ratio - = 0.5; i.e., if you are given the value of a, you will know what
c
is r and vice versa. In the same way, if for this same angle you press the
Keys
cos key, you will get 0.87 as a result (as an approximation, since of trigonometric
b ratios
has infinitely many decimal places). You would know, then, that the
fraction - = 0.87 y,
a
t h e r e f o r e , knowing the length of fi you will be able to find out n and
the other way around. If
press tan you will get 0.58 (as an approximation, since it has infinite de-
a
cimals). You would then know that the fraction = 0.57i therefore,
knowing the
b
length of a would allow you to find out fi and vice versa.
VECTORS
Vectors are a mathematical tool used when working with vector quantities such as
velocity, acceleration or forces.
A vector is expressed by its components or coordinates.
Knowing the components of a vector it is
possible to determine its modulus, that is, its
length.

Since it is a right triangle then we can resort to

the trigonometric ratios:
Vector addition and subtraction
It is necessary when several forces intervene on a system and the resultant force
must be obtained by adding the acting forces.

You can also use the

parallelogram rule.
The vectors to be
added or subtracted
are joined by their
origins and a
parallelogram is
constructed and its
diagonal is the
resulting vector.

addition and
subtraction of
vectors
Example

If Á - - (4, 2) and B - - (1, 3),

the sum vector will be:

A + 8 = (4 + 1, 2 + 3) = (5, 5)

Parallelogram rule. Rule of chained vectors.

The vectors are joined by their origins, The end of one of the vectors is joined to the
the parallelogram is constructed and origin of the other. The vector sum is the
its diagonal is the vector sum. result of joining
the origin of the former with the end of the latter.

Two vectors can also be multiplied. It is a rarer operation and, in fact, they can be multiplied in two totally
different ways: through the vector product and through the dot product. In this course you will not see the vector
product (it is for high school), but you will see the scalar product, since it has simple geometric applications,
and in Physics you will see that it is very useful to calculate the work done by Qnb force.

Scalar u \ a , b)
product v (a', b')
MAGNITUDES

In the laboratory it is essential to

determine if there is any relationship
between the quantities (functional
relationship), for this we must know the
main mathematical functions.
Example
3. A flask contains a liquid that is at 60°C. The With this equation we can make predictions without
ambient temperature of the laboratory in which repeating the experiment. For example, for the
the flask is located is 10'C. As time elapses, the temperature to be 10°C, the time that must elapse is:
liquid in the flask cools down according to the q 273.25 °Cminq 273.2 5 ° C f T 1
following
values: R - 27 3 min
T 10°C '
B 12 18 Since the points do not fit perfectly to a
34 " 22 15 hyperbola, we will find a value of k with each
ordered pair in the table and take the valid value as
the arithmetic mean of all of them:

\ - 7',- t, - 5S -S- 275 °CmIn

k2 -7'-t - 34 - 8- 272°Cmin

- T,- t, - 23 - 12 -276°Cmin

It appears that the points conform to a function k, - T, t, -15- 18 -270°CmJzt

k 275+ 272+ 276+ 270
of inverse or hyperbolic proportionality: T --.
k- -273.25°C mtn
In it, k is the in- versa proportionality constant
Therefore, the equation relating both mag- nitudes
that we must calculate to obtain the complete
273 25
formula and to be able to use it. is: 7
Fundamental quantities have one dimension and are expressed in a single unit.
Magnitudes
magnitudes. They
depend in turn on
several fundamental
magnitudes.
fundamental
magnitudes. Ex:
velocity,
acceleration,
density, etc. To
measure them, t h e
different units in which
they are measured are
used. which are
are
measuredthe
fundamental magnitudes
on which they depend.
Measurement errors
Example
Æ If we measure the length of the field and note The more accurate measurement of the two will be lv
that registers 4.50 m, when it actually measures 4.65 m.Y *•ø• a smaller relative error:
we measure the distance between two traffic 0,15 m
signs
S,(teneno)= = 3J296
4,d5 m
and write down 60 m, when the actual separation
is 60 m.
59.85 m, in both cases we have deviated co-
0 15
making an absolute mistake: G,(ceńales) - iæ-o zsa
59.ß5 m '
C,(ieoæo)=|4.50-4.6a -0.15 m. We we
have
15 cm away from the actual value. The error made when measuring the distance
E (signals) -]60-59.85a -0.15 m. Also we between the signals is of lesser importance;
we have deviated 15 cm from the real value. therefore, it is the
Absolute error (Ea)is the absolute value of the difference between the approximate value
{x,) and the true value (x,).

Relative error (Er) is the quotient between the absolute error and the true value:

Relative error inB or also called "Percentage error" {Ej) is the error
multiplied by 100:
Eq$
Irei (%)' - 100
How are measurements correctly expressed?
When taking measurements, the number of digits to write depends on the
accuracy of the measuring instrument.

Accuracy: It is the minimum measurement that can be marked

by a measuring instrument.

Ex: the minimum that a normal ruler can measure is millimeters;

therefore, you can read 25.7 cm but you cannot read 25.72.
The figure in bold (2) has no meaning, since the measuring
instrument does not measure it.
It is important that you identify the significant figures and know how to handle
them when performing operations and expressing the final result.
- In order to perform operations with them and get the correct result
you should take into account the following rules:

The number of significant figures to be considered after multiplying and/or dividing data must be
equal to that of the data with the least significant figures.

In the case of addition and subtraction, the result must not have significant figures beyond the last decimal
place in which the addends have significant figures:

Example: 140.26 + 62.2283 - 2O2.47B3 - 202.48.

Since J4O,26 has no significant figures beyond 6, the final result should not have more than two decimal
places. To achieve this, you must REDOUBLE the result to the second decimal place using the rounding
rules you already know.