A Project Report on

“DEVICE TO CHECK FOR HARMFUL CHEMICALS IN FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED
BY
NAME H.T.NO
K. T. V. KAVYA 18NE1A0468

M. L. REVATHI 18NE1A0494

S. TEJA REDDY 18NE1A04C8

K. ANIL KUMAR 18NE1A0481

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. T. Ravikanth, M.Tech.
Associate Professor,
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

TIRUMALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AFFILIATED TO JNTUK,
KAKINADA) NARASARAOPET–
522601
2018-2022
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
TIRUMALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AFFILIATED TO JNTUK,
KAKINADA) NARASARAOPET–
522601
2018-2022

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify thesis entitled “DEVICE TO CHECK FOR HARMFUL

CHEMICALS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES” is submitted by K. TIRUMALA
VENKATA KAVYA (Roll No:18NE1A0468), M. LAKSHMI REVATHI(Roll
No:18NE1A0494), S. TEJA REDDY(Roll No:18NE1A04C8), K. ANIL KUMAR(Roll
No:18NE1A0481) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering at Tirumala
Engineering college, Narasaraopet, is a record of bonafide work carried out by them under
my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Head of the Department

Mr. T. Anji Reddy, M.TECH, (Ph.D) Mr. T. Jagadeesh, M.TECH., M.S., (Ph.D).,
Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
Department of ECE, Department of ECE,
Tirumala Engineering College, Tirumala Engineering College,
Narasaraopet. Narasaraopet.

External examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
in complete without mention of the people, who made it possible, who constant guidance
and encouragement crowned our efforts with success. We take this opportunity to express
our deepest gratitude and appreciation to all those who have helped us directly or
indirectly towards the successful completion of this project.

It is great pleasure in expressing deep sense of gratitude and veneration to our

guide, Mr. T. Ravikanth, M. TECH, Associate Professor in Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering for his valuable guidance and though out provoking
discussion through the course of the project.

We extend our gratefulness to our HOD Mr. T. Jagadeesh , M.TECH., M.S., (Ph.D),
encouragement and support throughout the project.

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Y. VENKATA

NARAYANA, Principal of Tirumala Engineering College, Narasaraopet, for his
consistent help and encouragement to complete the project

We express our thanks to all our ECE department faculty members who
encouraged and helped us in some way or other throughout project work.

We express our thanks to our parents and our family members, who gave us
moral support in completing our project.

We express our thanks to all our college Teaching and non-teaching staff
members who encouraged and helped us in some way or other throughout project work.

Finally, We are thankful to all our friends who have in some way or the other
helped us getting towards the completion of this project work

NAME Roll No
K. T. V. KAVYA 18NE1A0468
M. L. REVATHI 18NE1A0494
S. TEJA REDDY 18NE1A04C8
K. ANIL KUMAR 18NE1A0481
 DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

We are the students of Tirumala Engineering College, K. T. V. KAVYA, M.L. REVATHI, S. TEJA
REDDY, K. ANIL KUMAR bearing Roll number: 18NE1A0468, 18NE1A0494, 18NE1A04C8,
18NE1A0481 hereby declare that the Project Report entitled “DEVICE TO CHECK FOR
HARMFUL CHEMICALS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Under the
esteemed guidance of Mr. T. Ravikanth M.TECH,Associate Professor, Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication
Engineering.
This is a Record of bonafide work carried out by us and the results embodied in
this Project Report have not been reproduced or copied from any source. The results
embodied in this Project Report have not submitted to any other University or Institute
for the Award of any other degree or Diploma.

PROJECT ASSOCIATES

NAME Roll No
K. T. V. KAVYA 18NE1A0468
M. L. REVATHI 18NE1A0494
S. TEJA REDDY 18NE1A04C8
K. ANIL KUMAR 18NE1A0481
 ABSTRACT

Fruits and vegetables are highly nutritious and form as key food commodity in the
human consumption. Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable due to their low
shelf life. This food commodities are reported to be contaminated with toxic and
health hazards chemicals. Chemicals like calcium carbide and oxytocin are
reportedly being used in fruits and vegetables farms for artificial ripening of fruits
and for increasing the size of fruits and vegetables respectively. Calcium carbide
is a carcinogenic agent and banned under PFA rules, calcium carbide is a pesticide
and so it is not recommended as a ripening enhancer. Oxytocin is a mammalian
hormone, used as a drug in veterinary services which is not advised for use in
fresh fruits and vegetables. To detect that, gas sensor is placed and estimate the
chemical levels present in fruits and vegetables. For this DHT11 and the gas
sensor are used, if any abnormality is detected immediate alert is sent through
GSM to the owner.

v|Page
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENTS
PAC form i
Certificate ii
Acknowledgement iii
Declaration iv
Abstract v
Contents vi
List of Figures x
List of Tables xii
List of Abbreviations xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

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 1.1 Introduction

1.2

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY

CHAPTER 3: FILTER BANK MULTICARRIER

CHAPTER 4: MIMO

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS & RESULT

REFERENCES 79

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.

NO.

1.1 Simple diagram of single carrier 9

1.2 Single carrier system 9
1.3 Simple structure of a multicarrier system 10
1.4 Orthogonality principle 11
1.5 Architecture of OFDM TX and RX 12
3.1 Basic diagram of filter bank multicarrier 39
3.2 FBMC transmitter 40
3.3 OQAM pre-processing for k even & odd 41
3.4 Receiver of FBMC 43
3.5 OQAM post processing in FBMC for k even & odd 44
3.6 Simplified polyphase synthesis filter bank block diagram 47
3.7 Simplified analysis filter bank 49
3.8 Frequency response of filter banks 49
4.1 Basic diagram of MIMO 50
4.2 SU-MIMO 53
4.3 MU-MIMO 53
4.4 SISO 54
4.5 SIMO 54
4.6 MISO 55
4.7 MIMO 55
4.8 Spatial multiplexing 57
4.9 Spatial diversity 58
4.10 Selection diversity 60
4.11 Alamouti’s Scheme 61

x|Page
5.1 (a) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-MRC in AWGN 69
channel
5.1 (b) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-MRC in Rayleigh 70
channel
5.2 (a) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-SC in AWGN 71
channel
5.2 (b) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-SC in Rayleigh 72
channel
5.3 (a) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-Alamouti in AWGN 73
channel
5.3 (b) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-Alamouti in 73
Rayleigh channel
5.4 (a) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC3 in AWGN 74
channel
5.4 (b) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC3 in Rayleigh 75
channel
5.5 (a) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC4 in AWGN 76
channel
5.5 (b) SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC4 in Rayleigh 76
channel

xi | P a g e
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TABLE CAPTION PAGE NO.

1.1 Comparison of 1G to 5G technologies 3

1.2 OFDM practical systems 14
4.1 OSTBC 65

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFB Analysis filter bank

AMPS Advance Mobile Phone Systems
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Key
BER Bit Error Rate
CC Convolution Codes
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CP Cyclic Prefix
CSI Channel State Information
EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
FEC Forward Error Control
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FDD Frequency Domain Duplexing
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
GSM Global Service for Mobile
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
IMPS Improved Mobile Telephone Service
IMT-Advanced International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced
IP Internet Protocol
ISI Inter symbol Interference
ICI Inter Carrier Interference
ITU-R International Telecommunications Union-Radio
MRC Maximal Ratio Combining

xiii | P a g e
ML Maximum Likelihood
MC Multi-Carrier
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MMS Multi Media Messaging Service
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
PPP Point to Point
PMP Point to Multipoint
PTT Push to Talk
SFB Synthesis Filter Bank
STC Space-Time Codes
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Key
QOSTBC Quasi-orthogonal space time block coding
UMTS Universal Mobile media transmission Systems

xiv | P a g e
CHAPTER 1

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2|Page
3|Page
This repetition decreases the throughput of the transmission and furthermore squanders control. In
FBMC at the input IFFT is used as a modulator and at the receiver side FFT used and it act as a
demodulator. A further burden of OFDM is that spooky limitation of the subcarriers is weak and
this results in supernatural spillage and impedance issues with unsynchronized signs. Channel bank
multicarrier is a change of OFDM. Utilizing banks of channels that are executed, generally using
propelled hail getting ready techniques, FBMC. Exactly when transporters were balanced in an
OFDM system, side flaps spread out either side. With a channel bank system, the channels are
used to empty these and thusly a much cleaner carrier comes to fruition. FBMC is a new waveform
technique having few advantages over OFDM a contender for 5G [10]. The main crucial change is
the supplanting of the OFDM with a multicarrier framework in light of channel banks at the TX
and Rx. Cyclic Prefix augmentation required and along these lines lessens data transfer capacity
productivity in OFDM. Cyclic prefix not required and then bandwidth is conserves in FBMC large
side lobes in OFDM compared to FBMC for frequency spectrum. For correct detection, multiple
access interference cancellation should be performed at the receiver in OFDM [10]. Multiple

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access Interference is suppressed due to the excellent frequency localization of the subcarriers in
FBMC. Highly sensitive to the carrier frequency offset in OFDM. Less sensitive and hence
performs significantly with the increase of the user mobility in FBMC. The High flexibility is in
the system while adopting MIMO techniques for OFDM. FBMC is less adaptable for MIMO.
Debased go recognizing execution in view of the extraordinary spillage in OFDM hails High range
distinguishing assurance in FBMC. OFDM is less unpredictable than FBMC in execution. In
FBMC three strategies channels are utilized sifted multitone, cosine tweaked multitone and
stunned adjusted multitone. Separated multitone channels are not satisfies the necessities of most
extreme transmission capacity. Cosine Multitone and Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing/Offset Quadrature Amplitude Modulation are firmly related through a tweak step and
a coordinated mapping of information images. The center of the FBMC framework is the Trans
multiplexer design. The primary handling alliances in this immediate frame portrayal are OQAM-
preprocessing, amalgamation channel bank, examination channel bank, and OQAM post-
preparing.

FBMC system description

FBMC implies Filter Bank Multicarrier. A channel bank multicarrier means to beat a bit of the
inadequacies that were knowledgeable about OFDM, orthogonal repeat division multiplexing. One
of the major inadequacies rises up out of the way that OFDM requires the usage of what is named
a cyclic prefix [7].

Transmitter of FBMC

Data Symbol OQAM Frequency Extended

S/P
Mapping Processing Spreading IFFT
Bits

To Channel P/S
Overlap,
Sum

Fig. 3.2: FBMC transmitter

5|Page
The blocks of filter bank multicarrier are explained below:

 Symbol mapping: The modulation symbol map is used to generate 16QAM modulated
electrical signals, and then the modulation symbol de-mapper demodulates the signals
according to that which type of modulation is used. The symbol mapper's modulation type
matches the mapper's modulation type; the original transmitted signal should be matched.

 OQAM processing: OQAM pre-handling has two techniques. One is unpredictable to genuine
transformation, where the genuine and the fanciful parts of a QAM complex esteemed image.
The most vital component is that intricate to genuine change builds the specimen rate by
element 2. An operation is the duplication by θ with a specific end goal to keep up orthogonal
images.
Ѳk (n)

ck(l) Real Part 2 dk(n) xk(n)

Imaginary 2
Part z-1
For k even

Complex to real conversion Ѳk (n)

ck(l) dk(n) xk(n)

Real Part 2 z-1

Imaginary
Part 2
For k even

Complex to real conversion

Fig. 3.3: OQAM pre-processing for k even & odd

It comprises of two operations that are double to the preprocessing procedure: the primary
operation is the augmentation by θ*k, n* grouping, where * is the intricate conjugate change and a
genuine to-complex transformation [7]. Filter bank synthesis consists on N over samplers followed

6|Page
by N filters. Signals at the input of the filter bank are indeed first oversampled by a factor of N/2,
and then filtered by the impulse response of sk [n] the kth filter and is defined by:

𝑠𝑘[𝑛] = 𝑠[𝑛]. exp(𝑗𝑗 (𝑛

2𝜋𝑘

−
𝐿𝑝−1
(3.1)
) 𝑁 2

Where s[n] is a low pass filter called the prototype filter, and is of duration L p. It is common
practice to impose that Lp is a multiple or almost a multiple of N (L p= kN, Lp= kN-1, Lp= kN+1 are
possible choices). In which two sorts of channels are utilized, Synthesis and individually
examination channel might be actualized with an IFFT taken after by a poly stage arrange structure
Poly stage organize took after by a FFT separately [Hirosaki1981, Siohan2002]. In filter bank zero
frequency carriers are used, and it is called prototype filter. It reduces the out of band ripples, it is
essential to increase the number of co-efficient in the time domain and frequency domain.

 Serial to Parallel (S/P) Conversion: Transformation of a flood of information components got

in same time arrangement, i.e., each one in turn, into an information stream comprising of
different quantities of information components transmitted at the same time. Diverge from
parallel-to-serial change.

 Frequency Spreading: Spread range is a type of remote interchanges in which the recurrence
of the transmitted flag is intentionally changed. This outcomes in a considerably more
prominent data transfer capacity than the flag would have if its recurrence were not changed.

 P/S, Overlap & Sum: Parallel to serial conversion Contrast of serial to parallel. In which each
stream of elements received in different time sequence, that’s not at a one time, in to a data
consisting of single data elements transmitted once time. It is called parallel to serial
conversion.

The overlap defined as when two singles are mixed with each other is called overlap, but in
FBMC signals are not overlap with each other.

Receiver of FBMC

At the receiver side, output of transmitter used as an input of receiver and preceded further. The

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FBMC receiver blocks are explained below:

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 From Frequency
S/P Extended De- P/S
FFT Spreading
Channel

Symbol OQAM
Recovered data bits De- Post
Mapping Processing

Fig. 3.4: Receiver of FBMC

 Serial to parallel conversion: Transformation of a surge of information components got in

same time succession, i.e., each one in turn, into an information stream comprising of
numerous quantities of information components transmitted at the same time. Contrast with
parallel-to-serial conversion. At the receiver side we used serial to parallel conversion, in
which data sequences changes from serial to parallel. In which analysis poly phase filters are
used. By using this filters the process of decomposition performed by the filter bank.

 Extended FFT: It can be adapted to implement the filter bank, it is just sufficient to extend the
IFFT and the FFT. For each arrangement of information, the yield of the IFFT is a piece of KM
tests and, since the image rate is 1/M, K sequential IFFT yields cover in the time space. The
usage of the recipient depends on an augmented FFT, of size KM. All things considered, the
FFT input squares cover, it is the established sliding window circumstance. At the yield of the
FFT, the information components are recuperated with the assistance of a weighted de-
spreading operation. Because of the covering in the time area of the IFFT yields and FFT
inputs, a noteworthy measure of excess is available in the calculations. A proficient way to deal
with lessen this excess is the purported PPN-FFT conspire.

 Frequency de-spreading: It is opposite of frequency spreading. Gotten baseband waveform is

the mix of the transmitted waveform and commotion in the channel.

9|Page
 OQAM post processing: In the modulator part, the Synthesis Filter Bank (SFB). The
information sources to the SFB are the Offset QAM. The IFFT piece basically plays out the
adjustment to the subcarrier frequencies. From the equipment perspective, it performs the
calculations in a piece preparing way. That is, an arrangement of tests are encouraged into the
N branches of the IFFT obstruct on the double and an arrangement of yield tests are created.
After the poly phase filters, the up sampling by an element of N/2 is performed. Through the
specific blend of the deferrals and the adders, the subsequent examples from the parallel
branches experience a parallel-to-serial transformation [7]. The demodulator part, the Analysis
Filter Bank (AFB).The outputs of the parallel branches are the OQAM symbols which must go
through OQAM-post processing which reverses the procedure.

𝜃*K (n)
𝑥̂𝑘 (n) 𝑑̂ (n)𝑘 𝑐̂ (𝑘l)
Real part 2 z-1

z-1 2 j
For k even

Real to complex conversion

𝜃*K ̂𝑐𝑘(l)
(n)
̂𝑥𝑘 (n) 𝑑̂ 2 z-1 j
(𝑘n)
Real part

2
For k odd
z-1

Real to complex conversion

Fig. 3.5: OQAM post processing in FBMC for k even & odd

 Symbol de-mapping: The de-mapper modulation type matches the mapper's modulation types,
where the original transmitted signal should be recovered.
At the receiver end data bits are recovered.

10 | P a g e
Applications of FBMC

 Subjective radio correspondence: As examination of OFDM, FBMC offers higher

otherworldly productivity and more material for the psychological radio system with little size
of gaps.

 Different get to networks: In multiuser setting, the uplink of an OFDM arranges utilizes a
strategy called various get to impedance cancelation with a specific end goal to meet its
essential operational necessities.

 Access to TV white space (TVWS): It has adaptability, low contiguous spillage control
proportion; recurrence spryness and sharp range move off are essential elements.

 Control line correspondence: It is one the most imperative use of channel bank multicarrier.

 MIMO correspondence: In Multiple info various yield FBMC frameworks for direct and
exceedingly recurrence specific channels, got signs are adulterated by bury image obstruction
and entomb radio wire impedance [8].

Polyphase implementation in FBMC

The transmit channel G is a limited motivation reaction channel containing LG = KN coefficient,

whose z change is [9]:
𝐿𝐺−1

𝐺(𝑧) =
∑
(3.2)

𝑔 𝑙]𝑧−𝑙
[
𝑙=0

Overlapping factor is K. G (z) can be deteriorated into N rudimentary channels. In this way, it
creates a polyphase system:

𝐿𝐺−1 𝑁−1 𝐾−1

𝐺(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑔[𝑙]𝑧−𝑙 = ∑ ∑ 𝑔[𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛]𝑧−(𝑘𝑁+𝑛)

𝑙=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0
(3.3)

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 𝐿𝐺−1 𝑁−1 𝐾−1

𝐺(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑔[𝑙]𝑧−𝑙 = ∑ ∑ 𝑔[𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛]𝑧−(𝑘𝑁+𝑛)

𝑙=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0
(3.4)

Here En (ZN) = ∑𝑘−1

𝑘 𝑔[𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛]𝑧−𝑘𝑁 are the polyphase elements of G (z):
=

𝐿𝐺−1 𝑁−1 𝑘−1

= ∑ 𝑔[𝑙]𝑧−𝑙 = ∑ [∑ 𝑔[𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛] 𝑧−𝑘𝑁]𝑧−𝑛

𝑙=0 𝑛=0 𝑘=0

𝑁−1

= ∑ 𝐸𝑛 (𝑧𝑁)𝑍−𝑛
(3.5)

𝑛=0

Assume Gi (z) the channel reasoned from G (z) by a recurrence move of 1/N:

𝐿𝐺−1
𝐺 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑗𝑗2
𝜋 𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑧
−𝑙
𝑔[𝑙]𝑒
𝑖𝑖
𝑁
(3.6)
𝑙=0

Using polyphase representation, Gi (z) is written as:

𝑁−1 𝐾−1 𝑗𝑗2𝜋

𝐺 (𝑧) = ∑ ∑ 𝑔[𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛] 𝑒 𝑖𝑖(𝑘𝑁 +
𝑛)𝑧−(𝑘𝑁+𝑛)
𝑁
(3.7)
𝑖𝑖
𝑛=0
𝐾=0

𝑗𝑗2𝜋
𝑁−1
=∑𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝐸
(𝑧𝑁)𝑧−𝑛 (3.8)
𝑛=0 𝑁 𝑛

A uniform channel bank is gotten by moving the reaction of G (z) on the recurrence pivot. It is in
this manner concluded from G (z), which is, hence, called the model channel of the channel bank.

In the event that all channels are reasoned from the model channel by recurrence move increases in
1/N, at that point the channel bank has the accompanying articulation:
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 𝐺0(𝑧) 1 1 ⋯ 1 𝐸0(𝑧𝑁)
𝐺1(𝑧) 1 𝑤−1 ⋯ 𝑤− 𝑧−1𝐸1(𝑧𝑁)
[ ] (𝑁−1) ⋮
=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
(3.9)
𝐺𝑁−1(𝑧) 1 𝑤−(𝑁−1) ⋯𝑤−(𝑁−1)
2
[𝑧−(𝑁−1)𝐸 (𝑧 )]
𝑁

𝑁 [⏟ ]
𝐼𝐹𝐹𝑇

Here w=e-j2π/N, N is the N-order inverse Fourier transform matrix is denoted by IFFT.

In which two prototype filters are used ay transmitter side and another at receiver side. For
instance:

1. Polyphase Synthesis filter

2. Polyphase Analysis filter

These two filters are explained as:

 Polyphase Synthesis filter banks: The transmit signal is accomplished by transmitting in

parallel information xk[n]on the balanced channel bank. Increase by the N-orchestrate reverse
Fourier change can be exchanged with the upsampling operation. Moreover, applying the
important Noble character [FAR 05], upsampling can in like manner be exchanged with the
polyphase segments, which suggests supplanting En (zN) by En (z).

Xk [0]
E0 (Z) N xk

Xk [1] IFFT
E1 (Z) N z-1

Xk [N-1]

EN-1(Z) N z-1

Fig. 3.6: Simplified polyphase synthesis filter bank block diagram

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 Polyphase Analysis filter banks: At the receiver, Analysis filters are used for demodulate the
signals. At the destination side, the source signal is gotten by deteriorating the info motion in
the recurrence space with the investigation channel bank. The investigation channel bank has a
double structure to that of the union channel bank [7]. It is also gotten.

Assume G-i (z) the channel derived from G (z) by a recurrence move of - 1/N:

−𝑗𝑗2
𝐿𝐺−1

𝐺−𝑖𝑖 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝜋
𝑔[𝑙]𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑧−
(3.10)

𝑙=0 𝑁

Using polyphase representation, G-i (z) is written as:

−𝑗𝑗2𝜋
𝑁−1 𝐾−1

𝐺−𝑖𝑖 (𝑧) = ∑ ∑ 𝑔[𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛] 𝑒 𝑖𝑖(𝑘𝑁 + 𝑛)𝑧−

(𝑘𝑁+𝑛)
𝑁
(3.11)
𝑛=0 𝐾=0

𝑁−
−𝑗𝑗2𝜋
1
=∑ 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝐸
(𝑧𝑁)𝑧−𝑛
(3.12)

𝑛=0 𝑁 𝑛

In the event that all channels are concluded from the model channel by recurrence move increases
in 1/N, at that point the channel bank has the accompanying articulation:

𝐺0(𝑧) 1 1 ⋯ 1 𝐸0(𝑧𝑁)
𝐺−1(𝑧) 𝑧−1𝐸1(𝑧𝑁)
= 1
(𝑁−1) 𝑤 −1 ⋯ 𝑤 −

⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝐺
[ −(𝑁−1) ( 𝑧) ] 1 𝑤 ⋯𝑤 � 𝐸 (𝑧 )]
(3.13)
−(𝑁−1) −(𝑁−1) [𝑧 −(𝑁−1)
2
𝑁
[⏟ ] �
𝐹𝐹𝑇

The information signal initially goes in a chain that creates delays, and is then sifted by the
polyphases segments. The filtering operation is trailed by a Fourier change. The Fourier change
may be exchanged with downsampling. In addition, the primary Noble character demonstrates
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that downsampling can be exchanged with the polyphase portions. The examination channel bank
thusly has a reworked structure, which is addressed in Fig. 3.7

15 | P a g e
 Here w=ej2π/N, N is the N-order Fourier transform matrix is denoted by IFFT.

Xk X
K[0]
N E0 (Z)

Z-1
X
FFT K [1]
N E0 (Z)
X
K [N-1]

Z-1 N E0 (Z)

Fig. 3.7: Simplified analysis filter

bank

G0 (z) G1 (z) G2 (z) GN-2 (z) GN-1 (z)

1 2 𝑁−
𝑁−1
𝑁 𝑁 2 𝑁
0 f
𝑁

Fig. 3.8: Frequency response of filter banks

Additionally, the square chart of FBMC collector can be partitioned into two subsystems utilizing,
separately, the model channels g (t) and g (t+TN/2). The postponement of – N/2 tests can be
moved at the contribution of the subsystem.

16 | P a g e
CHAPTER 4 MIMO

Introduction

MIMO is defined as multiple-input multiple output. In which multiple number of antennas are used
at transmitter side and at receiver side. MIMO, remains for numerous information and various
yield and output, is a procedure where diverse gathering contraptions are used at both the
transmission and the collector for expand the connection unwavering quality, the ghastly
proficiency, or both. MIMO has the capacity to interact with various antennas at a same time
which are 2x2, 3x3, 4x4 .This idea has been around for a long time yet its utilization in remote
gauges is later. This is likely due to some extent to the way that OFDM (orthogonal recurrence
division multiplexing), which encourages the usage of MIMO, is presently normally utilized as a
part of today's remote measures. MIMO methods are utilized today in advances like Wi-Fi and
LTE, and new strategies are under review for future benchmarks like LTE Advanced. The primary
element of MIMO frameworks is space-time preparing. Space-Time Codes (STCs) are the codes
intended for the utilization in MIMO frameworks [21]. In STCs, signs are coded in both transient
and spatial areas. Here we use encoder at the transmitter side and decoder at the receiver side.

Tx1 h11 Rx1

h21

Tx2 Rx2
Tx Rx

Tx3 h31 Rx3

Fig. 4.1: Basic diagram of MIMO

Here hmn represents the impulse channels. An m represents the transmitter impulse channels and n
represents receiver impulse channels.

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History

MIMO is frequently followed back to 1970s research papers concerning multi-station advanced
transmission frameworks and impedance (crosstalk) between wire matches in a link package: AR
Kaye and DA George (1970), Branderburg and Wyner (1974), and W. van Etten (1975, 1976).
Despite the fact that these are not instances of abusing multipath expansion to send different
information streams, a bit of the logical strategies for overseeing regular deterrent exhibited
accommodating to MIMO change [21]. In the mid-1980s Jack Salz at Bell Laboratories made this
investigation a walk further, inspecting multi-customer structures working over "generally cross-
coupled direct frameworks with included substance uproar sources, for instance, time-division
multiplexing and dually-stimulated radio frameworks.

Strategies were delivered to improve the execution of cell radio frameworks and enable more
mighty repeat reuse in the mid-1990s. Space-division different access (SDMA) uses directional or
splendid radio wires to confer on a comparative repeat with customers in different zones inside
extent of a comparative base station. A SDMA structure was proposed by Richard Roy and
BjornOttersten, investigators at ArrayComm, in 1991.Their US patent (No. 5515378 issued in
1996[8]) portrays a strategy for expanding limit utilizing "a variety of getting receiving wires at the
base station" with a "majority of remote clients”.

Standards and commercialization

MIMO advancement has been regulated for remote LANs, 3G mobile phone frameworks, and 4G
wirelesses composes and is by in wide business use. Greg Raleigh and V. K. Jones built up Airgo
Networks in 2001 to make MIMO-OFDM chipsets for remote LANs. The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) influenced an errand to gather in late 2003 to develop a remote
LAN standard passing on no under 100 Mbit/s of customer data throughput. There were two
significant fighting suggestions: TGn Sync was supported by associations including Intel and
Philips, and WWiSE was reinforced by associations including Air go Networks, Broadcom, and
Texas Instruments. The two social affairs agreed that the 802.11n standard would be established on
MIMO-OFDM with 20 MHz and 40 MHz channel options. TGn Sync, WWiSE, and a third
suggestion (MITMOT, maintained by Motorola and Mitsubishi) were united to make what was
known as the Joint Proposal. In 2004, Air go turned into the primary organization to dispatch
18 | P a g e
MIMO-OFDM products. Qualcomm procured Air go Networks in late 2006. The last 802.11n
standard bolstered accelerates to 600 Mbit/s (utilizing four concurrent information streams) and
was distributed in late 2009.

Surendra Babu Mandava and Arogyaswami Paulraj set up moved toward becoming
Communications in 2004 to convey MIMO-OFDM chipsets for Wi-MAX. The association was
secured by Broadcom in 2010. Wi-MAX was delivered as a differentiating choice to cell rules
relies upon the 802.16e standard, and uses MIMO-OFDM to pass on quicken to 138 Mbit/s. The
further created 802.16m standard engages download quickens to 1 Gbit/s. A the country over Wi-
MAX sort out was worked in the United States by Clear wire, a reinforcement of Sprint-Nextel,
covering 130 million motivations behind embodiment (PoP) by mid-2012. Run in this way
pronounced plans to pass on LTE (the telephone 4G guidelines) covering 31 urban groups by mid-
2013 and to shut down its Wi-MAX organize before the complete of 2015.

The underlying 4G cell standard was proposed by NTT Docomo in 2004. Long haul headway
(LTE) relies upon MIMO-OFDM and continues being created by the third Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP). LTE decides downlink rates up to 300 Mbit/s, uplink rates up to 75 Mbit/s, and
nature of organization parameters, for instance, low idleness. LTE Advanced incorporates
reinforce for picocells, femtocells, and multi-transporter channels up to 100 MHz wide. LTE has
been gotten a handle on by both GSM/UMTS and CDMA administrators.

The principle LTE organizations were pushed in Oslo and Stockholm by Telia Sonera in 2009.
Organization is most dynamic in the United States, where each of the four Tier 1 overseers has or
is working the country over LTE frameworks. There are starting at now more than 360 LTE sorts
out in 123 countries operational with around 373 million affiliations (contraptions).

Types of MIMO

MIMO has two types:

 Single user-MIMO

 Multiuser-MIMO

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These are explained below:

Single user-MIMO (SU-MIMO)

For a single user equipment data rate is to increase is called single user-MIMO.

h11

Base
h21 h12 UE
Station
h22

Fig. 4.2: SU-MIMO

Multiple user-MIMO (MU-MIMO)

When an individual streams are given to multiple users, it is called MU-MIMO. It is used in uplink
due to complexity on user equipment can be kept a minimum by using only single transmit
antenna. It is also called collaborative-MIMO.

h11

UE1
h21
Base
h12
Station
UE2
h22

Fig. 4.3: MU-MIMO

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Multi-antenna Types of MIMO

MIMO is multiple-input multiple output. It has different types of antennas are used such as

1. SISO- Single input single-output

2. SIMO- Single-input multiple-output

3. MISO- Multiple-input single-output

4. MIMO-Multiple-input multiple-output

These are explained as:

SISO (Single input single-output)

In which at transmitter and received side only single antenna is used. The Fig. 4.4 shown as

Tx Rx

Fig. 4.4: SISO

SIMO (Single input multiple-output)

In which at transmitter only single antenna is used and received side multiple antennas are used.
The Fig. 4.5 shown as

Tx ⋮ Rx

Fig. 4.5: SIMO

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MISO (Multiple-input single-output)

In which at transmitter multiple antennas are used and at the receiver side single antenna is used.
The Fig. 4.6 shown as

⋮ Tx Rx

Fig. 4.6: MISO

MIMO (Multiple-input multiple-output)

In which at transmitter and at the receiver side multiple antennas are used. The Fig. 4.7 shown as

⋮⋮ ⋮
Tx Rx

Fig. 4.7: MIMO

Techniques for MIMO

MIMO further sub-partitioned into 3 primary classes. These classes are

 Beamforming (precoding)

 Spatial Multiplexing technique (SM)

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 Spatial Diversity coding.

These three different types of techniques are explained below:

Beamforming

The beamforming technique is also called precoding. Further broad signals, it is thought to be all
spatial handling is happens at the transmission side [21]. In precoding and beamforming, a similar
flag may be discharged from the both wires at the transmitter and receiver with proper stage or
pick up data to such an extent where the flag power is expanded on the collector side. The
advantages of precoding use for expand the gotten signal pick up - by making signals produced
from various radio wires include helpfully - and to decrease the multipath blurring impact. In
viewable pathway spread, beamforming brings about a very much characterized directional
example. Be that as it may, traditional pillars are not a decent similarity in cell systems, which are
for the most part described by multipath engendering. At the destination when the collector has
various receiving antenna, the transmission beamforming or precoding cannot all the while amplify
the flag term level at all of the get gathering mechanical assemblies and precoding with various
streams is every now and again helpful. Watch that precoding requires learning of channel state
data (CSI) at the transmission and the gatherer. To this point we have not used channel learning at
the transmitter. Here we consider direct precoding at the transmitter that may rely on upon the
channel acknowledgment. The precoder is used to maximizing the SNR at the receiver [26].

Spatial multiplexing

Spatial multiplexing has MIMO radio frequency chain setup. In this technique, a greater-rate
divided into different lower-rate streams and every stream is transmitting from other transmitted
gathering device in a comparable repeat channel. On the off chance that these signs get together at
the recipient radio wire show with enough uncommon spatial engravings has correct CSI, it can
isolate these streams into parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing is a talented strategy for stretching
out channel restrained higher signal to-change degrees (SNR). The craziest number of spatial
streams is confined through the base of the measure of radio wires at the transmitter or beneficiary.
Spatial multiplexing can be utilized without CSI at the transmitter, however can be joined with
precoding if CSI is accessible. Spatial multiplexing can in like way be utilized for synchronous

23 | P a g e
transmission to different beneficiaries, known as space-division diverse for acquiring or multi-
client MIMO, for this situation Channel State Information is required at the transmission side [27].
The arranging of authorities with different spatial imprints licenses awesome uniqueness.

Bits [0: M-1] Bits [M: 2M-1] Alpha cluster Beta cluster

QAM QAM

Mapper Mapper
X1 X2
Tx antenna 0 X1

Tx antenna 1 X2

Symbol X symbol X X+1 X+2 X+3

Fig. 4.8: Spatial multiplexing

Spatial diversity coding

Assorted qualities coding or diversity technique frameworks are used when there is no channel
data at the transmitter. In this strategy a basic stream is transmitted, yet the flag or information is
coded using strategies called space-time coding. The signal is delivered from all of the transmit
antenna with full or close orthogonal coding. Assorted qualities coding manhandle the independent
obscuring or fading in the various radio wire associations with update hail contrasts. Since there is
no channel learning or affirmation, there is no beamforming or show get from grouped qualities
coding. This coding can be joined with spatial multiplexing when some channel learning is
accessible at the transmitter.

In Fig.4.9 described as data is send from Tx to Rx in the form of bits. Decent variety Coding is the
spatial coding procedures for a MIMO framework in remote channels. Remote channels extremely
experience the ill effects of blurring marvels, which causes lack of quality in information
disentangling.

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 Fading channels

Data h1

101 h2
Tx Rx
h3

Data h4
101

Fig. 4.9: Spatial diversity

On a very basic level, decent variety coding sends numerous duplicates through various transmit
radio wires, in order to enhance the unwavering quality of the information gathering. In the event
that one of them neglects to get, the others are utilized for information deciphering. MIMO
accomplishes spatial assorted variety and spatial multiplexing.

Diversity combining

Diversity combining is the technique used to combine the multiple received signals of a diversity
reception device into a single improved signal.

Techniques used in diversity

Different techniques are used in diversity combining are:

1. Maximum ratio combining

2. Selection combining or switching combining

3. Equal gain combining

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These are explained as:

 Maximum ratio combining (MRC) defines as it mostly used as a phased array systems. With
respect to SNR (signal to noise ratio) the received signals are weighted and summed. The
outcomes of SNR yields are:
𝑁

∑ 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑘
𝐾=
(4.1)
1

Where SNRk is a signal to noise ratio of the received signal k.

 Selection combining (SC) is from the N no. of signals, stronger signal is selected. When the N
signals are independent and Rayleigh distributed. Similarly as with exchanging, choice
preparing presents just a single reception apparatus' flag to the recipient at any given time. The
reception apparatus picked, nonetheless, depends on the best flag to-clamor proportion (SNR)
among the got signals. This requires a pre-estimation happen and that all receiving wires have
set up associations (at any rate amid the SNR estimation) prompting a higher power
prerequisite. The real determination process can occur in the middle of got bundles of data.
This guarantees a solitary reception apparatus association is kept up however much as could be
expected. Exchanging would then be able to happen on a bundle by-parcel premise if
important.

The expected diversity gain has been shown to be expressed as power ratio:

𝑁
1
∑
� (4.2)
𝑘=1
�

The no. of channels is increased then gain is also increased with it.
In fig.4.10 notations
are b= Transmitted bit
Eb= Bit energy
α1= Fading complex envelop on the i-th branch
ni= Additive white Gaussian noise on the i-th branch

26 | P a g e
 𝛼1𝐸𝑏 ½𝑏 +
𝑛1
Antenna 1
Signal
⋮ Processing Output

𝛼𝑀𝐸𝑏 ½𝑏 +
𝑛𝑀
Antenna M Signal
Processing

Select the branch with the

highest instantaneous SNR

Fig. 4.10: Selection diversity

 Switching combining (SC) the receiver signal switches to another signal when the previous
signal is dropped below the predefined threshold. It is also called scanning combining. In an
exchanging collector, the flag from just a single reception apparatus is sustained to the
beneficiary for whatever length of time that the nature of that flag stays over some endorsed
limit. In the event that and when the flag corrupts, another radio wire is exchanged in.
Exchanging is the most straightforward and slightest power devouring of the receiving wire
assorted variety handling methods yet times of blurring and de-synchronization may happen
while the nature of one reception apparatus debases and another radio wire interface is built up.

 Equal gain combining (EGC) all received signals are summed coherently. In combining, all
radio wires keep up set up associations constantly. The signs are then joined and displayed to
the beneficiary. Contingent upon the advancement of the framework, the signs can be included
straightforwardly (break even with pick up consolidating) or weighted and included reasonably
(maximal-proportion joining). Such a framework gives the best protection from blurring yet
since all the get ways must remain stimulated; it additionally expends the most power.

27 | P a g e
Different schemes of MIMO

It has different schemes to achieve different throughput.

 Alamouti’s scheme

 Space time block coding

 Omni directional space time block coding

 Qausi space time block coding

These are explained as

Alamouti’s scheme

This method is used to achieve spatial diversity for two antennas in MIMO. We present the
Alamouti’s scheme coding, the space time code and still a champion among the most typically
Used. Here discuss Alamouti’s coding for 2transmitters-1receiver system (2x1) and 2transmitter-
2receiver system (2x2) [24].

For 2 transmitter and receiving antennas are shown in diagram.

Tx Rx
h11

h12
Alamouti’s y
h21 Receiver
Scheme Coding
h22

Fig. 4.11: Alamouti’s Scheme

Time Slot
⃗⃗⃗𝑋𝑋⃗ 1⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗−⃗⃗⃗𝑋𝑋⃗⃗⃗2⃗⃗∗
Space (antenna) 𝑋𝑋2 𝑋𝑋1∗

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 The basic equation of MIMO is:
𝑌 = 𝐻𝑋𝑋 + 𝑁 (4.3)

Where y is the receiving signal, h is the multiple channels and x is the transmitted symbols, n is
noise.
Assume we have two transmitter antennas as above matrix

I. First we send two transmission symbol in first we transmit x1 in first schedule and x2 in the
next time slot.
The first receiving signal is:

𝑥1
𝑌1 = ℎ1𝑥1 + ℎ2𝑥2 + 𝑛1 = [ℎ1 ℎ2] [ ] + 𝑛1
(4.4)
𝑥2

II. Alamouti’s prefer to send the symbols in groups in the first schedule vacancy transmit x1 and
x2 and in second time slot send -x2*and x1*.
The second receiving signal is:

−𝑥2 ∗
𝑌2 = −ℎ1𝑥2 ∗ +ℎ2𝑥1 ∗ +𝑛2 = [ℎ1 ℎ2] [ ] + 𝑛2
(4.5)
𝑥1 ∗

This is the simple transmission by Alamouti’s space time coding. Alamouti’s have some drawback
that it does not have much. This is an exceptionally unique STBC. It is the main orthogonal STBC
that accomplishes rate -1:

𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑛1
] = [ ℎ1 ][ ]+[ ]
[
(4.6)

ℎ2
𝑦2 ℎ2 ∗ −ℎ1 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑛2

That is to express that it is the primary STBC that can fulfill its full varying qualities get without
hoping to surrender its data rate. Totally, this is substantial for complex change pictures. Since top
pick gathering diagrams rely upon complex numbers in any case, this property ordinarily gives
Alamouti's code a basic favored stance over the higher-organize STBCs regardless of the way that
they finish a predominant screw up rate execution. Coding rate and can't accomplish constantly
most important information rate.
29 | P a g e
Space time block coding

Space–time block codes (STBCs) follow up on a square of information without a moment's delay
(comparably to square codes) and furthermore gives diversity gain however doesn’t provide coding
gain [24]. It is advance type of Alamouti’s plan and it holds all the vital elements of Alamouti’s
plan also some headway. These summed up codes are orthogonal in nature and transmit receiving
wires can accomplish full differences through this:

Transmit antennas
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆1𝑛
⋯
Time slot[ 𝑆21 𝑆22 ⋮
𝑆2𝑛]
𝑆𝑚1 𝑆𝑚2 𝑆𝑚𝑛
⋯

𝑌 = 𝐻𝑠 + 𝑛
(4.7)

As of now specified that STBC are the headway of Alamouti’s Space time code in which the
encoding and disentangling arrangements are the same as there in the Alamouti’s on both the
transmission and beneficiary sides are used for MIMO systems to enable the transmission of
various copies of a data stream over different radio wires and to manhandle the diverse got types of
the data to upgrade the reliability of data trade. Space time coding cements every single one of the
duplicates of the got development superbly to manage ousts however much data from every one of
them as could be normal. Space time square coding uses both spatial and temporary arranged
qualities and thusly engage critical augmentations to be made. Space-time coding incorporates the
sending of various copies data. This makes up for the multi path issues, for example, blurring and
warm commotion. In spite of the fact that there is repetition in the information a few duplicates
may arrive less defiled at the recipient. When utilizing space-time square coding, the information
stream is encoded in pieces preceding transmission. These information pieces are then
appropriated for the numerous reception apparatuses and the information is likewise divided
crosswise over time. STBC does not use for more than 2 antenna. There is some drawback that
Sensitivity to channel estimation error, Delay Effects, Antenna Configurations.

30 | P a g e
 Transmission by utilization of 2 antennas:

𝑥(𝑡)1 𝑥(𝑡)2
𝐻2 =−𝑥(𝑡)2
[ ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)1 ∗ ]
(4.8)

Transmission by utilization of 3 antennas:

𝑥(𝑡)1 𝑥(𝑡)2 𝑥(𝑡)3

−𝑥(𝑡)2 𝑥(𝑡)1 −𝑥(𝑡)
4
−𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)4 𝑥(𝑡)1

𝐻3 = −𝑥(𝑡)4 −𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)2

𝑥(𝑡)1 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)2 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)3 ∗
(4.9)

−𝑥(𝑡)2 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)1 −𝑥(𝑡)4

∗ ∗
−𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)4 𝑥(𝑡)1 ∗
∗ ∗
[ −𝑥(𝑡)4 ∗−𝑥(𝑡)3 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)2
∗ ]

By utilization of 4 antennas:

𝑥(𝑡)1 𝑥(𝑡)2 𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)4

−𝑥(𝑡)2 𝑥(𝑡)1 −𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡)3
4
−𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)4 𝑥(𝑡)1 − 𝑥(𝑡)2
−𝑥(𝑡)4 −𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥 ( 𝑡) 2 𝑥(𝑡)1
𝐻4 =
(4.10)
𝑥(𝑡)1 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)2 ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥 ( 𝑡) 4 ∗
∗
−𝑥(𝑡)2∗ 𝑥(𝑡)4
−𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)1∗ 𝑥(𝑡)1
−𝑥(𝑡)4 ∗ −(𝑡𝑥)(3𝑡)∗
𝑥 2
∗
[ −𝑥(𝑡)4 −𝑥(𝑡)3 𝑥(𝑡)2 𝑥 ( 𝑡) 1 ∗ ]
∗ ∗ ∗

Orthogonal space time block coding (OSTBC)

OSTBC stands for orthogonal space time block coding. It gives more advantages then space time
coding. OSTBC can be used for more than 2 antennas [25]. The OSTBC accomplish full diversity
qualities with low decoding multifaceted nature. The exhibitions of STBC and OSTBC codes are
performed in regard of Bit Error Rate (BER) and diversity qualities pick up by the Rayleigh
blurring or fading channel. The OSTBC use linear STBC.
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All signals orthogonal to each other. The orthogonality empowers us to accomplish full transmit
differing qualities. Furthermore, in the meantime, it permits a basic ML de-ciphering. Precoded
OSTBC has a higher unraveling many-sided quality and a lower coding pick up than the other two
codes, since in the precoded OSTBC the data images should be together planned and decoded.

32 | P a g e
Additionally, a precoded no-zero-section Toeplitz code and a precoded no-zero-passage covered
Alamouti’s code are likewise proposed [25]. These two codes can accomplish a higher assorted
qualities arrange with straight collectors. The OSTBC Encoder piece encodes the data images from
the QPSK Modulator by utilizing either the Alamouti’s code for two transmit reception
apparatuses or other summed up complex orthogonal codes for three or four transmit radio wires.
The quantity of transmit reception apparatuses is given to this square as an information. The yield
of this square is a (Ns x Nt) variable-measure network, where the quantity of sections (Nt) relates
to the quantity of transmit reception apparatuses and the quantity of columns (Ns) compares to the
quantity of orthogonal code tests transmitted over each transmit receiving wire in a casing. So,
dimension is Ns/2 × T/2. All info stream created is changed over to images by adjustment QPSK.
AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) is added to each channel. They got signs are decoded by
Maximum probability strategy. The OSTBC has best performance related to signal to noise ratio
than STBC. For transmitted antenna 2 the matrix is:

Table 4.1 OSTBC

𝑔1 𝑔2
Transmitted Antenna Rate OSTBC codeword matrix

2 1 𝑔 = [−𝑔2 ∗ 𝑔1 ∗]

𝑔1 𝑔2 0
−𝑔2 ∗ 𝑔1 ∗ 0
[ ]
0 0 𝑔1
3 ½

0 0 −𝑔2 ∗
𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑔3
[ 𝑔3 ∗∗
−𝑔2 𝑔1 ∗ 0 ]
0 𝑔1 ∗
−
3 ¾

0 𝑆3 ∗ −𝑔2 ∗
𝑔1 𝑔2 0 0
−𝑔2 ∗ 𝑔1 ∗ 0 0
[ ]
0 0 𝑔1 𝑔2
4 ½

0 0 −𝑔2 ∗ 𝑔1 ∗
𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑔3 0
−𝑔2 ∗ 𝑔1 0 𝑔3
[ ]
𝑔3 ∗ 0 −𝑔1 ∗ 𝑔2
4 ¾

0 𝑔3 ∗ −𝑔2 ∗ 𝑔1

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Basically we use large numbers of antenna at the transmission side and receiving side to achieve
data rate, high capacity and to improve the reliability. So Alamouti’s code used to achieve overall
rate orthogonal space time block code (OSTBC). One advantage of OSTBC is that it has no
requirement of channel state data at the transmission side for obtaining the diversity.

Quasi-orthogonal space time block coding (QOSTBC)

QOSTBC stands for Quasi-orthogonal space time block coding. Another approach for Quasi-
Orthogonal space time piece coding (QO-STBC) is proposed, with essential straight translating by
methods for most extraordinary likelihood revelation. The proposed MIMO-OFDM signals with
QOSTBC using 8X8 reception apparatus arrangement has better execution as far as BER versus
SNR than the other system. The regular QOSTBC can accomplish the full correspondence rate,
however at the cost of the unraveling many-sided quality and the assorted qualities increase due to
the obstruction terms in the discovery framework. It also overcomes the decoding complexity. The
QOSTBC can accomplish full rate yet impedance terms will show up from the neighboring signals
amid the flag identification and increases the detection complexity and decreases the gain
throughput. By utilizing semi orthogonal plan, sets of transmitted images can be decoded
autonomously; the loss of assorted qualities in QOSTBC is because of some coupling terms
between the evaluated images. When we use more than 2 transmitted antennas than the rate of
OSTBC cannot be more than ¾. For obtaining rate more than ¾ for 2 transmitted antennas we use
QOSTBC method. Alamouti’s code is better for achieving full rate diversity. The usage of
Alamouti’s code but for more than 2 transmitted antennas. QOSTBC is a full rate STBC for more
than one radio wire. To configuration full rate codes with real and imaginary grouping, we assume
non-orthogonal codes for the 4 transmit antenna and for 8 transmitted antennas at transmission rate
one so QOSTBC constructed by using Alamouti’s code. To calculate BER we use QOSTBC with
modulation BPSK. If we place greater number of transmitted and receive antenna then the SNR
increases and BER performance decreases rapidly so QOSTBC used for transmission rate up to 1,

𝑠11 𝑠12 𝑠13 𝑠14

½ and 3/4. So QOSTBC overcome the disadvantage of OSTBC:

A12 = [ ] A34 = [ ]
(4.11)
−𝑠∗ 𝑠∗ −𝑠∗ 𝑠∗
12 11 14 13
𝑠15 𝑠16 𝑠17 𝑠18
A56 = [ ] A78 = [ ]
(4.12)
−𝑠∗ 𝑠∗ −𝑠∗ 𝑠∗
16 15 18 17
34 | P a g e
 Matrix for 8*8 antenna using QOSTBC:

𝑠11 𝑠12 𝑠13 𝑠14

𝐴12 𝐴34 −𝑠∗ 𝑠∗ −𝑠∗ 𝑠∗
𝐵=[ ]∗= = [ 12 −𝑠 ∗]
(4.13)
−𝐴34 ∗ 𝐴12
11 14 13
−𝑠 ∗ ∗ 𝑠 ∗
𝑠
1 1 11 12
�1∗ −𝑠13 −𝑠12 𝑠11
�4

𝑠15 𝑠16 𝑠17 𝑠18

𝐴56 𝐴78 −𝑠∗ 𝑠∗ 1∗8 𝑠1∗7]
−𝑠
𝑐=[ ]∗ = [−𝑠∗
16 15
−𝐴78 ∗ 𝐴56
−𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
∗ ∗
(4.14)
∗
1 1 15 16
�1∗ −𝑠17 −𝑠16 𝑠15
�8
On Combined equation (4.12) and (4.13) the antenna configuration is:

𝐵 𝐶
]=
−𝐶 ∗ 𝐵 ∗
Q=[

𝑠11 𝑠12 𝑠13 𝑠14 𝑠15 𝑠16 𝑠17 𝑠18

−𝑠12 ∗ 𝑠11 −𝑠14 ∗ 𝑠13 ∗ −𝑠16 ∗ 𝑠15 −𝑠18 𝑠17 ∗
∗
−𝑠13 ∗ −𝑠14 𝑠11 ∗ 𝑠12 ∗ −𝑠17 ∗ 𝑠16 ∗ −𝑠18 ∗ 𝑠15 ∗
∗
𝑠14 ∗ −𝑠13 −𝑠12 𝑠11 𝑠18 ∗ −𝑠17 −𝑠16 𝑠15
−𝑠15 −𝑠16 ∗ −𝑠17 ∗ −𝑠18 ∗ 𝑠11 ∗ 𝑠12 ∗ 𝑠13 ∗ 𝑠14
(4.15)

∗ ∗
𝑠16 −𝑠15 𝑠18 −𝑠17 −𝑠12 𝑠11 −𝑠14 𝑠13
𝑠17 𝑠18 −𝑠15 −𝑠16 −𝑠13 −𝑠14 𝑠11 𝑠1
2
[ −𝑠18 𝑠17 𝑠16 ∗ −𝑠15 ∗ 𝑠14 ∗ −𝑠13 𝑠11 ]
∗ ∗ ∗−𝑠12 ∗ ∗

This method to improve Quasi-Orthogonal-STBC execution with iterative disentangling, which

obviously accomplishes higher unwavering quality however builds deciphering intricacy. In some
new translating techniques were proposed to lessen the computational many-sided quality.

Disadvantages of MIMO

 Complexity

35 | P a g e
 More power consumption

 Costly
 Limited number of antennas

36 | P a g e
Applications of MIMO

 It is efficient for OFDM when multipath fading will occur

 It gives reliable communication

 It also increase capacity

37 | P a g e
CHAPTER 5 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

The simulation results for illustrating the impact of using MIMO sytems on the BER vs SNR
performance of FBMC system are presented in this chapter. In the simulation work AWGN and
Rayleigh channels are used for analyzing the performance of FBMC system augmented with
MIMO system. In MIMO-FBMC, different diversity combining techniques are used to analyze the
performance of system.

MRC augmented FBMC:

Fig. 5.1(a): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-MRC in AWGN channel.

38 | P a g e
 Fig. 5.1(b): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-MRC in Rayleigh channel.

In Fig. 5.1 (a-b) FBMC- Maximum ratio combining (MRC) diversity technique is used with
varying number of receiving antennas N over AWGN and Rayleigh channel. Here, the number of
receiving antennas are varried from 1 to 4 i.e. N = 1, 2, 3 and 4 . By using different antennas at
receiver side, BER performance of FBMC varrying. When number of receiving antennas are
increasing, the Bit Error Rate keeps on decreasing and thus this system would provide better Bit
Error Rate performance with respect to a specified value of SNR. The performnace of FBMC-
MRC is better in case of AWGN channel in comparison to Rayleigh channel, as in case of
Rayleigh channel no line of sight path is available in between the transmitter and receiver,
moreover the effect of multipath fading also comes in to play in case of rayleigh fading channel.

39 | P a g e
SC augmented FBMC:

Fig. 5.2(a): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-SC in AWGN channel.

In Fig. 5.2 (a-b) FBMC-Selection combining (SC) diversity technique is used with varying
number of receiving antennas N over AWGN and Rayleigh channel. In Selection combining
number of signals are present but stronger signal is selected. Here, the number of receiving
antennas are varried from 1 to 4 i.e. N = 1, 2, 3 and 4 . By using different antennas at receiver
side, BER performance of FBMC varying.

40 | P a g e
 Fig. 5.2(b): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-SC in Rayleigh channel.

When number of receiving antennas are increasing, the Bit Error Rate keeps on decreasing and
thus this system would provide better Bit Error Rate performance with respect to a specified value
of SNR. The performance of FBMC-SC is better in case of AWGN channel in comparison to
Rayleigh channel, as in case of Rayleigh channel no line of sight path is available in between the
transmitter and receiver, moreover the effect of multipath fading also comes in to play in case of
rayleigh fading channel.

Here, from graphs 5.1 and 5.2 observed that using MRC and SC diversity techniques, MRC gives
better performance than SC in case of AWGN and Rayleigh channels.

41 | P a g e
Alamouti augmented FBMC:

Fig. 5.3(a): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-Alamouti in AWGN channel.

Fig. 5.3(b): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-Alamouti in Rayleigh channel.

42 | P a g e
In Fig. 5.3 (a-b) FBMC- Alamouti diversity technique is used with varying number of receiving
antennas N over AWGN and Rayleigh channel. Here, the number of receiving antennas are
varried from 1 to 4 i.e. N = 1, 2, 3 and 4 . By using different antennas at receiver side, BER
performance of FBMC varrying. When number of receiving antennas are increasing, the Bit
Error Rate keeps on decreasing and thus this system would provide better Bit Error Rate
performance with respect to a specified value of SNR. The performnace of FBMC-Alamouti is
better in case of AWGN channel in comparison to Rayleigh channel, as in case of Rayleigh
channel no line of sight path is available in between the transmitter and receiver, moreover the
effect of multipath fading also comes in to play in case of rayleigh fading channel.

STBC3 augmented FBMC:

Fig. 5.4(a): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC3 in AWGN channel.

43 | P a g e
 Fig. 5.4(b): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC3 in Rayleigh channel.

In Fig. 5.4 (a-b) FBMC- Space Time Block Code-3 (STBC3) diversity technique is used with
varying number of receiving antennas N over AWGN and Rayleigh channel. Here, the number of
receiving antennas are varried from 1 to 4 i.e. N = 1, 2, 3 and 4 . By using different antennas at
receiver side, BER performance of FBMC varrying. When number of receiving antennas are
increasing, the Bit Error Rate keeps on decreasing and thus this system would provide better Bit
Error Rate performance with respect to a specified value of SNR. The performnace of FBMC-
STBC3 is better in case of AWGN channel in comparison to Rayleigh channel, as in case of
Rayleigh channel no line of sight path is available in between the transmitter and receiver,
moreover the effect of multipath fading also comes in to play in case of rayleigh fading channel.

44 | P a g e
STBC4 augmented FBMC:

Fig. 5.5(a): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC4 in AWGN channel.

Fig. 5.5(b): SNR vs BER performance of FBMC-STBC4 in Rayleigh channel.

45 | P a g e
In Fig. 5.5 (a-b) FBMC- Space Time Block Code-4 (STBC4) diversity technique is used with
varying number of receiving antennas N over AWGN and Rayleigh channel. Here, the number of
receiving antennas are varried from 1 to 4 i.e. N = 1, 2, 3 and 4 . By using different antennas at
receiver side, BER performance of FBMC varrying. When number of receiving antennas are
increasing, the Bit Error Rate keeps on decreasing and thus this system would provide better Bit
Error Rate performance with respect to a specified value of SNR. The performnace of FBMC-
STBC4 is better in case of AWGN channel in comparison to Rayleigh channel, as in case of
Rayleigh channel no line of sight path is available in between the transmitter and receiver,
moreover the effect of multipath fading also comes in to play in case of rayleigh fading channel.

Here, from graphs 5.4 and 5.5 observed that using STBC3 and STBC4 diversity techniques,
STBC4 gives better performance than STBC3 in case of AWGN and Rayleigh channels.

46 | P a g e
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE SCOPE

Conclusion

FBMC is considered as a candidate waveform for 5G networks, as its inherent properties provide the
flexibility needed to respond to the diverse service requirements expected in future communication
scenarios. In MIMO-FBMC system, the use of multiple antenna in case of different technique such
as MRC, SC, Alamouti, STBC3 and STBC4 the performance of system is improved. The simulation
results depicts that when the number of receiving antennas is increasing, the BER keeps on
decreasing due to and thus this system would provide better BER performance in comparison to
other antenna configuration.

Here the system is evaluated for different channels such as AWGN and Rayleigh for the comparison
of SNR with BER using different MIMO diversity combining schemes.

Future scope

FBMC-MIMO requires further development and the better performance analysis for the solution. In
future diverse MIMO methodologies can be analyzed for improvement in performance of FBMC
system. FBMC system can also be analyzed using diverse filters for better performance and less
complexity.

47 | P a g e
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51 | P a g e
 DETAILS OF THE PROJECT ASSOCIATES
NAME : Modugula Devi Venkata Sucharitha
: Modugula Chandram
ROLL NUMBER : 18NE1A0498
DATE OF BIRTH : 2 January, 2001
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Guntur (Dt.) 522601
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PLACE:

DATE: (M. Devi Venkata Sucharitha)

NAME : Katru Ramya
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:
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