Microwave and Radar Engineering

Lecture Notes
S No Description Page No

1 Unit – 1 2-27

2 Unit – 2 28-54

3 Unit – 3 55 – 98

4 Unit – 4 99-152

5 Unit – 5 153 - 182

Unit - 1
( UNIT - I)
(UNIT - II)
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Radar and Satellite Communication

(18 EC C22)

Faculty Details:

Lecture -1 Introduction
Radar System Block Sri. T. Sridher
Asst Professor
Diagram Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology(A)
Class: ECE -3
email: tsridhar_ece@[Link]
Cell: 8801206497

07 May 2020
About the Course
The X band is used for radar, satellite communication, and also in wireless computer networks .

X band is used in radar applications including continuous-wave, pulsed, single- polarization, dual-polarization,
synthetic aperture radar, and phased arrays.

The purpose of studying this subject is Radar is a dynamic.

New advances made in the radar system since it inception is interesting to see the facts.

Radar grows and is viable since it satisfies important societal, economic, and military needs. It has no serious competitor
for most of its many applications.
 Introduction

Description of Radar:

The basic concept of radar is relatively simple even though in many instances its practical implementation is not.
Principle: A radar operates by radiating electromagnetic energy and detecting the echo returned from reflecting objects
(targets). The nature of the echo signal provides information about the target.
The range, or distance, to the target is found from the time it takes for the radiated energy to travel to the target and
back.
The angular location of the target is found with a directive antenna (one with a narrow beamwidth) to sense the angle
of arrival of the echo signal.
If the target is moving, a radar can derive its track, or trajectory, and predict the future location.
The shift in frequency of the received echo signal due to the doppler effect caused by a moving target allows a radar to
separate desired moving targets (such as aircraft) from undesired stationary targets.
 Radar Block Diagram

Fig.1. Simple block diagram of a radar employing a power amplifier transmitter and a
superheterodyne receiver.
Radar Equation
 Analysis of Radar Equation

Let us, consider the amount of power received by the radar is :

(6)

1. The right hand side has been written as the product of three factors to represent the physical processes taking place in
field.
2. The first factor is the power density at a distance R meters from a radar that radiates a power of Pt watts from an
antenna of gain Gt.
3. The numerator of the second factor is the target cross section (sigma) in square meters.
4. The denominator accounts for the divergence on the return path of the electromagnetic radiation with range.
5. Which also similar to the divergence on the outword path represented in first term denominator.
6. The first two terms represents the power per square meter returned to the radar.
7. The antenna of effectieve aperture are Ae intercepts a port of this power in an amount given by the product of the
three factors.
 Analysis of Radar Equation

From the above analysis, the maximum radar range equation is represented as:

(7)

If same antenna is used for transmission and reception purpose then, Gt is expressed with Effective
Aperture area.
The other two forms of Radar Range equation expressed as:

(8)
Here, Pt is transmitter power,
Ae is effective aperture area of antenna,
(9)
sigma is cross sectional area of target,
Smin is minimum detectable signal by the radar.
 Radar Frequencies

There are no fundamental bounds on radar frequency. Any device that detects and locates a target by radiating
electromagnetic energy and utilizes the echo scattered from a target can be classed as a radar, no matter what its
frequency.

Radars have been operated at frequencies from a few megahertz to the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. The basic
principles are the same at any frequency, but the practical implementation is widely different. In practice, most radars
operate at microwave frequencies.

Radar engineers use letter designations, to denote the general frequency band at which a radar operates. These letter
bands are universally used in radar.

They have been officially accepted as a standard by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and
have been recognized by the U.S. Department of Defense.

Attempts have been made in the past to subdivide the spectrum into other letter bands (as for waveguides and for ECM
operations), but the existing letter bands are the only ones that should be used for radar.
 Radar Frequencies

Table 1.1 Standard Radar-Frequency Letter-Band Nomenclature

 Radar Frequencies

HF (3 to 30 MHz).
Although the first operational radars installed by the British just prior to World War II were in this frequency band, it has
many disadvantages for radar applications.
Large antennas are required to achieve narrow beam widths, the natural ambient noise level is high, the available
bandwidths are narrow, and this portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is widely used and restrictively narrow.

In addition, the long wavelength means that many targets of interest might be in the Rayleigh region, where the
dimensions of the target are small compared with the wavelength; hence, the radar cross section of targets are small in size
compared with the (HF) wavelength at microwave frequencies therefore the waves are passed through the targets.

The British used this frequency band, even though it had disadvantages, because it was the highest frequency at which
reliable, readily available high-power components were then available. Ranges of 200 mi were obtained against aircraft.

Electromagnetic waves at HF have the important property of being refracted by the ionosphere so as to return to the earth
at ranges from about 500 to 2000 nmi, depending on the actual condition of the ionosphere.
This allows the overthe-horizon detection of aircraft and other targets. The long over-the-horizon ranges that are possible
make the HF region of the spectrum quite attractive
 Radar Frequencies

S Band (2.0 to 4.0 GHz)

Air surveillance radars can be of long range at S band, but long range usually is more difficult to achieve than at these
frequencies. The blind speeds that occur with MTI radar are more numerous at the frequency increases, thus making
MTI less capable. Generally, frequencies lower than S band are well suited for air surveillance (detection and low-data-
rate tracking of many aircraft within a large volume). Frequencies above S band are better for information gathering,
such as high-datarate precision tracking and the recognition of individual targets.
Military 3D radars and height finding radars are also found at this frequency because of the narrower elevation
beamwidths that can be obtained at the higher frequencies. Long-range airborne air surveillance pulse doppler radars,
such as AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) also operate in this band.

The echo from rain can significantly reduce the range of S-band radars. However, it is the preferred frequency band for
long-range weather radars that must make accurate estimates of rainfall rate. It is also a good frequency for medium-
range air surveillance applications such as the airport surveillance radar (ASR) found at air terminals.

The narrower beamwidths at this frequency can provide good angular accuracy and resolution and make it easier to
reduce the effects of hostile main-beam jamming that might be encountered by military radars.
 Radar Frequencies

C Band (4.0 to 8.0 GHz

It is difficult, to achieve long-range air surveillance radars at this or higher frequencies.

It is the frequency where one can find long-range precision instrumentation radars used for the accurate tracking of
missiles.
This frequency band has also been used for multifunction phased array air defense radars and for medium-range weather
radars.

X Band (8 to 12.5 GHz

This is a popular frequency band for military weapon control (tracking) radar and for civil applications. Shipboard
navigation and piloting, weather avoidance, doppler navigation, and the police speed meter are all found at X band.
Radars at this frequency are generally of convenient size and are thus of interest for applications where mobility and light
weight are important and long range is not.
It is advantageous for information gathering as in high-resolution radar because of the wide bandwidth that makes it
possible to generate short pulses.
 Radar Applications

RADAR are used in Military

Radars have a wide range of usage in military operations. They are used in Naval, Ground as well as Air defense
purposes. They are used for detection, tracking and surveillance purposes also. Weapon control and missile
guidance often use various types of RADARs.

These are used in Law Enforcements

Law enforcements especially highway police has an extensive uses of RADARs during a pursuit in order to
measure the speed of a vehicle. Due to bad weather conditions, when satellite is unable to get a clear image of
traffic and barricades, then RADARs is used to get the desired results.

This technology is used in Space

RADARs are used to track and detect satellites and spacecrafts. They are also used for safely landing and
docking of spacecrafts. RADARs in satellites are used for remote sensing.

RADAR is used for Remote Sensing of Environment

Just like various type of waves are received by an antenna. This technology are also used to detect weather
condition of atmosphere and are also used for tracking motions of planets, asteroids and other celestial bodies
in the solar system.
 Radar Applications

It is used in Aircraft Navigation

Ground mapping RADARs and weather avoidance RADARs are used in aircraft to navigate it properly. This
technology enables an aircraft to ensure the location of obstacles which can be a threat to the flight plan.

Uses of RADAR in Navigating Ships

Ships are guided through high resolutions RADARs situated on the shores. Because of poor visibility in bad
weather conditions, RADARs provides safety by warning threats. These ships often use this technology to
measure the proximity of other ships and their speed on the water.

RADARs is used in Air Traffic Controller

RADARs are used for safely controlling the traffic in air. It is used to guide aircrafts for proper landing and take-
off during bad weather conditions. These type of RADARs also detect the proximity and the altitude of the
aircrafts.
 Prediction of Radar Range Equation

Radar Transmission Equation

(1)

Note: The factor Ft is defined as the ratio, at the target position, of the field strength E to that which would exist at the same
distance from the radar in free space and in the antenna beam maximum-gain direction, E0.
 Prediction of Radar Range Equation

Maximum Range Equation

(2)

A first step toward a more useful equation is replacement of Pr by a more

readily evaluated expression. This is done by first defining the signal-to-noise (3)
power ratio:

Pn is the power level of the noise in the receiving system, which determines (4)
the minimum value of Pr that can be detected.
(5)
Therefore, the Received Power would be expressed as
A further convenient modification is to redefine Pt as the transmitter power at
the terminals of the transmitter, rather than the usually somewhat smaller power
that is actually delivered to the antenna terminals because of loss in the
transmission line (Pt must be replaced by /Lt ). (6)
 Minimum Detectable Signal

1. The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is limited by the noise energy
that occupies the same portion of the frequency spectrum as does'the signal energy.
2. The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the minimum detectable signal.
3. The specification of the minimum detectable signal is sometimes difficult because of its
statistical nature and because the criterion for deciding whether a target is present or not
may not be too well defined.
4. Detection is based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the receiver. If the
receiver output exceeds the threshold, a signal is assumed to be present. This is called
threshold detection.
 Minimum Detectable Signal

Fig.1. Typical envelope of tile radar receiver output as a function of time. A, and B, and C represent signal plus
noise. ,4 arid B would be valid detections, but C is a missed detection.
1. If a large signal is present such as at A in Fig.1, it is greater than the surrounding noise peaks and can be recognized on the basis of its amplitude.
Thus, if the threshold level were set sufficiently high, the envelope would not generally exceed. But would exceed it if a strong signal were present.

2. If the signal were small, however, it would be more difficult to recognize its presence. The threshold level must be low if weak signals are to be
detected, but it cannot be so low that noise peaks cross the threshold and give a false indication of the presence of targets.
 Minimum Detectable Signal

3. Similarly, let us consider the two signals at B and C, representing target echoes of equal amplitude. The
noise voltage accompanying the signal at B is large enough so that the combination of signal plus noise
exceeds the threshold.

4. At C the noise is not as large and the resultant signal plus noise does not cross the threshold. Thus the
presence of noise will sometimes enhance' the detection of weak signals but it may also cause the loss
of a signal which would otherwise be detected.

5. Weak signals such as C would not be lost if the threshold level were lower. But too low a threshold
increases the likelihood that noise alone will rise above the threshold and be taken for a real signal. Such
an occurrence is called a false alarm.

6. Therefore, if the threshold is set too low, false target indications are obtained, but if it is set too high,
targets might be missed. The selection of the proper threshold level is a compromise that depends upon
how important it is if a mistake is made either by (1) failing to recognize a signal that is present
(probability of miss) or by (2) falsely indicating the presence of a signal when none exists (probability of
a false alarm).
 Minimum Detectable Signal

The solution for identifying the minimum detectable signal:

Matched filter with a suitable bandwidth of input signal is designed. Matched filter has to maximize the
output peak signal to average noise ratio. It has a frequency response function which is proportional to
complex conjugate of signal spectrum. It is similar to the concept of circuit theory.
 Receiver Noise

Introduction to Receiver Noise:

Since noise is the chief factor limiting receiver sensitivity, it is necessary to obtain some means of describing it
quantitatively.

Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes with the ability of the receiver to detect the wanted signal. It
may originate within the receiver itself, or it may enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired signal. the radar
were to operate in a perfectly noise-free environment so that no external sources of noise accompanied the desired signal,
and if the receiver itself were so perfect that it did not generate any excess noise, there would still exist an unavoidable
component of noise generated by the thermal motion of the conduction’ electrons in the ohmic portions of the receiver
input stages. This is called thermal noise, or Johnson noise, and is directly proportional to the temperature of the ohmic
portions of the circuit and the receiver bandwidth.

Available Thermal Noise Power = KTBn

Where, K is boltzmens constant, T is temperature in degree kelvin, and Bn is a noise power bandwidth.

where H( f ) frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter) and f0 = frequency of maximum response (usually
 Receiver Noise

The noise power in practical receivers is often greater than can be accounted for by thermal noise alone. The additional
noise components are due to mechanisms other than the thermal agitation of free conduction electrons.

For a practical receivers the noise obtained for the receiver is calculated by the product of thermal noise with noise figure.

Where No is noise output from receiver, and Ga = available gain. The standard temperature is 290K.

The available gain 'Ga' is the ratio of the signal out 'So' to the signal in 'Si', and 'KToBn' is the input pulse 'Ni' in an
ideal receiver.

The noise figure may be interpreted, therefore, as a measure of the degradation of signal-to-noise ratio as the signal
pass through the receiver
 Integration of Radar Pulses

Introduction:

1. The process of summing all radar echo pulses for the purpose of improving the detection is called the integration.
2. The relationship between the signal-to-noise ratio, probability of detection, and the probability of false alarm is
applied to a single pulse.
3. However, many pulses are usually returned from the any target on each radar scan and can be used to improve the
detection.
4. The number of pulses returned from a point target as the radar antenna scans through its beam width is:

𝜃𝐵 𝑓𝑝 𝜃𝐵 𝑓𝑝
𝑛𝐵 = =
𝜃𝑠 6𝑤𝑚 Typical parameters are:
Fp = 300Hz; antenna beam width = 15deg;
where 𝜃𝐵 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔 scan rate = 5 rpm; will collect 15 echoes from the
𝑓𝑝 = 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧 environment.
𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝜃𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑠
𝜔𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑟𝑝𝑚
 Integration of Radar Pulses

If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, are integrated by an ideal prediction
integrator, the resultant, or integrated, signal-to-noise would be exactly n times that of a
single pulse.
If the same n pulses are integrated by an ideal post detection device, the resultant
signal-to-noise ratio would be less than n times that of a single pulse.
This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear action of the second
detector, which converts some of the signal energy to noise energy in the rectification
process.
 Integration of Radar Pulses

Integration of Radar Pulses Stage

Fig.1. Block diagram of Pulse Radar

 Radar Transmitter Power

Introduction:

Fig.1. Block diagram of Pulse Radar

 Radar Transmitter Power

Ideal Radar Transmitter Characteristics:

 Provides sufficient energy to detect the target

 Easily modulated to produce desired waveforms
 Generate stable noise free signal for good clutter rejection
 provide needed tuneable bandwidth
 High efficiency
 High reliability
 Easily maintainable
 Long life
 small and light weight
 Affordable
Radar Transmitter Power in Range Equation
 Radar Transmitter Power

Instantaneous vs Peak :
Instantaneous voltage:
This is the value (voltage or current) of
a wave at any particular instant. often chosen
to coincide with some other event. E.g.
The instantaneous value of a sine wave one
quarter of the way through the cycle will be
equal to the peak value. See point X in Fig

Peak Power: It is defined as power, averaged over that carrier frequency

cycle which occurs at the maximum of the pulse of power.
Note: Peak power is usually equal to one-half the maximum
instantaneous power.
 Radar Transmitter Power

Peak – and Avg. Radar Power

The energy content of a continuous-wave radar

transmission may NOT be easily figured because the
transmitter operates continuously.

However, pulsed radar transmitters are switched on and

off to provide range timing information with each pulse.

The amount of energy in this waveform is important

because maximum range is directly related to transmitter
output power. The more energy the radar system Fig. Peak Power vs Avg. Power
transmits, the greater the target detection range will be.

The energy content of the pulse is equal to

the peak (maximum) power level of the pulse multiplied
by the pulse width.
 Radar Transmitter Power

Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the peak power:

If the transmitted waveform is not a rectangular pulse, it is sometimes more convenient to express the radar equation
in terms of the energy contained in the waveform:

Duty cycle
Duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an “active” state. It is defined as The product of pulse
width (τ) and pulse-repetition frequency (prf).

Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component, device, or system is operated. Suppose a
transmitter operates for 1 microsecond, and is shut off for 99 microseconds, then its duty cycle is therefore
1/100, or 1 percent.
Radar Transmitter Power in Range Equation
 Radar Transmitter Power

Instantaneous vs Peak :
Instantaneous voltage:
This is the value (voltage or current) of
a wave at any particular instant. often chosen
to coincide with some other event. E.g.
The instantaneous value of a sine wave one
quarter of the way through the cycle will be
equal to the peak value. See point X in Fig

Peak Power: It is defined as power, averaged over that carrier frequency

cycle which occurs at the maximum of the pulse of power.
Note: Peak power is usually equal to one-half the maximum
instantaneous power.
 Radar Transmitter Power

Peak – and Avg. Radar Power

The energy content of a continuous-wave radar

transmission may be easily figured because the
transmitter operates continuously.

However, pulsed radar transmitters are switched on and

off to provide range timing information with each pulse.

The amount of energy in this waveform is important

because maximum range is directly related to transmitter
output power. The more energy the radar system Fig. Peak Power vs Avg. Power
transmits, the greater the target detection range will be.

The energy content of the pulse is equal to

the peak (maximum) power level of the pulse multiplied
by the pulse width.
 Radar Transmitter Power

Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the peak power:

If the transmitted waveform is not a rectangular pulse, it is sometimes more convenient to express the radar equation
in terms of the energy contained in the waveform:

Duty cycle
Duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an “active” state. It is defined as The product of pulse
width (τ) and pulse-repetition frequency (prf).

Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component, device, or system is operated. Suppose a
transmitter operates for 1 microsecond, and is shut off for 99 microseconds, then its duty cycle is therefore
1/100, or 1 percent.
 Radar Cross Section (σ) of Target

2𝜋𝑎
≫1
𝜆
Eg. Ships, missiles,
planes

It is a region where Eg. Small and large

the size of sphere is size fighter with
small compared with capacity of 4
the wavelength members
2𝜋𝑎
𝜆
Eg. Rain drops,
meteorological
particles
 Radar Cross Section (σ) of Target

Table: Radar Cross sectional area for different targets

 Radar System Losses

Introduction:

They are dependent upon the radar operating

frequency, the range to the target and the elevation
angle of the target relative to the radar.
These losses are insignificant at low frequencies
less than 3 Gigahertzes by clear weather conditions.

Losses reduces the signal to noise ratio thereby

reduces range accuracy.
Fig.1. Block diagram of Pulse Radar

Losses are two kinds.

1. Predicted losses
Eg. Plumbing losses, beam shape losses.,
2. Un predicted losses
Eg. Operator fatigue, environment
specific losses
 Radar System Losses

a) Plumbing Loss
b) Beam Shape Loss
c) Limiting Loss
d) Collapsing Loss
e) Nonideal equipment loss
f) Operator loss
g) Field degradation loss
h) Straddling loss
 Radar System Losses

a) Plumbing Loss: These losses are also called transmission losses. These losses are measured in dB/ft. Losses are
higher at higher frequencies These are represented interms of phase delay, group delay and attenuation losses.
Joints, rotatory joints, corners and bends are also playing a major role in plumbing losses. These are exist in two
way. Duplexer provides approximately 1dB loss.

Fig.1a. Inside of aluminium rectangular wave guide with different thick ness
 Radar System Losses

b) Beam Shape Loss: Beam shape losses appear because of integrating the n number of pulses. Usually, the antenna
gain in radar equation is assumed to be a constant and it is equal with each returned echo. But, practically, it is not
true. In reality, the train of pulses returned from a target with a scanning radar is modulated in amplitude by the shape
of antenna beam.

c) Limiting Loss: Limiting in the radar receiver can lower the probability of detection. Limiting loss is a factor of video
limit level to rms noise level is as large as in the order of 10.

d) Transmit Loss: Typically associated with the feed, waveguides and other components between the power amplifier
and the antenna. These are typically 1 to 2 dB in a well designed radar.
e) Receive Loss: Typically associated with the feed, waveguides and other components between the mouth of the
feed and RF amplifier. These are also typically 1 to 2 dB for a well designed radar. If the noise figure is referenced to the
antenna terminals, receive losses are included in the noise figure. This is something to be careful of.
 Radar System Losses

Atmospheric Losses – These are losses due to absorption by the atmosphere. They are dependent upon the radar
operating frequency, the rang to the target and the elevation angle of the target relative to the radar.

Collapsing Loss: If the radar were to integrate additional noise samples along with the wanted signal-to-noise pulses, the
added noise results in a degradation called the collapsing loss. It can occur in displays which collapse the range
information.

Nonideal equipment Loss:

The transmitter power introduced into the radar equation is assumed to be the output power as either peak or average.
The transmitting tubes are ot all uniform in quality, nor should it be expected that any individual tube will remain at the
same level of performance throughout its useful life. In many instances the power is usually not uniform over the
operating band of device. Thus, for one reason or another, the transmitted power may be other than the design value.
To allow for this, a loss factor may be introduced. This factor can vary with the application.

Operator Loss:
A well trained operated will not perform in some scenarios like when distracted, tired and overloaded these will lead to
decrease the performance.

Rage Gate Straddling Loss: If the radar samples in range at a rate of once per range resolution cell the loss is usually
taken to be 3 dB.
 Radar Frequencies

VHF (30 to 300 MHz).

 Most of the early radars developed in the 1930s were in this frequency band.
 These early radars served quite well the needs of the time and firmly established the utility of radar.
 It is a good frequency for lowercost radars and for long-range radars such as those for the detection of satellites.
Like the HF region, the VHF (very high frequency) region is crowded, bandwidths are narrow, external noise can be
high, and beamwidths are broad.

However, the necessary technology is easier and cheaper to achieve than at microwave frequencies. High power and
large antennas are readily practical. The stable transmitters and oscillators required for good MTI are easier to achieve
than at higher frequencies, and there is relative freedom from the blind speeds that limit the effectiveness of MTI as the
frequency is increased. Reflections from rain are not a problem.

With horizontal polarization over a good reflecting surface (such as the sea), the constructive interference between the
direct wave and the wave reflected from the surface can result in a substantial increase in the maximum range against
aircraft.
However, a consequence of this increase in range due to constructive interference and accompanying destructive
interference results in nulls in the coverage at other elevation angles and less energy at low angles.
 Radar Frequencies

UHF (300 to 1000 MHz)

Much of what has been said regarding VHF applies to UHF.

However, natural external noise is much less of a problem, and beamwidths are narrower than at VHF. Weather effects
usually are not a bother. With a suitably large antenna, it is a good frequency for reliable longrange surveillance radar,
especially for extraterrestrial targets such as spacecraft and ballistic missiles.

It is well suited for AEW (airborne early warning), e.g., airborne radar that uses Airborne MTI (AMTI) for the detection of
aircraft. Solid-state transmitters can generate high power at UHF as well as offer the advantages of maintainability and
wide bandwidth.
 Radar Frequencies

L Band (1.0 to 2.0 GHz)

This is the preferred frequency band for land based long-range air surveillance radars, such as the 200-nmi radars used for
enrooting air traffic control.
It is possible to achieve good MTI performance at these frequencies and to obtain high power with narrow-beamwidth
antennas. External noise is low. Military 3D radars can be found at L band, but they also are at S band. L band is also
suitable for large radars that must detect extra terrestrial targets at long range.
 Radar Frequencies

Ku, K, and Ka Bands (12.5 to 40 GHz)

The original K-band radars developed during World War II were centred at a wavelength of 1.25 cm (24 GHz).

This proved to be a poor choice since it is too close to the resonance wavelength of water vapor (22.2 GHz), where
absorption can reduce the range of a radar.

Later this band was subdivided into two bands on either side of the water-vapor absorption frequency.

The lower frequency band was designated Ku1, and the upper band was designated Ka. These frequencies are of interest
because of the wide bandwidths and the narrow beam widths that can be achieved with small apertures.

However, it is difficult to generate and radiate high power. Limitations due to rain clutter and attenuation are increasingly
difficult at the higher frequencies. Thus not many radar applications are found at these frequencies.
 Radar Frequencies

Millimeter Wavelengths (above 40 GHz)

Millimeter-wave radar, therefore, is taken to be the frequency region from 40 to 300 GHz.

The exceptionally high attenuation caused by the atmospheric oxygen absorption line at 60 GHz causes serious
applications in the vicinity of this frequency within the atmosphere.
Therefore, the 94-GHz-frequency region (3-mm wavelength) is generally what is thought of as a "typical" frequency
representative of millimeter radar.

High-power sensitive receivers and low-loss transmission lines are difficult to obtain at millimeter wavelengths, but such
problems are not basic.
The major reason for the limited utility of this frequency region is the high attenuation that occurs even in the "clear“
atmosphere. The so-called propagation window at 94 GHz is actually of greater attenuation than the attenuation at the
water-vapor absorption line at 22.2 GHz.
The millimeter-wave region is more likely to be of interest for operation in space, where there is no atmospheric
attenuation. It might also be considered for shortrange applications within the atmosphere where the total attenuation is
not large and can be tolerated.
 Radar Block Diagram

Transmitter.

1. The transmitter as a power amplifier, such as a klystron, traveling-wave tube, crossed-field amplifier, or solidstate
Device.
2. A power oscillator such as a magnetron also can be used as the transmitter; but the magnetron usually is of limited
average power compared with power amplifiers, especially the klystron, which can produce much larger average
power than can a magnetron and is more stable.
3. Since the basic waveform is generated at low power before being delivered to the power amplifier, it is easier to
achieve the special waveforms needed for pulse compression and for coherent systems such as moving-target
indication (MTI) radar and pulse doppler radar.
4. Although the magnetron oscillator can be used for pulse compression and for MTI, better performance can be
obtained with a power amplifier configuration.
5. The magnetron oscillator might be found in systems where simplicity and mobility are important and where good
MTI performance, or pulse compression is required.
6. The transmitter of a typical ground-based air surveillance radar might have an average power of several kilowatts.
Short-range radars might have powers measured in milliwatts.
7. Transmitters not only must be able to generate high power with stable waveforms, but they must often operate over a
wide bandwidth, with high efficiency and with long, trouble-free life.
 Radar Block Diagram

Duplexer

1. The duplexer acts as a rapid switch to protect the receiver from damage when the high-power transmitter is on.
2. On reception, with the transmitter off, the duplexer directs the weak received signal to the receiver rather than to the
transmitter.
3. Duplexers generally are some form of gas-discharge device and may be used with solid-state or gas-discharge
receiver protectors.
4. A solid-state circulator is sometimes used to provide further isolation between the transmitter and the receiver.

Antenna

1. The transmitter power is radiated into space by a directive antenna which concentrates the energy into a narrow
beam.
2. Mechanically steered parabolic reflector antennas and planar phased arrays or electrically steerd antennas find wide
application in radar.
3. The narrow, directive beam that is characteristic of most radar antennas not only concentrates the energy on target
but also permits a measurement of the direction to the target.
4. A typical antenna beamwidth for the detection or tracking of aircraft might be about 1 or 2°.
 Radar Block Diagram

Antenna
A dedicated tracking radar generally has a symmetrical antenna which radiates a pencil-beam pattern.
The usual ground-based air surveillance radar that provides the range and azimuth of a target generally uses a
mechanically rotated reflector antenna with a fan-shaped beam, narrow in azimuth and broad in elevation.
Airborne radars and surface based 3D air surveillance radars (those that rotate mechanically in azimuth) often employ
planar array apertures.
Mechanical scanning of the radar antenna is usually quite acceptable for the vast majority of radar applications.
When it is necessary to scan the beam more quickly than can be achieved with mechanical scanning and when high cost
can be tolerated, the electronically steered phased array antenna can be employed.
The size of a radar antenna depends in part on the frequency, whether the radaris located on the ground or on a moving
vehicle.
The lower the frequency, the easier it is to produce a physically large antenna since the mechanical (and electrical)
tolerances are proportional to the wavelength.
In the ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) band, a large antenna (either reflector or phased array) might have a dimension of 100
ft or more.
At the upper microwave frequencies (such as X band), radar antennas greater than 10 or 20 ft in dimension can be
considered large.
 Radar Block Diagram

Receiver

The signal collected by the antenna is sent to the receiver, which is almost always of the super heterodyne type.
The receiver serves to separate the desired signal from the ever-present noise and other interfering signals and amplify the
signal sufficiently to actuate a display, such as a cathoderay tube, or to allow automatic processing by some form of digital
device.
At microwave frequencies, the noise at the receiver output is usually that generated by the receiver itself rather than external
noise which enters via the antenna.
The input stage of the receiver must not introduce excessive noise which would interfere with the signal to be detected.
A transistor amplifier as the first stage offers acceptably low noise for many radar applications. A first-stage receiver noise
figure might be, typically, 1 or 2 dB.
A low-noise receiver front end (the first stage) is desirable for many civil applications, but in military radars the lowest noise
figure attainable might not always be appropriate.
In a high-noise environment, whether due to unintentional interference or to hostile jamming, a radar with a low-noise
receiver is more susceptible than one with higher noise figure.
Also, a low-noise amplifier as the front end generally will result in the receiver having less dynamic range—something not
desirable when faced with hostile electronic countermeasures (ECM).
 Radar Block Diagram

Mixer

1. The mixer of the superheterodyne receiver translates the receiver RF signal to an intermediate frequency.
2. The gain of the intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifier results in an increase of the receiver signal level.
3. The IF amplifier also includes the function of the matched filter: one which maximizes the output signal to-noise ratio.
4. Maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF maximizes the detectability of the signal.
5. Almost all radars have a receiver which closely approximates the matched filter.

Second Detector

1. The second detector in the receiver is an envelope detector which eliminates the IF carrier and passes the modulation
envelope.
2. When doppler processing is employed, as it is in CW (continuous-wave), MTI, and pulse doppler radars, the envelope
detector is replaced by a phase detector which extracts the doppler frequency by comparison with a reference signal at
the transmitted frequency.
3. It included with filters for rejecting the stationary clutter and passing the doppler-frequency-shifted signals from
moving targets.
 Radar Block Diagram

Video Amplifier

1. The video amplifier raises the signal power to a level where it is convenient to display the information it
contains.
2. As long as the video bandwidth is not less than half of the IF bandwidth, there is no adverse effect on signal
detectability.
3. A threshold is established at the output of the video amplifier to allow the detection decision to be made.
4. If the receiver output crosses the threshold, a target is said to be present.
5. The decision may be made by an operator, or it might be done with an automatic detector without operator
intervention.

Display System
1. The display for a surveillance radar is usually a cathode-ray tube with a PPI (plan position indicator) format.
2. A PPI is an intensity-modulated, map like presentation that provides the target's location in polar coordinates
(range and angle).
3. Older radars presented the video output of the receiver (called raw video) directly to the display, but more
modern radars generally display processed video, that is, after processing by the automatic detector or the
automatic detector and tracker (ADT). These are sometimes called cleaned-up displays since the noise and
background clutter are removed.
 Summary

1. In this class the Radar, fundamental principles of Radar are discussed.

2. Radar Block Diagram is covered.
3. Detailed Explanation of functional blocks involved in Radar System are
discussed.
Thank You