STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

? Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, the learners should be able to

a) differentiate steady-state heat transfer problems for plane and

composite wall;
b) compare steady-state conduction heat transfer equations for radial
systems like cylinders and spheres; and
c) apply steady-state conduction equations to a particular heat
transfer problem

In conduction heat flow, the energy is transmitted by direct molecular communication without
appreciable displacement of the molecules either by lattice vibration or particle collision. The
faster moving atoms, or electrons, or molecules in the hotter part induce by impacts an
increased activity of adjacent atoms, electrons, or molecules; thus heat flows from the hotter to
the colder parts.

Conduction by lattice vibration

Conduction by particle collision

In opaque solids, conduction is the only mode which heat can flow. Heat may be conducted at
an uneven rate, that is, the temperature difference in the path of heat flow may be increasing or
decreasing.

Fourier’s Law

For steady state, unidirectional flow, Fourier’s equation gives the heat conduction as

kAdT
Q=- 2.1
dx
 where Q = is the heat conducted across a surface area of A (m2), through a wall
thickness of dx (m) and with a temperature drop of dT , °C through the distance dx .

dT / dx = temperature gradient along the path

(-) = negative sign in the equation is used to indicate that the temperature decreases
in the direction of heat flow
(that is dT = T2 – T1) is a negative number and a negative sign makes Q
positive for convenience.

k = thermal conductivity, is the amount of heat, W transmitted in unit time across

unit area, m2 through unit thickness, m for unit temperature change (1°C),
W/(m – K).

Variation of Thermal Conductivity in Solids, Liquids, and Gases

A. Solid

1. Solid (homogeneous) materials are relatively high in k-values while good

insulators which are porous, cellular, fibrous, and or laminated materials have
low k-values.
2. Thermal conductivity, k increases with the density and elasticity of the materials.
3. Absorption of moisture impairs the insulating value of porous materials.

B. Liquid and Gases

Liquids and gases are more sensitive to temperature changes; occurrence of

convection currents during tests on liquids and gases complicated the determination of
conductivities.

Examples of thermal conductivity values:

Metals: k = 50-400 W/moC
Water: k = 0.597 W/moC
Air : k = 0.0251 W/moC
Insulating materials: k = 0.035 - 0.173 W/moC

Heat Through Wall: Plane and Composite

Conduction through a plane wall

Conduction through plane wall means heat transfer by conduction through a wall made
of only one homogeneous material. Let us study how heat flow by following the illustration
below.
 Figure 2.1 Heat flow through a plane wall

kAdT
Following Fourier’s equation, we have Q=- and by separating the
dx
variables, equation 2.1 will become

Q dx = -(kAdT )

Integrating the above equation with appropriate upper and lower limits

(
Q ò dx = - kAò dT )
will yield the following equation

kA(T2 - T1 )
Q=-
x

Eliminating the negative sign will yield the equation below

kA(T1 - T2 )
Q= 2.2
x

Where T1 , T2 = surface temperatures of a partition, °C or oK

k = average value of thermal conductivity of the wall, W/m–°K
A = surface area through which heat transmission occurs, m2
x = thickness of wall, m

Equation [2.2] is attained after a steady state of unidirectional heat flow has been
reached in a single homogeneous material whose k constant.
Conduction through a composite wall

Conduction through composite walls may be made up by two or more homogeneous

materials. Say for three homogeneous materials A, B, C (refer to Figure 2.2):

T1
A B C

Q k1 k3
k2

T2

x1 x2 x3

Figure 2.2 Conduction through a composite wall

Conduction through each layer would be

k1 AA (T1 - Ta )
For layer A: QA =
x1

k 2 AB (Ta - Tb )
For layer B: QB =
x2

k 3 AC (Tb - Tc )
For layer C: QC =
x3

Note that Tc is the same as T2.

Solving for the temperature difference for each wall and noting that the heat through the first
layer of material, QA is equal to the heating passing through the second layer of material, QB
and further equal to the heat passing through the layer in series, QC. Therefore, QA = QB = QC =
Q and in the same manner, the cross-sectional area of material A where heat passes through
is the same cross-sectional area for materials B and C, that is AA = AB = AC = A. Hence, the
Temperature difference for
Q x1
layer A is (T1 - Ta ) =
k1 A
Temperature difference for
Q x2
layer B is (Ta - Tb ) =
k2 A
Temperature difference for
Q x3
layer C is (Tb - T2 ) =
k3 A

Q æ x1 x2 x3 ö
Summing the left terms (T1 - T2 ) = ç + + ÷ 2.3
A çè k1 k 2 k3 ÷ø

Rearranging the equation and solving for the amount of heat to be transferred

A(T1 - T2 )
Q= 2.4
æ x1 x2 x3 ö
çç + + ÷÷
è k1 k 2 k3 ø

For any section of the wall, the conductance, C of the wall can be computed as

kA
C=
x

Conductance is defined as the rate of heat transfer per unit temperature difference,
Q
; it includes the effect of size and shape of the conducting body. For a composite wall, the
DT
A
conductance C from surface to surface is . On the other hand, thermal resistance R
S( x k )
x DT x
is the reciprocal of conductance, where R = = . Unit resistance r is defined as .
kA Q k

The computation of the total resistance varies on the arrangement of the wall: in series
or in parallel. Since heat flow is analogous with Ohm’s Law, we can define the total thermal
resistance as follows:
 A. For wall in series, total thermal resistance will be:

B. For wall in parallel configuration, the total thermal resistance will be:

Film Coefficient

On each side of the composite wall is a fluid; the nature of each fluid is considered as
having a laminar layer on a steady-state unidirectional heat flow. On the hot side of the wall (T1),
the fluid is hotter on the surface at some temperature thus, T1 > Ta. On the cool side of the wall
(T2), the fluid is cooler than the surface, its temperature being T2 < Td. Thus through this films of
the fluids adjacent to the surfaces, there are temperature drops T1 – Ta and Td – T2. The unit
rate of heat flow through this film is called film coefficient or film conductance, represented
as h. Thence for the air films:
 Q = h1 A(T1 - Ta ) - Q from the hot fluid surface of the wall

Q = h2 A(Tb - T2 ) - Q from the cooler fluid surface of the wall

where h = W / ( m2 °K)

Table 2.1 Approximate values of convection heat transfer coefficients

MODE h
W/m - C/ W/m2- oK
2 o

Free convection, ΔT = 30 oC
Vertical plate 0.3 m (I ft) high in air 4.5
Horizontal cylinder, 5-cm in diameter, in air 6.5
Horizontal cylinder, 2-cm in diameter, in water 890
Heat transfer across1.5 cm vertical air gap with 2.64
ΔT = 30 oC

Forced convection
Airflow at 2 m/s over 0.2 m square plate 12
Airflow at 35 m/s over 0.75 m square plate 75
Air at 2 atm flowing in 2.5 cm diameter tube at 10 m/s 65
Water at 0.5 kg/s flowing in 2.5 cm diameter tube 3500
Airflow across 5 cm diameter cylinder with velocity of 180
50 m/s

Boiling water 2500 – 35, 000

In a pool or container 5000 – 100,000
Flowing in a tube

Condensation of water vapor, 1 atm

Vertical surfaces 4000 – 11,300
Outside horizontal tubes 9500 – 25,000

Source: Holman, J. P. 1997. Heat Transfer. 8th edition

For composite wall, heat transfer from fluid to fluid:

A(T1 - T2 )
Q= 2.5
æ 1 x1 x2 x3 1 ö
çç + + + + ÷÷
è h1 k1 k2 k3 h2 ø
 For steady-state-unidirectional flow of heat

ADT
Q= 2.6
å 1h + å x k

å R =å 1 h + å x k

where Q = rate of heat transfer from fluid to fluid through the wall

R = total thermal resistance

ΔT = T1 – T2 = temperature difference between fluids

The total unit resistance, R to heat flow is the reciprocal of the overall conductance U:

1 1 x
=S +S . 2.7
U h k

Thus for a composite plane wall,

Q = UADT 2.8

Sample Problem 1:

Conduction through composite wall

A storage wall is to be built of 8 in of building brick (common) [ k=0.692 W/m–°K]; 4 in of

Styrofoam [k=0.036 W/m–°K ] ; and 1 in of plywood [k=0.059 W/m–°K ] . The inside and
outside temperatures are 35o F and 85 o F, respectively and the value of hi and ho as 34.07
and 9.37 W/m2oK, respectively. Find ; (a) the heat rate per square meter ; (b) the temperature of
outside brick surface; (c) the temperature of the inside wall surface; and, (d) the temperature at
the interface between the styrofoam and the plywood.

Given: Storage Wall

x 1 = building brick = 8 in = 0.203 m

x2 = Styrofoam = 4 in = 0.102 m
x3 = plywood = 1 in = 0.025 m
kbb =0.692 W/m–°K
ks =0.036 W/m–°K
kp =0.059 W/m–°K
Ti = inside temperature = 35o F = 1.67o C
 To = outside temperature = 85o F = 29.44o C
hi & ho = 34.07 and 9.37 W/m2oK, respectively

Required:

a) Heat rate per square meter, Q/A in W/m2

b) Temperature of the outside brick surface, Tobs, oC
c) Temperature of the inside wall surface, Ti ws , oC
d) Temperature between the styrofoam and plywood interface, Tsp, oC

Solution:

To
hi

ho Ti

x1 x2 x3

Cross-sectional view of the composite storage wall showing the flow of heat

a) Heat rate per square meter, Q/A can be obtained from the equation

Q = UADT

Solving for Q/A

Q
= UDT and substituting U with ∑R and DT with To - Ti in the
A

Q To - Ti
equation will yield to =
A SR

1 x1 x2 x3 1
where SR = + + + +
ho kbb k s k p hi

Solving for the overall resistance, ΣR

1 0.203 0.102 0.025 1

SR = + + + +
34.07 0.692 0.036 0.059 9.37

SR = 3.686m 2 o K / W
 Q { (29.44 + 273) - (1.67 + 273) }o K
=
A 3.686m 2 o K / W

Q
= 7.53W 2
A m

b) Temperature outside brick surface, Tbs can be solved from the equation

Q
Q = ho A(To - Tbs ) and solving for yields to
A

Q
= ho (To - Tbs ). Rearranging the equation and solving for Tbs yields to
A

Q
Tbs = To - A and substituting the values
ho
7.53W 2
(
Tbs = 29.44 + 273) K -
o
W
m
34.07
m 2-o K
Tbs = 304.44 - 0.22
Tbs = 302.22o K

or Tbs = 29.22 o C

c) Temperature of inside wall surface, Tws

Q
Q = hi A(Tws - Ti ) and solving for , the equation yields to
A

Q
= hi (Tws - Ti ). Rearranging the equation and solving for Tws yields to
A

Q
Tws = A + T and substituting the values
i
hi
 7.53W
Tws = m2 (
+ 1.67 + 273) o K
9.37W 2-o
m K
Tws = 0.8036 K + 274.67 o K
o

Tws = 275.47 o K

or Tws = 2.47 o C

d) Temperature between the styrofoam and plywood interface, Tsp

Note that we can use the conduction equation for a plane wall and since
Q/A will be the same for all the materials in series, the equation yields to

Q (T sp-Tws )
=
A x3
k3
Q x3
Tsp = { }+ Tws
A k3

0.025m
Tsp = 7.53W 2 * + 275.47 oK
m 0.059 W
m oK

Tsp = 3.19 + 275.47

Tsp = 278.66o K

or Tsp = 5.66 o C
Radial Systems: Hollow Cylinders and Spheres

Conduction through hollow cylinder (curved wall)

T1

T2
L

Figure 2.3 Heat flow through a hollow cylinder

Let us consider a thick hollow cylinder for which the temperature on the inside surface is
T1, the temperature on the outside surface is T2, and the thermal conductivity is k. The heat
flows radially say from the inside to the outside, and in so doing, a given quantity of heat passes
across a larger and larger surface area, A since the cylindrical area increases with the radius of
the cylinder. Consider the length of cylinder as L, and take a very thin element of the cylinder of
thickness dr and with a radius of r in meter. The area of the thin cylindrical surface normal to the
direction of heat flow is 2πrL. The change in temperature across dr is a differential amount, dT.
Thus Fourier’s equation gives

dT
Q = -2prLk 2.8
dr

Separating the variables and integrating between given limits to determine Q, we have

r2 T2
dr
Qò = -2pLk ò dT
r1
r T1

r2
Q ln = -2pLk (T2 - T1 )
r1

Thus, the heat transfer equation for hollow cylinder is

 2pLk (T1 - T2 )
Q= 2.9
r
ln 2
r1

where r2 = outside radius of pipe

r1 = inside radius of pipe

The resistance of this curved wall, Rw can be computed as

r2
ln
DT r1
Rw = =
Q 2pLk

Conduction through composite hollow cylindrical wall

If this cylinder is insulated, an inside film coefficient, h1 and outside value, h2 will be
added to the equation. The inside and outer resistance of the films are:

1 1
R1 = and R2 = 2.10
A1 h1 A2 h2

The heat transfer equation then becomes

(T1 - T2 ) T1 - T2
Q= = 2.11
r R1 + Rw + R2
ln 2
1 r1 1
+ +
A1 h1 2pLk A2 h2

r2 D
Note: can be substituted with 2 .
r1 D1

In case of a multilayer cylindrical wall (or laminated cylindrical wall), the thermal
resistance of each layer should be calculated individually and summed up to get the total
thermal resistance of the composite system. If n is the number of concentric cylindrical shells
enveloping each other, the heat flow rate through conduction is given by:

T1 - Tn +1
Q= n +1 n +1
2.12
1
å
i =1 Ai hi
+ å
i =1
Rwi

If the number of concentric cylindrical shells is two (n = 2), then, the total heat equation will be
 Q=
(T1 - T3 ) 2.13
r r
ln 2 ln 3
1 r1 r2 1
+ + +
A1h1 2pLk1 2pLk 2 A3 h3

Note that the heat, Q passing through the cylindrical shells will be the same Q
passing through each layer.

In case where the overall heat transfer coefficient based outside surface area (Uo)
of the pipe is to be determined, use the following equation and solve for Uo:

1
U o Ao =
ro
1 ln 1
+ ri +
2pLhi ri 2pLk t 2pLho ro

Otherwise, use the equation below when asked to solve for the overall heat transfer
coefficient based on inside surface area (Ui):

1
U i Ai =
ro
1 ln 1
+ ri +
2pLhi ri 2pLk t 2pLho ro

Sample Problem 2:

Conduction through composite hollow cylinder

An insulated steam pipe, located where the ambient temperature is 32.2oC, has an
inside and outside diameter of 2.0 in and 2.5 in, respectively. The pipe is insulated with
corrugated asbestos having an outside diameter of 5 in. The surface heat transfer coefficient on
the insulation is 2 BTU/(hr - ft2 - oF), a value which include the effect of radiated heat where the
movement of the air is that due to natural convection. The steam inside the pipe has a
temperature of 148.9 oC and has an inside surface heat transfer coefficient of 1000 BTU/(hr – ft
2 o
F). Compute the heat loss per meter of pipe length.

Given:
D1 = 2.0 in = 0.051 m; r1 = 0.0255 m
D2 = 2.5 in = 0.0635 m; r2 = 0.03175 m
D3 = 5.0 in = 0.127 m; r3 = 0.0635 m
h3 = 2 BTU/hr . ft2 . 0F = 11.36 W/m2. 0K
h1 = 1000 BTU/ hr . ft2 . 0F = 5678.29 W/m2 . 0K
T3 = 32.2 0C (ambient temperature)
T1 = 148.9 0C (steam temperature)
Required:
Heat loss per meter length of pipe, Q/L =?

Solution:

T1 = 148.9oC
T3 = 32.2oC kkk

h3 = 11.36 W/m2. 0K

h1 = 5678.29 W/m2. 0K r1
r2

r3

a) Heat loss per meter length of pipe, Q/L :

Q 2p (T1 - T3 )
=
L r
ln r2 ln 3
1 r1 r2 1
+ + +
r1 h1 k1 k2 r3 h3

where k of stainless steel pipe is 45 W/moK

k of asbestos sheet is 0.166 W/moK

Q 2p [(148.9 + 273) - (32.2 + 273)]o K

=
L ln 0.03175 ln 0.0635
1 0.0255 0.03175 + 1
+ +
(0.0255)(5678.29) 45 0.166 (0.0635)(11.36)

= 131.55 W/m
Sample Problem 3:

Water flows at 50oC inside a 2.5 cm inside a diameter tube such that h1 = 3500 W/m2-oK.
The tube has a wall thickness of 0.8 mm with a thermal conductivity of 16 W/m-oK. The outside
of the tube losses heat by free convection with ho = 7.6 W/m2-oK. Calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient (based on outside surface area) and heat loss per unit length to surrounding
air at 20oC.

Given: Req’d:
Tw = 50oC a) Uo = ?
di = 2.5 cm b) Q/L = ?
hi = 3500 W/m2-oK
tw = 0.8 mm
kt = 16W/m-oK
ho = 7.6 W/m2-oK
Ta = 20oC

Solution:
ho = 7.6 W/m2-oK
Tw kt = 16 W/m-oK

ri

ro
hi = 3500 W/m2-oK To = 20oC

r1 = _d1_ = _2.5_ = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m

2 2
ro = ri + tw = 0.0125m + _0.8 mm_ = 0.0133 m
1000 mm/1m

a) overall heat transfer coefficient (based on outside surface area), Uo

1 _1_ ; Ao = 2proL
U o Ao =
ro Ao
1 ln 1
+ ri +
2pLhi ri 2pLk t 2pLho ro
 1
Uo =
r
ro ro ln o
+ ri + 1
hi ri kt ho
1
Uo =
0.0133 0.0133 ln 0.0133
+ 0.0125 + 1
(3500)(0.0125)i 16 7.6

W
U o = 7.58
m2 o K

b) heat loss per unit length to surrounding air at 20oC,Q/L

Q 2p (Tw - Ta )
=
L r
ln o
1 ri 1
+ +
ri hi kt ro ho

Q 2p [(50 + 273) - (20 + 273)]o K

=
L ln 0.0133
1 0.0125 + 1
+
(0.0125)(3500) 16 (0.0133)(7.6)
Q
= 19.00 W
L m

or Q = Uo Ao DT where Ao=2proL

therefore: Q/L = Uo (2pro) DT

= (7.58 W/m2-oK) (2 p) (0.0133m) (50-20) oK

Q/L = 19.00 W/m

Conduction through Hollow Sphere

Consider a hollow sphere having an inner radius, r1 and outer radius, r2 . The inner and
outer surface temperature of the sphere is maintained at T1 and T2 (T1>T2), respectively.
 T2

T1

Spherical systems may also be treated as one-dimensional when the temperature is a

function of radius only. Now for a thin sphere of thickness dr, and a temperature difference
across it is dT, from the Fourier’s law, we can write,

dT
Q = -kA
dr
or
Q
dT = - dr
kA

To calculate the total rate of heat transfer across the cylinder, we have to integrate the
above equation

1 2
Q
ò dT = -ò
1 1
kA
dr

2
Q dr
T2 - T1 = - ò
k 1 4pr 2

2
Q é1 ù
T2 - T1 = - êr ú
4pk ë û1

2
Q é1 1 ù
T2 - T1 = - ê - ú
4pk ë r1 r2 û1
 4pk (T1 - T2 )
Q= or
1 1
-
r1 r2

4pkr1r2 (T1 - T2 )
Q=
(r2 - r1 )
Therefore, the thermal resistance will be

R=
(r2 - r2 )
4pkr2 r1

Sample Problem 4:

Conduction through a hollow sphere

A hollow sphere is constructed of aluminum with an inner diameter of 4 cm and an

outside diameter of 8 cm. The inside temperature is 100oC and the outer temperature is 50oC.
Calculate the heat transfer.

Given:

D1 = 4 cm
D2= 8 cm
T1= 100 C
T2= 50 C

Required: Calculate the heat transfer, Q

Solution:

Q
 4pkr1r2 (T1 - T2 )
Q= where k of aluminum is 204 W/m2 K
(r2 - r1 )

4p (204W / mK )(0.02m)(0.04m)([100 + 273] - [50 + 273])o K

Q=
(0.04m - 0.02m )
Q = 5127.08W