Chapter One

Propositional Logic and Set

Theory

1
Introduction

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 Propositional Logic
Definition & examples of propositions
Consider, the following sentences.
a. 2 is an even number.
b. A triangle has four sides.
c. Emperor Menelik ate chicken soup the night after the
battle of Adwa.
d. May God bless you!
e. Give me that book.
f. What is your name?
Here (a), (b) & (c) are declarative sentences where (a) is
true & (b) is false. We cannot find out he truth value (c )
because of lack of historical records but it is either true or false
but not both. On the other hand, the last three sentences have
not truth value. So they are not declaratives.
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Now, we begin by examining a proposition, the building blocks of
every argument.

Definition: A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth

value (either True or False but not both).

The definition does not mean that we must always know what the truth
value is.
For example, the sentence “The 1000th digit in the decimal expansion
of 𝜋 is 7” is a proposition,
but it may be necessary to find this information in a Web site on the
Internet to determine whether this statement is true.

Indeed, for a sentence to be a proposition (or a statement), it is not a

requirement that we be able to determine its truth value.
Remark: Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted
by 𝑻) or false (denoted by 𝑭).
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 Logical connectives
In mathematics, the following five words or
combinations of words,
1. Not(negation) denoted by “¬”
2. and (conjunction) denoted by “⋀”
3. Or (disjunction) denoted by “∨”
4. if . . . then (or implication) denoted by ‘’⇒’’
5. if and only if (bi-implication) symbolized by
" ⇔ " , are called propositional (logical)
connectives.
Note: Letters such as p, q, r, s etc. are usually used to
denote actual propositions.
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 1. Conjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective
“and”, the proposition formed is a logical conjunction.
“and” is denoted by “∧ ”.

So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, 𝑝 and 𝑞, is

written as 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, read as “𝑝 and 𝑞,” or “𝑝 conjunction 𝑞”.

p and q are called the components of the conjunction. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞

is true if and only if 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is true.

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The truth table for conjunction is given as:

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭

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Example: Consider the following propositions:
𝑝: 3 is an odd number. (True)
𝑞: 27 is a prime number. (False)
𝑟: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia.
(True)
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime
number. (False)
𝑝 ∧ 𝑟: 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa
is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)

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 2. Disjunction

When two propositions are joined with the connective

“or,” the proposition formed is called a logical
disjunction. “or” is denoted by “∨ ”.

So, the logical disjunction of two propositions, 𝑝 and 𝑞, is

written as 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 read as “𝑝 or 𝑞” or “𝑝 disjunction 𝑞.”

𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is false if and only if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are false.

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The truth table for disjunction is given as:
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭

Example: Consider the following propositions:

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Melak Mesfin (PhD) 11
Note: The use of “or” in propositional logic is
rather different from its normal use in the
English language. For example, if Solomon
says, “I will go to the football match in the
afternoon or I will go to the cinema in the
afternoon,” he means he will do one thing or
the other, but not both. Here “or” is used in
the exclusive sense. But in propositional
logic, “or” is used in the inclusive sense; that
is, we allow Solomon the possibility of doing
both things without him being inconsistent.

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 3. Implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective
“implies,” the proposition formed is called a logical
implication.

“implies” is denoted by “⟹ ”.

So, the logical implication of two propositions, 𝑝 and 𝑞, is

written as: 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 read as “𝑝 implies 𝑞”.

The role of the connective “implies” between two

propositions is the same as the use of “If … then …” Thus

𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 can be read as “if 𝑝, then 𝑞.”

𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is false if and only if 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.
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𝑝 𝒒 𝒑⟹𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻

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Examples: Consider the following propositions:
𝑝: 3 is an odd number. (True)
𝑞: 27 is a prime number. (False)
𝑟: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia.
(True)
𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is
prime. (False)
𝑝 ⟹ 𝑟: If 3 is an odd number, then Addis
Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)

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There are various ways of expressing the
proposition 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞, namely:
If 𝑝, then 𝑞.
𝑞 if 𝑝.
𝑝 implies 𝑞.
𝑝 only if 𝑞.
𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞.
𝑞 is necessary for 𝑝

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 4. Bi-implication
When two propositions are joined with the
connective “bi-implication,” the proposition
formed is called a logical bi-implication or a
logical equivalence. A bi-implication is
denoted by “⟺”. So the logical bi-implication
of two propositions, 𝑝 and 𝑞, is written: 𝑝 ⟺
𝑞.
𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞 is false if and only if 𝑝 and 𝑞 have
different truth values.

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The truth table for bi-implication is given by:

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⟺𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻

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The proposition 𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞 may be expressed
as:
 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 (in short 𝑝 iff 𝑞),
𝑝 implies 𝑞 and 𝑞 implies 𝑝,
 𝑝 is necessary and sufficient for 𝑞
𝑞 is necessary and sufficient for 𝑝
 𝑝 is equivalent to 𝑞

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Examples:
a. Let 𝑝: 2 is greater than 3. (False)
𝑞: 5 is greater than 4. (True)
Then 𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞: 2 is greater than 3 if and only if 5 is greater
than 4. (False)
b. Consider the following propositions:
𝑝: 3 is an odd number. (True)
𝑞: 2 is a prime number. (True)
𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞: 3 is an odd number if and only if 2 is a prime
number. (True)

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 5. Negation
Given any proposition 𝑝, we can form the
proposition 𝑝 called the negation of 𝑝. The
truth value of 𝑝 is 𝐹 if 𝑝 is 𝑇 and 𝑇 if 𝑝 is 𝐹.
We can describe the relation between 𝑝 and 𝑝
as follows.

𝒑 𝑝
𝐓 𝐅
𝐅 𝐓
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Example: Let 𝑝: Addis Ababa is the capital
city of Ethiopia. (True)
𝑝: Addis Ababa is not the capital city of
Ethiopia. (False)

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 Compound (or complex) propositions
So far, what we have done is simply to define
the logical connectives, and express them
through algebraic symbols. Now we shall learn
how to form propositions involving more than
one connective, and how to determine the truth
values of such propositions.
Definition: The proposition formed by joining
two or more proposition by logical
connective(s) is called a compound statement.

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Melak Mesfin (PhD) 24
Examples:
a) Suppose 𝑝 and 𝑟 are true and 𝑞 and 𝑠 are false.
What is the truth value of 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ⟹ (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠)?
i.Since 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is false.
ii.Since 𝑟 is true and 𝑠 is false, 𝑟 ∨ 𝑠 is true.
iii.Thus by applying the rule of implication, we get that
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ⟹ (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) is true.
b) Suppose that a compound proposition is symbolized by
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑟 ⟺ s and that the truth values of 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and
𝑠 are 𝑇, 𝐹, 𝐹, and 𝑇, respectively. Then the truth value of 𝑝 ∨
𝑞 is 𝑇, that of s is F, that of 𝑟 ⟺ s is 𝑇. So the truth
value of (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ⟹ (𝑟 ⟺ s) is 𝑇.
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Note: We must be careful to insert the brackets in
proper places, just as we do in arithmetic.
For example, the expression 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 will be
meaningless unless we know which connective
should apply first.
It could mean (𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 or 𝑝 ⟹ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) which
are very different propositions. The truth value of
such complicated propositions is determined by
systematic applications of the rules for the
connectives.
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Remark: When dealing with compound propositions, we
shall adopt the following convention on the use of
parenthesis. Whenever “∨” or “∧” occur with “⟹” or “⟺”,
we apply“∨” or “∧” first, and then “⟹” or “⟺”, will
proceed. For example,
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑟 means (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟹ 𝑟
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ⟺ 𝑟 means (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ⟺ 𝑟
𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 means 𝑞 ⟹ (𝑝)
𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 ⟺ 𝑟 means ((𝑞) ⟹ 𝑝) ⟺ 𝑟
However, it is always advisable to use brackets to indicate
the order of the desired operations.
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 Operator precedence
Operator precedence is an ordering of logical operators designed to
allow the dropping of parentheses in logical expressions.
The following table gives a hierarchy of precedence for the operators.
The ¬ operator has higher precedence than ∧; ∧ has higher precedence
than ∨; and ∨ has higher precedence than ⇒; and ⇒ has higher
precedence that ⇔.
¬
∧
∨
⇒
⇔
Note: the above operator precedence is used in the absence of
parenthesis (brackets) otherwise bracket(s) has higher precedence.

28
Definition: Two compound propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are said to
be equivalent if they have the same truth value for all possible
combinations of truth values for the component propositions
occurring in both 𝑃 and 𝑄. In this case we write 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.
Note: If 𝑃 and 𝑄 are not equivalent we write as 𝑃 ≢ 𝑄.
Example: Let 𝑃: 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞.
Q: ¬q ⟹ ¬p.
𝒑 𝒒 𝑝 𝑞 𝒑⟹𝑞 𝑞 ⟹ p
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻

Then, since columns 5 and 6 of the above table are identical,

𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.
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Example: Let 𝑃: 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞.
𝑄: 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞.
Then

𝒑 𝒒 𝑝 𝑞 𝒑⟹𝑞 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
Looking at columns 5 and 6 of the table we see that they are not identical. Thus
𝑃 ≢ 𝑄. It is useful at this point to mention the non-equivalence of certain
conditional propositions.

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Note: If 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 the give conditional propositions, then

 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 is Converse of 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞
 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is Inverse of 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞
 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 is Contrapositive of 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞

Thus the conditional 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 and its contrapositive 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 are equivalent. On

the other hand, 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ≢ 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 and p ⟹ q ≢ ¬p ⟹ ¬q .

The difference b/n the contrapositive (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 ) and the converse (𝑞 ⟹

𝑝 ) of the conditional proposition 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is as follows:

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 Converse: The hypothesis of a converse statement is the conclusion of the
conditional statement and the conclusion of the converse statement is the
hypothesis of the conditional statement.

Contrapositive: The hypothesis of a contrapositive statement is the negation

of conclusion of the conditional statement and the conclusion of the
contrapositive statement is the negation of hypothesis of the conditional
statement.

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Example:
a.If ASTU is in Addis Ababa, then it is in Ethiopia.

• Converse: If ASTU is in Ethiopia, then it is in Addis Ababa.

•Contrapositive: If ASTU is not in Ethiopia, then it is not in Addis Ababa.

• Inverse: If ASTU is not in Addis Ababa, then it is not in Ethiopia.

b. If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.

• Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.

• Contrapositive: If the sun is not in the east, then it is not morning.

• Inverse: If it is not morning, then the sun is not in the east.

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• The laws or identities of logical equivalence
1. Idempotent Laws
a. 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝.
b. 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝.
2. Commutative Laws
a. p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p .
b. p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p .
3. Associative Laws
a. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟.
b. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟.
4. Distributive Laws
a. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟).
b. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟).
5. De Morgan’s Laws
a. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.
b. (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
6. Law of Contrapositive
𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝
7. Complement Law
(𝑝) ≡ 𝑝. Melak Mesfin (PhD) 34
 Tautology and contradiction
Definition: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is
always true regardless of the truth values of its component
propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition is
always false regardless of its component propositions, we say
that such a proposition is a contradiction.
Examples
a. Suppose 𝑝 is any proposition. Consider the compound propositions 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 and 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝.

𝒑 𝑝 𝒑 ∨ 𝑝 𝒑 ∧ 𝑝
𝐓 𝐅 𝑻 𝑭
𝐅 𝐓 𝑻 𝑭

Observe that 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 is a tautology while 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 is a contradiction.

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b. For any propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞. Consider the compound proposition 𝑝 ⟹
(𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝). Let us make a truth table and study the situation.

𝒑 𝒒 𝒒⟹𝑝 𝒑 ⟹ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝)
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 T
𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 T
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 T
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 T

We have exhibited all the possibilities and we see that for all truth values
of the constituent propositions, the proposition 𝑝 ⟹ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝) is always
true. Thus, 𝑝 ⟹ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝) is a tautology.

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c. The truth table for the compound proposition 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ⟺ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).

𝒑 𝒒 𝑞 𝒑 ∧ 𝑞 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 (𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) ⟺ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭

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In (c), the given compound proposition has a truth value 𝐹 for every
possible combination of assignments of truth values for the component
propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞. Thus 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ⟺ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a contradiction.
Remark:

1.In a truth table, if a proposition is a tautology, then every line in its

column has 𝑇 as its entry; if a proposition is a contradiction, every
line in its column has 𝐹 as its entry.

2.Two compound propositions 𝑷 and 𝑸 are equivalent if and only if

“𝑷 ⟺ 𝑸” is a tautology.

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Open Propositions and Quantifiers

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Example: Here are some open propositions:
a. 𝑥 is the day before Sunday.
b. 𝑦 is a city in Africa.
c. 𝑥 is greater than 𝑦.
d. 𝑥 + 4 = −9.
It is clear that each one of these examples involves variables, but is not a proposition as we
cannot assign a truth value to it. However, if individuals are substituted for the variables, then
each one of them is a proposition or statement. For example, we may have the following.
a. Monday is the day before Sunday.
b. London is a city in Africa.
c. 5 is greater than 9.
d. –13 + 4= –9 Melak Mesfin (PhD) 40
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 41
Example: Let 𝑃(𝑥):𝑥2 − 1 = 0.
𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 ≥ 1.
1
Let 𝑈 = {−1,− ,0,1}.
2
Then for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈; 𝑃(𝑎) and 𝑄(𝑎) have the same truth value.
𝑃(−1):(−1)2 − 1 = 0 (𝑇) 𝑄(−1): −1 ≥ 1 (𝑇)
1 12 1 1
𝑃 − :(− ) − 1 = 0 (𝐹) 𝑄 − : − ≥ 1 (𝐹)
2 2 2 2
𝑃(0):0 − 1 = 0 (𝐹) 𝑄(0): 0 ≥ 1 (𝐹)
𝑃(1):1 − 1 = 0 (𝑇) 𝑄(1): 1 ≥ 1 (𝑇)
Therefore 𝑃(𝑎) = 𝑄(𝑎) for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈.
Thus P(X)≡ 𝑸(𝑿)
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Melak Mesfin (PhD) 43
Consider the following open propositions with universe U.
a.𝑅 𝑥 : 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 .
b.𝑃 𝑥 : 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 3 = 0.
c.𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 2 < 0.
Then 𝑅 𝑥 is always true for each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
𝑃(𝑥) is true only for 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 3,
𝑄(𝑥) is always false for all values of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
Hence, for an open proposition 𝑃(𝑥), with universe 𝑈,
we can observe that there are three possibilities.
a. P(𝑥) is true for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈.
b. 𝑃 𝑥 is true for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈.
c. 𝑃(𝑥) is false for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈.

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Now we proceed to study open propositions which are satisfied by “all” and
“some” members of the given universe.

a. The phrase "for every 𝑥 " is called a universal quantifier. We regard "for
every 𝒙," "for all 𝒙," and "for each 𝒙 " as having the same meaning and
symbolize each by “(∀𝑥)

If 𝑃(𝑥) is an open proposition with universe 𝑈, then ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is a quantified

proposition and is read as “every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 has the property 𝑃.”

b. The phrase "there exists an 𝒙" is called an existential quantifier. We regard

"there exists an 𝒙" , "for some 𝒙," and "for at least one 𝒙 " as having the same
meaning, and symbolize each by “(∃𝑥).”

If 𝑃(𝑥) is an open proposition with universe 𝑈, then (∃𝑥)𝑃(𝑥) is a quantified

proposition and is read as “there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 with the property 𝑃”.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 45

Remarks:
i. To show that ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is 𝐹, it is sufficient to find at least
one 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈 such that 𝑃(𝑎) is 𝐹. Such an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈 is called a counter
example.
ii. ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is 𝐹 if we cannot find any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈 having the property 𝑃.
Example :
a.Write the following statements using quantifiers.
i. For each real number 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0.

Solution: ∀𝑥 > 0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0).

ii. There is a real number 𝑥 > 0 such that 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0.

Solution: ∃𝑥 > 0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0).

iii. The square of any real number is nonnegative.

Solution: ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ (𝑥 2 ≥ 0). Melak Mesfin (PhD) 46

Examples
i. Let 𝑃 𝑥 : 𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 0. The truth value for ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) [i.e ∀𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 1 ≥
0)] is 𝑇.
1
ii. Let 𝑃 𝑥 : 𝑥 < 𝑥2. The truth value for ∀𝑥 (𝑥 < 𝑥2) is 𝐹. 𝑥 = is a
2
1 1 1
counterexample since ∈ ℝ but ≮ . On the other hand, ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is
2 2 4
true, since −1 ∈ ℝ such that −1 < 1.
iii.Let 𝑃 𝑥 : 𝑥 = −1. The truth value for ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is 𝐹 since there is no
real number whose absolute value is −1.
Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers
If 𝑃 𝑥 is a formula in 𝑥, consider the following four statements.
a. ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 :Everything has property 𝑃.
b. ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 :Something has property 𝑃.
c. ∀x P x : Nothing has property 𝑃.
d. ∃x P x :Something does not have property 𝑃. Melak Mesfin (PhD)

47
Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of
everyday meaning. Thus, for example, the existential quantifier may be
defined in terms of the universal quantifier.

Now, we proceed to discuss the negation of quantifiers.

Let 𝑃 𝑥 be an open proposition.

Then ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 is false only if we can find an individual “𝑎” in the
universe such that 𝑃 𝑎 is false. If we succeed in getting such an
individual, then ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is true.

Hence ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 will be false if ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is true. Therefore the

negation of ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 is ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

Hence we conclude that ¬ ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ≡ ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

Similarly, we can verified that ¬ ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ≡ ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 48
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 49
Examples
a.All rationals are reals.
∀𝑥 (ℚ(𝑥) ⟹ ℝ(𝑥)).
b. No rationals are reals.
∀𝑥 (ℚ(𝑥) ⟹ ℝ(𝑥)).
c. Some rationals are reals.
∃𝑥 ℚ 𝑥 ∧ ℝ 𝑥
( ∃𝑥 ℚ 𝑥 ⟹ ℝ 𝑥 )
d. Some rationals are not reals.
∃𝑥 (ℚ(𝑥) ∧ ℝ(𝑥)).
Example:
Let 𝑈 = The set of integers.
Let 𝑃 𝑥 : 𝑥 is a prime number.
𝑄 𝑥 : 𝑥 is an even number.
𝑅 𝑥 : 𝑥 is an odd number.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 50
Then
a. ∃𝑥 [𝑃(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑄(𝑥)] is 𝑇; since there is an 𝑥, say 2, such that 𝑃(2) ⟹ 𝑄(2)
is 𝑇.
b. ∀𝑥 [𝑃(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑄(𝑥)] is 𝐹. As a counterexample take 7. Then 𝑃(7) is 𝑇 and
𝑄(7) is 𝐹. Hence 𝑃(7) ⟹ 𝑄(7).
c. ∀𝑥 [𝑅(𝑥) ∧ 𝑃(𝑥)] is 𝐹.
d. ∀𝑥 [(𝑅 𝑥 ∧ 𝑃 𝑥 ) ⟹ 𝑄(𝑥)] is 𝐹.
Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
So far, we have only considered cases in which universal and existential
quantifiers appear simply. However, if we consider cases in which universal and
existential quantifiers occur in combination, we are lead to essentially new
logical structures. The following are the simplest forms of combinations:

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 51

1. ∀𝑥 ∀𝑦 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 “for all 𝑥 and for all 𝑦 the relation 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) holds”;

2. ∃𝑥 ∃𝑦 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) “there is an 𝑥 and there is a 𝑦 for which 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) holds”;

3. ∀𝑥 ∃𝑦 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) “for every 𝑥 there is a 𝑦 such that 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) holds”;

4. ∃𝑥 ∀𝑦 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 “there is an 𝑥 which stands to every 𝑦 in the relation

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦).”

Example: Let 𝑈 = The set of integers.

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 52

a.(∃𝒙) (∃𝒚) 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) means that there is an integer 𝑥 and there is an integer 𝑦 such that
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5. This statement is true when 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑦 = 1, since 4 + 1 = 5.
Therefore, the statement (∃𝑥) (∃𝑦) 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is always true for this universe. There are
other choices of 𝑥 and 𝑦 for which it would be true, but the symbolic statement merely
says that there is at least one choice for 𝑥 and 𝑦 which will make the statement true, and
we have demonstrated one such choice.
b.(∃𝒙) (∀𝒚) 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) means that there is an integer 𝑥0 such that for every 𝑦, 𝑥0 + 𝑦 =
5. This is false since no fixed value of 𝑥0 will make this true for all 𝑦 in the universe;
e.g. if 𝑥0 = 1, then 1 + 𝑦 = 5 is false for some 𝑦.
c. (∀𝒙) (∃𝒚) 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) means that for every integer 𝑥, there is an integer 𝑦 such that 𝑥 +
𝑦 = 5. Let 𝑥 = 𝑎, then 𝑦 = 5 − 𝑎 will always be an integer, so this is a true
statement.
d. (∀𝒙) (∀𝒚) 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) means that for every integer 𝑥 and for every integer 𝑦,
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5. This is false, for if 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 7, we get 2 + 7 = 9 ≠ 5.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 53
Example :
a. Consider the statement ; For every two real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, 𝑥 2 +
𝑦 2 ≥ 0. If we let 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≥ 0 where the domain of both 𝑥
and 𝑦 is ℝ , the statement can be expressed as ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ (∀𝑦 ∈

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 54

c. Consider the open statement 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥𝑦 = 1 where the domain of
both 𝑥 and 𝑦 is the set ℚ+ of positive rational numbers. Then the
quantified statement ∀𝑥 ∈ ℚ+ ∃𝑦 ∈ ℚ+ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) can be
expressed in words as For every positive rational number 𝑥, there
exists a positive rational number 𝑦 such that 𝑥𝑦 = 1. It turns out
that the quantified statement is true. If we replace ℚ+ by , then we
have ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) . Since 𝑥 = 0 and for every real
number 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 = 0 ≠ 1, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is false.
d. Consider the open statement 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥𝑦 is odd where the domain of
both 𝑥 and 𝑦 is the set of natural numbers. Then the quantified
statement ∃𝑥 ∈ ℕ ∀𝑦 ∈ ℕ 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 , expressed in words, is There
exists a natural number 𝑥 such that for every natural numbers 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 is
odd. The statement is false.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 55
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 56
 Argument and Validity
Definition: An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion
that a given set of statements 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 , called
hypotheses or premises, yield another statement 𝑄, called
the conclusion. Such a logical deduction is denoted by:
𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 ├ 𝑄
or
𝑝1
𝑝2
⋮
𝑝𝑛
𝑄Melak Mesfin (PhD) 57
Example: Consider the following argument:

If you study hard, then you will pass the exam.

You did not pass the exam.
Therefore, you did not study hard.

Let 𝑝: You study hard.

𝑞: You will pass the exam.

The argument form can be written as:

𝑃⇒𝑞
¬𝑞
¬𝑝
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 58
When is an argument form accepted to be correct?

In normal usage, we use an argument in order to

demonstrate that a certain conclusion follows from known
premises.

Therefore, we shall require that under any assignment of

truth values to the statements appearing,
if the premises became all true, then the conclusion must
also become true.

Hence, we state the following definition.

59
Melak Mesfin (PhD)
Definition: An argument form 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 ├ 𝑄 is said
to be valid if 𝑄 is true whenever all the premises
𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 are true; otherwise, it is invalid.

Example: Investigate the validity of the following argument:

a. 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞, ¬𝑞 ⊢ ¬𝑝
b. 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞, ¬𝑞 ⇒ 𝑟 ⊢ 𝑝
c. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore,
crops were not good.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 60

Solution: First we construct a truth table for the statements appearing in the
argument forms.
a.

𝒑 𝒒 𝑝 𝑞 𝒑⟹𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻

The premises 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 and 𝑞 are true simultaneously in row 4

only. Since in this case ¬𝑝 is also true, the argument is valid.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 61
 𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝑞 𝒑⟹𝑞 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑟
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭

The 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th and 7th rows are those in which all the
premises take value 𝑇. In the 5th, 6th and 7th rows
however the conclusion takes value 𝐹. Hence, the
argument form is invalid.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 62
c. Let 𝑝: It rains.
𝑞: Crops are good.
𝑝: It did not rain.
𝑞: Crops were not good.
The argument form is 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞, 𝑝├q
Now, we can use truth table to test validity as follows:

𝒑 𝒒 𝑝 𝑞 𝒑⟹𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 63
The premises 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 and 𝑝 are true simultaneously in rows
3 & 4. Since in row 3 𝑞 is False, the argument is invalid.

Remark:

1.What is important in validity is the form of the argument

rather than the meaning or content of the statements
involved.

2.The argument form 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 ├ 𝑄 is valid iff the

statement (𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ 𝑝3 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑝𝑛 ) ⟹ 𝑄 is a tautology.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 64
 Rules of inferences
Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences.

1. Modes Ponens
p
p⟹q
q
2. Modes Tollens
q
p⟹q
p
3 . Principle of Syllogism
p⟹q
q⟹r
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 65
p⟹r
4. Principle of Adjunction
a. 𝒑
𝒒
𝒑∧𝒒
b. 𝒒
𝒑∨𝒒
5. Principle of Detachment

𝑝∧𝑞
𝑝, 𝑞
6. Modes Tollendo Ponens
𝑝
𝑝∨𝑞
𝑞 Melak Mesfin (PhD) 66
7. Modes Ponendo Tollens
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
𝑝
𝑞
8. Constructive Dilemma
𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ∧ (𝑟 ⟹ 𝑠)
𝑝∨𝑟
𝑞∨𝑠
9. Principle of Equivalence
𝑝⟺𝑞
𝑝
𝑞
10. Principle of Conditionalization
𝑝
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 67

𝑞⟹𝑝
Formal proof of validity of an argument
Definition: A formal proof of a conclusion 𝑄 with a given
hypotheses 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 is a sequence of steps, each of
which applies some inference rule to hypothesis or
previously proven statements (antecedent) to yield a new
true statement (the consequent).

A formal proof of validity is given by writing on the

premises and the statements which follows from them in a
single column, and setting off in another column, to the right
of each statement, its justification.

It is convenient to list all the premises first.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 68
Example: Show that 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞, 𝑞├𝑝 is valid.

Solution:

1. 𝑞 ---------------is true ( ∵ it is premises)

2. 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ------is true ( ∵ it is premises)
3. 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 ------is true (∵ it is contrapositive of (2))
4. p -------------is true (∵ Modes Ponens (1)& (3))

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 69

Example: Show that the hypotheses

It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.

If we go swimming, then it is sunny. If we do not go
swimming, then we will take a canoe trip. If we take a canoe
trip, then we will be home by sunset. Lead to the conclusion:
We will be home by sunset, forms a valid argument.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 70

Let 𝑝: It is sunny this afternoon.
𝑞: It is colder than yesterday.
𝑟: We go swimming.
𝑠: We take a canoe trip.
𝑡: We will be home by sunset.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 71

Then
1.𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 hypothesis
2.𝑝 principle of detachment (1)
3. 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑝 hypothesis
4. 𝑟 Modus Tollens using (2) and (3)
5. 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑠 hypothesis
6. 𝑠 Modus Ponens using (4) and (5)
7. 𝑠 ⟹ 𝑡 hypothesis
8. 𝑡 Modus Ponens using (6) and (7)

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 72

 Set theory
In this section, we study some part of set theory especially description of sets,
Venn diagrams and operations of sets.

The concept of a set

The term set is an undefined term, just as a point and a line are undefined terms
in geometry.
However, the concept of a set permeates every aspect of mathematics.
Set theory underlies the language and concepts of modern mathematics.

The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects that share a certain
property (ies).

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 73

• The term “well-defined” here means that the set is described in such a way that
one can decide whether or not a given object belongs in the set.

• The objects of a set 𝐴 are called the elements or members of 𝐴.

• If 𝑥 is an element of the set 𝐴, we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and if 𝑥 is not an element of the

set 𝐴, we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.

• In convention, we use capital letters to denote sets and lowercase letters for
elements of a set.

• Note that for each objects 𝑥 and each set 𝐴, exactly one of 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 but
not both must be true.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 74

 Description of sets
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following
four different ways.
1. Verbal Method
In this method, an ordinary English statement with minimum
mathematical symbolization of the property of the elements
is used to describe a set. Actually, the statement could be in
any language.
Example:
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.”
c. The set of all countries in Africa.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 75
 2. Roster/Complete Listing Method
If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all
between a pair of braces without repetition separating by
commas, and without concern about the order of their
appearance. Such a method of describing a set is called the
roster/complete listing method.
Examples:
a.The set of vowels in English alphabet may also be
described as {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}.
b.The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 76
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 77
Example:

a. Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, {𝑐}}. Elements of 𝐴 are 𝑎, 𝑏 and {𝑐}.

Notice that 𝑐 and 𝑐 are different objects. Here 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴
but 𝑐 ∉ 𝐴.

b. Let 𝐵 = 𝑎 . The only element of 𝐵 is {𝑎}. But 𝑎 ∉ 𝐵.

c. Let 𝐶 = {𝑎, 𝑏, {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, {𝑎}}}. Then C has four

elements.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 78

3. Partial Listing Method
In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be
too large to list them all; and in other occasions there may
not be an end to the list.
In such cases we look for a common property of the
elements and describe the set by partially listing the
elements.
More precisely, if the common property is simple that it
can easily be identified from a list of the first few elements,
then with in a pair of braces, we list these few elements
followed (or preceded) by exactly three dotes and possibly
by one last element. The following are such instances of
describing sets by partial listing method.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 79
Example:
a.The set of all counting numbers is ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4, … }.

b.The set of non-positive integers is

{… , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0}.

c.The set of multiples of 5 is

{… , −15, −10, −5, 0 5, 10, 15, … }.

d.The set of odd integers less than 100 is

{… , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, … 99}.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 80

 4. Set-builder Method
When all the elements satisfy a common property 𝑃, we
express the situation as an open proposition 𝑃(𝑥) and
describe the set using a method called the Set-builder
Method as follows:
𝐴 = {𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)} 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑃(𝑥)}
We read it as “𝐴 is equal to the set of all 𝑥’s such that 𝑃(𝑥) is
true.” Here the bar “ ‟ and the colon “: ” mean “such that.”
Notice that the letter 𝑥 is only a place holder and can be
replaced throughout by other letters. So, for a property 𝑃, the
set {𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)}, {𝑡 𝑃(𝑡)} and {𝑦 𝑃(𝑦)} are all the same set.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 81
Example: The following sets are described using the set-
builder method.
a. 𝐴 = {𝑥 𝑥 is a vowel in the English alphabet}.
b. 𝐵 = {𝑡 𝑡 is an even integer}.
c. 𝐶 = {𝑛 𝑛 is a natural number and 2𝑛 – 15 is negative}.
d. 𝐷 = {𝑦 𝑦 2 – 𝑦 – 6 = 0}.
e. 𝐸 = {𝑥 𝑥 is an integer and 𝑥 – 1 < 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 – 4 > 0}.
Definition: The set which has no element is called the empty
(or null) set and is denoted by 𝜙 or {}.
Example: The set of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 is an empty
set.
F= 𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑦 2 + 6 < 0} is an empty set.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 82
 Relationships between two sets

Definition: Set 𝐵 is said to be a subset of set 𝐴 (or is

contained in 𝐴), denoted by 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, if every element of 𝐵 is
an element of 𝐴, i.e.,
∀𝑥 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴).
It follows from the definition that set 𝐵 is not a subset of set
𝐴 if at least one element of 𝐵 is not an element of 𝐴.
i.e., 𝐵 ⊈ 𝐴 ⟺ ∃𝑥 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⟹ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 .
In such cases we write 𝐵 ⊈ 𝐴 or 𝐴 ⊉ 𝐵.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 83

Remarks: For any set 𝐴, 𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴.
Example:
a.If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐶 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑}, then 𝐴 ⊆
𝐵 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶. On the other hand, it is clear that: 𝐵 ⊈ 𝐴,
𝐵 ⊈ 𝐶 and 𝐶 ⊈ 𝐵.
b.If 𝑆 = {𝑥 𝑥 is a multiple of 6} and 𝑇 =
{𝑥 𝑥 is even integer}, then 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑇 since every multiple of
6 are even. However, 2 ∈ 𝑇 while 2 ∉ 𝑆. Thus 𝑇 ⊈ 𝑆.
c.If 𝐴 = {𝑎, {𝑏}}, then {𝑎} ⊆ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ⊆ 𝐴. On the other
hand, since 𝑏 ∉ 𝐴, {𝑏} ⊈ 𝐴, and {a, 𝑏} ⊈ 𝐴.

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Melak Mesfin (PhD) 85
Definition: Let 𝐴 be a set. The power set of 𝐴, dented by
𝑃(𝐴), is the set whose elements are all subsets of 𝐴. That is,
𝑃 𝐴 = {𝐵: 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴}.
Example: Let 𝐴 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. As noted before, 𝜙 and 𝐴 are
subset of 𝐴. Moreover, 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑧 and 𝑦, 𝑧
are also subsets of 𝐴. Therefore,
𝑃 𝐴 = {𝜙, 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑧 , 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝐴}.

Frequently, it is necessary to limit the topic of discussion to

elements of a certain fixed set and regard all sets under
consideration as a subset of this fixed set. We call this set the
universal set or the universe and denoted by 𝑼.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 86
 Set Operations and Venn diagrams
Given two subsets 𝐴 and 𝐵 of a universal set 𝑈, new sets can
be formed using 𝐴 and 𝐵 in many ways, such as taking
common elements or non-common elements, and putting
everything together.
Such processes of forming new sets are called set
operations. In this section, three most important operations,
namely union, intersection and complement are discussed.

Definition: The union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is

the set of all elements that are either in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 (or in both sets).
That is,
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)}.
Melak Mesfin (PhD) 87
As easily seen the union operator “∪ ” in the theory of set is
the counterpart of the logical operator “∨ ”.

Definition: The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of all elements that are in 𝐴 and 𝐵. That is,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∧ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)}.
• As suggested by the above definition, the intersection
operator “∩” in the theory of sets is the counterpart of the
logical operator “∧ ”.
Note: - Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be disjoint sets if 𝐴 ∩
𝐵 = 𝜙.

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Example:
a.Let 𝐴 = {0, 1, 3, 5, 6} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7}. Then,
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {1, 3, 6}.
b.Let 𝐴 = The set of positive even integers, and
𝐵 = The set of positive multiples of 3. Then,
𝐴∪𝐵
= {𝑥: 𝑥 is a positive intger that is either even or a multiple of 3}
= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, … }
𝐴 ∩𝐵
= {𝑥 𝑥 is a positive multiple of 6. }
Definition: The difference between two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 −
𝐵, is the set of all elements in 𝐴 and not in 𝐵; this set is also called the
relative complement of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴.

Symbolically, A\𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 89
Example: If A= {1,3,5}, 𝐵 = {1,2}, then 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {3,5} and 𝐵 −
𝐴 = {2}.
Note: The above example shows that, in general, 𝐴 − 𝐵 are 𝐵 − 𝐴
disjoint.
Definition: Let 𝐴 be a subset of a universal set 𝑈. The absolute
complement (or simply complement) of 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴′ (or 𝐴𝑐 or
𝐴ҧ ), is defined to be the set of all elements of 𝑈 that are not in 𝐴.
That is,
𝐴′ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴} or
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′ ⟺ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ⟺ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴).
Notice that taking the absolute complement of 𝐴 is the same as
finding the relative complement of 𝐴 with respect to the universal
set 𝑈. That is,
𝐴′ = 𝑈 − 𝐴.
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Melak Mesfin (PhD) 91
Theorem: For any two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, each of the following holds.

1. (𝐴) = 𝐴.
2. 𝐴 = 𝑈 – 𝐴.
3. 𝐴 – 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′.
4. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴𝐵′.
5. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴𝐵′.
6. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐴′.
Now we define the symmetric difference of
two sets.

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Definition: The symmetric difference of two
sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴Δ𝐵, is the set
𝐴Δ𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴).
Example: Let 𝑈 = {1,2,3, … , 10} be the
universal set, 𝐴 = {2,4,6,8,9,10} and
𝐵 = {3,5,7,9}. Then
𝐵 − 𝐴 = {3,5,7} and
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {2,4,6,8,10}.
Thus 𝐴ΔB = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10}.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 93

Theorem: For any three sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, each of the
following holds.
a. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴. (∪ is commutative)
b. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴. (∩ is commutative)
c. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶). (∪ is associative)
d. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶). (∩ is associative)
e. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶). (∪ is
distributive over ∩ )
f. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶). (∩ is
distributive over ∪ )

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Melak Mesfin (PhD) 95
 Venn diagrams
While working with sets, it is helpful to use diagrams, called Venn
diagrams, to illustrate the relationships involved. A Venn diagram is a
schematic or pictorial representative of the sets involved in the
discussion. Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of
which is enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the universal set 𝑈.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 96

In some occasions, we list the elements of set 𝐴 inside the closed curve
representing 𝐴.
Example: a. If 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6}, then a Venn diagram
representation of these two sets looks like the following.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 97

b. Let 𝑈 = {𝑥 𝑥 is a positive integer less than 13}
𝐴 = {𝑥 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 is even}
𝐵 = {𝑥 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 is a multiple of 3}.
A Venn diagram representation of these sets is given
below.

Melak Mesfin (PhD) 98

Example: Let U = The set of one digits numbers
A = The set of one digits even numbers
B = The set of positive prime numbers less than 10
We illustrate the sets using a Venn diagram as follows.

A B U

0 4 3 1
2
6 5 9
8
7

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a.Illustrate 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 by a Venn diagram

A B U

: The shaded portion

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b. Illustrate A’ by a Venn diagram

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c. Illustrate A\B by using a Venn diagram

A B U

A \ B: The shaded portion

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Now we illustrate intersections and unions of sets by Venn diagram.

Cases Shaded is 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 Shaded 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

Only some A B A B
common elements

B B
𝐴⊆𝐵
A A

A B A B
No common
element

A  B =

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