Cell discovery

Cells were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of

the compound microscope. In 1665, Robert Hooke termed the building

block of all living organisms as "cells" (published in Micrographia) after

looking at a piece of cork and observing a cell-like structure. However,

the cell walls observed by Hooke gave no indication of the

nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells.

A few years later, in 1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to

analyze live cells in his examination of algae. The very first successful effort

to do such (cell motality).

All of this preceded the cell theory which states that all living things are

made up of cells and that cells are the functional and structural unit of

organisms.

plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist Theodor

Schwann in 1838, who viewed live cells in plant and animal tissue,

respectively.

CELL THEORY: Proposed by Matthais Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

in 1839: All living things are made up of cells. Cells are the smallest

working unit of all living things (diameter- 2-120µm). All cells come from

pre-existing cells through cell division.

19 years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the cell theory,

adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.

Viruses are not considered in cell biology – they lack the characteristics of

a living cell, and instead are studied in the microbiology subclass

of virology

CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cell biology: (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that

studies the structure, function and behavior of cells.

It’s the science that studies cell structure and function, and it revolves

around the cell concept.

What the cell: It’s the fundamental unit of life, self replicating structure.

The first cell were absorbed and named by Robert Hook in 1665 from slice

of crok. Some organisms consist of single cells unicellular organism like

bacteria and protozoans, other are multicellular includes fungi , plant and

animals.

There are 2 main types of cell which are eukaryotic cell and prokaryotic

cells.
An adult human contains about 100.000,000,000,000 (hundred trillions) and

there are 200 different type of specialized cells in human body (nerve cell,

epithelial cell, endocrine cel …etc).

There are main class of organism

Eukaryotic cells (The genetic material is inside the nucleus)

Prokaryotic cells ( genetic material are fluting inside the cytoplasm)

CONSTITUENTS:

Different substances that make a cell are collectively called Protoplasm.

Protoplasm is composed of :- 1) Water - 70-80% Water is present in cell. 2)

Carbohydrates 3) Lipids 4) Proteins 5) Electrolyte - Sodium (Na+),

Potassium (K+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Calcium (Ca2+), Phosphate , Chloride

(Cl-), and Bicarbonate (HC03-).

SUBCELLULAR STRUCTURES: Major Structures Present in a cell are :-

Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm and its Organelles and Nucleus.

1- CELL MEMBRANE:- Thin pliable elastic outermost structure which

envelops the cell. It consists of bilipid layer (lipid bilayers) (head and tail)

with embedded proteins that are- i) Integral Proteins ii) Peripheral proteins,

Glycocalyx (glyoproteins and some glycolipids) as well as cholesterol which

controllers cell fluidity.

- Head its composed of phospholipids, hydrophilic , polar and soluble

in the water

- Tail its composed of saturated fatty acid, non polar hydrophobic.

Cell membrane we call it also cytoplasmic membrane, plasma membrane, or

plasma lemma.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

1- Protective:- Forms outermost boundary of the cell organelles.

2- Digestive:- Takes in food and excretes waste products.

3- Selective Permeability:- a) Non-Polar Molecules- Gases (like O2 ,CO2,

N2 ), Lipids, Steroid Hormones, Alcohols can dissolve in the non–polar

regions of the membrane and move rapidly across the membrane. b) Polar

molecules:- H2O soluble ions , Glucose, urea etc. have much lower

solubility . Therefore penetrate the membrane much more slowly.

4- Chemical and Physical Properties of membrane control the free passage

of ions in and out of cell. This property helps in maintaining components in

ICF and ECF.

5- Links adjacent cells together by junctional complexes to form tissues, it

helps in cell adhesion.

6- It has role in cell process like cell signaling pathways.

7- It serves as attachment surface for several extracellular structures, cell

wall in plant cells, hormones or enzymes (likes and/or receptors) and

intracellular cytoskeleton.

Transport of ions and molecules.

CYTOPLASM AND ITS ORGANELLES

CYTOPLASM and its organelles: it contains the cell organelles between

the cell membrane and nucleuses.

Thick, gel-like semi-transparent fluid that is found in both plant and animal

cell. The constituent parts of cytoplasm are cytosol (fluid proteins of

cytoplasm which contains water, dissolved solutes and many different

particles), and cell organelles. Bounded by the plasma membrane, and

contains many organelles in a eukaryotic cell (cell containing membrane

bounded nucleus).

CYTOSOL the aqueous part of the cytoplasm outside all of the organelles,

also contains its own distinctive proteins. It accounts for almost 70% of the

total cell volume. Gelatinous substance consisting mainly of cytoskeleton

filaments, organic molecules, salt and water. Chemically, the cytoplasmic

matrix is composed of many chemical elements in the form of atoms, ions

and molecules.

ORGANELLES:- Following organelles are present in the Cytoplasm:- i)

Mitochondria ii) Endoplasmic Reticulum iii) Lysosomes iv) Golgi Appartus

v) Peroxisomes vi) Vacuole. Each organelle is bounded by a lipid

membrane, and has specific functions.

MITOCHONDRIA The mitochondria were first observed by Kolliker in

1850 as granular structures in the striated muscles. Mitochondria are called

the 'powerhouse of the cell'.

STRUCTURE- Filamentous or globular in shape. Its sac-like structure,

founded near to the nucleus. Length-5-12µm Diameter- 0.5-1µm

Components of Mitochondria are - i) Outer Membrane ii) Inner

Membrane iii) Intermediate Space-space between outer and inner

membranes iv) Cristae-Infoldings of inner membrane which provides the

sites for energy production (little shelves are formed from folds of inner

membrane) v) Matrix-the space enclosed by inner membrane and

mitochondrial DNA.

The membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins.

Inner Membrane: It contains ATPase and other enzymes concerned with

synthesis and metabolism of ATP. Contains enzymes of Electron Transport

Chain. The ultimate purpose of these mechanisms is oxidative

phosphorylation and synthesis of ATP. Mitochondria has some protein

synthesized by Mitochondrial DNA which allows it to replicate when

needed.

Outermost Membrane- a) It contains large numbers of integral membrane

proteins called Porins. These porins form channels that allow molecules of

5000 daltons or less to pass (high permeability) . b) Studded with enzymes

concerned with biological oxidation. Interior (Matrix) of the Mitochondria

contains enzymes concerned with ‘citric acid cycle’ and ‘respiratory chain

oxidation. Major metabolic pathways involved in oxidation of

carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids and part of special biosynthetic

pathways involving urea and heme synthesis are located in inner matrix.
FUNCTIONS:

1- Power generating units of the cells (ATP synthesis).

2- Metabolic reaction (Krebs cycle, Urea cycle ).

3- Gluconeogenesis (Glucose from F.A and A.A) and Ketogenesis (Ketones

from A- Co A).

4- Important to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within the

various compartments of the cell.

5- Energy transduction through respiration.

Responsible for thermogenesis (heme synthesis, hemoglobins and

myoglobins .

Energy production ¢ Metab. of carbohydrate, lipids and amino acids.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:-

Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm. An

extensive network of closed, flattened membrane-bounded sacs called

cisternae. Space inside the tubules is filled with Endoplasmic Matrix.

TWO TYPES- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum and Rough Endoplasmic

Reticulum according to presence and absence of ribosomes.

Ribosomes absent : Site of synthesis of lipid and steroid hormones. Mainly

present in lipid forming cells such as adipocytes, interestitial cells of testis,

glycogen storing cells of liver, adrenal cortex cells, muscle cells, leucocytes

etc.

Contains ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis, processing and packaging.

Mainly present in protein forming cells such as pancreatic acinar

cells ,Goblet cells ,antibody producing plasma cells, Nissl’s granules of

nerve cells etc.

FUNCTION: Synthesis of proteins and lipids that’s needed for (lysosome,

cell membrane and proteins which will be secreted out of the cell), as well as

Protein segregation.
R.E.R. Synthesis of proteins (proteins processing and modifications /adding

of sugar residues), packaging and budding of proteins in visicle which move

to goligi apparutes).

S.E.R. it has many enzymes specially that involve in lipid synthesis

(cholesterol, which required for cell membrane and steroid hormone

synthesis, unsaturated fatty acid, phospholipids, as well as cytochrome 450

(CYT 450) which work on the drugs, toxins and ethanoles (detoxification)

which called biotransformation and mostly happen in liver cell) , G6P that’s

required for energy making (glucose synthesis) ).

Muscle contraction. ER is commomly known as Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in

muscle fibers.

GOLGI BODIES Golgi Bodies is a collection of membrane enclosed sacs

composed of four or more stacked layers of thin, flat enclosed vessels lying

near the side of the nucleus. consist of four functionally distinct regions: i)

The cis Golgi network ii) Golgi stack –which is divided into - a) The medial

and - b) Trans sub compartments iii) The trans Golgi network.¢ Consist of

multiple discrete compartments.

FUNCTION:- receiving, wrapping and Packaging department of the cell.

Produces secretion granules i.e. membrane enclosed complexes, which store

hormones and enzymes in the protein secreting cells, it packages proteins.

Site of formation of lysosomes i.e. large irregular structures surrounded by

membrane which are present in the cytoplasm. It adds certain carbohydrates

to form glycoproteins, which play an important role in the association of the

cells to form tissues. Modification and sorting of proteins.

LYSOSOMES:- spherical shape structure, diameter- 250 -750nm. These

are the irregular structures surrounded by the unit membrane, More acidic

than rest of the cytoplasm and external bacteria as well as worn out cell

components are digested in them. Lysosomes are cell hydrolases and they

function best at the acidic pH.

FUNCTIONS:- Acts as a form of digestive (lytic ) system or the cell,

because enzymes present in it can digest essentially all macromolecules

( lipase, nuclease, protease… Autophagy ). Engulf worn out components of

the cells in which they are located. Engulf exogenous substances e.g.
bacteria and degrade them. when a cell dies ,lysosomal enzymes causes

autolysis of the remnant . Thats why lysosomes are called as Suicidal Bags.

Cellular digestion.

PEROXISOMES:- diameter- 0.5µm. A lipid bilayer membrane surrounds

which regulates what enters or exits the peroxisomes. Structure is similar to

that of the lysosomes but with a different chemical composition.

Peroxisomes can be formed by the budding of ER, or by division. Contains

oxidases that produces H2O2( hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical and

super oxide), Catalases degrades hydrogen peroxide to yield water and

oxygen as well as catalytic enzymes. Proteins are directed to the

Peroxisomes by a unique signal sequence with the help of protein

chaperones, Peroxins.
 FUNCTION:- H2O2 metabolism and [Link] in

Photorespiration in plants.

Synthesis of plasmalogens ( myelin sheath). Synthesis of bile acids in liver.

Biosynthesis of lipids, Cholesterol synthesized in animals.

Utilisation of H2O2.

Ribosome: is a complex made of proteins and RNA that synthesis the

proteins by decoding of the genetic massage resaved in the genome into

proteins. It’s the machinery of protein synthesis and composed of two

subunits. The free ribosome makes the proteins that required for the activity

of cell it self,
 Centrioles: are typically made up of nine sets of short

microtubule triplets, arranged in a cylinder. Centrioles are involved in the

organization of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis.

CYTOSKELETON:- System of fibers that not only maintains the structure

of the cell but also permit it to change shape and move. The cytoskeleton is

made up primarily of:- i)Microtubules ii)Intermediate Filaments iii)

Microfilaments along with protein that anchor and tie them together.

Microtubules- These are long hollow structures approx. 25nm in diameter.

Determine shape of the cell, role in the contraction of the spindle and

movement of chromosomes and centrioles as well as in ciliary and flagellar

motion.
Intermediate Filaments- They are 8-14nm in diameter and are made up of

various subunits. They form a flexible scaffolding or cell and help it resist

external pressure. In their absence cell ruptures more easily and when they

are abnormal in human, blistering in common.

Microfilaments- They are long solid fibers 4-6 nm in diameter. They

comprise the contractile protein actin and are responsible for the cell motion.

The proteins that makeup intermediate filament are cell types specific and

are thus frequently used as cellular markers.

FUNCTION: They are involved in the:- Movement of the chromosomes,

Cell movement, Processes that move secretion granules in the cell

Movement of proteins within the cell membrane. Cell Morphology and cell

motility.

Centromeres: is the specialized DNA sequence (region) of chromosome to

which the microtubules of the spindle attatch via kinetechore during cell

divesion. its microtubule organizing center composed of two centrioles

surrounded by a mass of proteins called pericentriolar material (PCM).

Function:

During mitosis (prophase of cell division) it migrate to opposite ends of the

cell and the mitotic spindles forms between them.

NUCLEUS: (brain of the cell ( they call it big mama)) The nucleus contains

chromatin, RNAs , and nuclear proteins ( which made up from ribosome

with rRNA) move freely in aqueous solution, nuclear envelope ( outer and

inner membrane), nuclear pores (made up of proteins and controls the

permeability of nucleus) and nuclei ( nucleuses) that makes rRNA .

Inner membrane has lamins proteins which binds the chromatin and DNA to

the nuclear envelope. And it controls structure, function, cell division and

interactions of the cell. The defect in lamins functions causes mutation,

protein segregation and malfunctions of the cells.

Its composed from Nucleuses, chromatin and has an internal structure that

organizes the genetic material and localizes nuclear functions. A loosely

organized matrix of nuclear lamins extends from the nuclear lamina into the

interior of the nucleus.

These lamins serve as sites of chromatin attachment and organize other

proteins into functional nuclear bodies. Chromatin within the nucleus is

organized into large loops of DNA, and specific regions of these loops are

bound to the lamin matrix by lamin-binding proteins in the chromatin.

They are Chromatin two types of chromatin

1-Euchromatin: loss and more close to the center of nucleus , its more active

during cell expression ( transcription) and division.

Heterochromatin : more tight and more close to the N.E.

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE: Complex structure consisting of two nuclear

membranes, an underlying nuclear lamina, and nuclear pore complexes. Two

concentric membranes, called the inner and outer nuclear membranes

The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, so the

space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes is directly connected

with the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Nuclear membrane is permeable only to small nonpolar molecules.

Underlying the inner nuclear membrane is the nuclear lamina, a fibrous

meshwork that provides structural support to the nucleus.

FUNCTION:-
1- Serves both as the repository of genetic information and as the cell's

control center.

2- The presence of a nucleus thus allows gene expression to be

regulated by posttranscriptional mechanisms, such as alternative

splicing.

3- The nuclear envelope provides novel opportunities for the control of

gene expression at the level of transcription. DNA synthesis and

Repair

THANK YOU