Vegetable Oils

Soybean and cottonseed oil are common frying fats and are the principal
raw materials for hydrogenated vegetable oil shortenings. Where bland
flavors (or vegetable origins) are important, hydrogenated fats prepared
from soybean or cottonseed oil are the shortenings of choice. Coconut oil is
widely used as a spray fat, and in fillings and coatings. Cocoa butter is an
essential part of pure chocolate coatings and is used in a few other special
formulas. Peanut, corn, and palm oils are less frequently utilized.
Vegetable oils are pressed or extracted from the seed and contain many
nonglyceride components (impurities). Among these may be found free fatty
acids, amino acid polymers, phospholipids, resins, pigments, mucil-aginous
substances, and carbohydrates. Crude oils are not usable directly in snack
products because of these impurities and must be processed to remove the
more objectionable compounds. The refining process involves mixing the oil
with alkali and then washing it. Deodorizing by steam or vacuum stripping
may follow this treatment.
All vegetable oils offered to snack manufacturers have been refined and
deodorized. They are usually bleached. Cottonseed oil and partially
hy-drogenated soybean oil may also be treated to remove the higher
meltingfraction to give a "winterized" or salad oil. Although for many
purposessoybean oil and cottonseed oil may be used interchangeably, the
latter hasthe reputation of being more resistant to oxidation or flavor
[Link] soy and cottonseed oils are usually further treated by
blending, hydrogenation, addition of emulsifiers and antioxidants, and
other processes (Erickson et al. 1980).
Peanuts yield a high-quality cooking and frying oil that is seldom used
in the snack food industry because of its relatively high price. Peanut oil
has some advantages for deep fat frying. It has a high smoke point and it is
the lightest of the common unsaturated vegetable oils. Because it contains
natural antioxidants, it has a fair resistance to the development of rancidity.
The flavor is pleasant and mild but distinctive.
Coconut oil is one of the so-called lauric acid fats. These fats, although
relatively highly saturated, have melting points not far above room
temperature because their glycerides contain high percentages of short-chain-
length fatty acids. Coconut oil is sold mostly as the 76° and 92°F oils, the
latter being a partially hydrogenated version. A "fully hardened" or ll0°F
oil can also be obtained. The unhydrogenated or 76°F oil is much used for
the frying of nuts and snacks, since its low level of unsaturated fatty acids
gives it considerable stability against oxidative rancidity, and its low
melting point tends to prevent waxy mouth feel.
Coconut oil seems to be more susceptible than most fats to hydrolytic
rancidity. If hydrolysis of glycerides occurs (usually the result of
enzymatic activity), the short-chain fatty acids that are released give rise
to an unpleasant soapy flavor in the product. Some unblanched nuts
contain active lipases responsible for catalyzing these deteriorative
reactions.
Popcorn-popping oil sold to small factories or in retail stores is generally
76° coconut oil to which a high level of heat-stable carotenoid pigments (and
sometimes butter flavors) has been added. Coconut oil is also used for
spraying finished snack pieces of many kinds (including crackers), and it often
serves as the carrier for powdered flavors applied to corn curls and the like.
Palm and palm-kernel oils are obtained from the fruit of the oil palm.
The fleshy covering is processed to obtain palm oil, whereas palm-kernel
oil is extracted from the seed that lies at the center of the fruit. The quantity
of these oils entering international commerce has increased markedly
during the past decade, and the quality and uniformity have improved.
Palm oil can be used as an ingredient or as a raw material for further
processing. Palm-kernel oil, which is available in somewhat smaller
amounts, is suitable for many of the same kinds of applications.

PROCESSING VEGETABLE OILS

Extraction
In the expeller process, oil is pressed from the dried fruit, seed, etc., by
screw presses. Heat is normally generated in the pressing operation, but
external heat may also be applied to increase the yield or the throughput.
The expeller process has gradually given way to a solvent-extraction pro-
cess whereby the seed or germ is rolled into flakes (this presses out some of
the oil) and then extracted with hexane. The newer process gives a higher
yield of oils with, generally, fewer impurities and less heat damage. The
hexane is recovered by distillation so that none remains in the crude oil.
The crude oil consists of the desired triglycerides and unsaponifiable sub-
stances, together with small amounts of other materials that can contrib-
ute undesirable color, odor, and flavor as well as instability and foaming
during frying.
It is possible that future developments will lead to the commercial ex-
traction of fats from oilseeds with supercritical carbon dioxide, a technique
which is just beginning to be appreciated as a widely applicable extraction
method. Friederich et al. (1982) extracted full-fat soyflakes with super-
critical carbon dioxide at pressures of 3000-10,000 psig and at 50°C. The
soybean oil thus obtained was lighter in color and contained less iron and
about one-tenth the phosphorus of hexane-extracted oil. Refined oils ob-
tained by the two systems were comparable in odor, flavor, and storage
stability.
Bleaching
The crude oil is mixed with bleaching earth or clay and filtered. Pig-
ments and some of the compounds that contribute undesirable flavor are
removed. Of course, any particles that have escaped filtering up to this
point are also removed. Sorne of the pesticides that have usually contami-
nated the raw material are absorbed by the bleaching clay.

Water and Alkali Centrifugation

The crude oil is mixed with an alkaline solution and, after a reaction
period, is centrifuged to remove the aqueous fraction. This process re-
moves free fatty acids, mucilaginous substances, proteinaceous materials,
and phosphatides.

Deodorization
ln order to remove most of the volatile contaminants, steam is bubbled
through the oil. Usually, a partial vacuum is applied to facilitate the
stripping process. Colors, flavors, and some other contaminants, such as
pesticides, are taken off and discarded.

Winterization
This process is generally applied to oils used by consumers, such as
salad oils. By removing high melting fractions, the oil will remain clear
when stored in the refrigerator for long periods. Winterizing consists of
holding the bulk oil at low temperatures until the high melting molecules
form solid particles large enough to be filtered out. In addition to removing
triglycerides having the longer-chain fatty acids, winterizing takes out
some resins and waxes.

Interesterification
Molecular rearrangement or interesterification is another method of
changing the chemical and physical characteristics of fats and oils. This
process leads to the reshuffiing of fatty acid moieties between the glycerol
residues so that a more nearly random distribution exists. lnteresterifica-
tion is accomplished through the use of catalytic techniques at relatively
low temperatures, and the net effect is usually to increase the plastic range
of the fat. Lard so treated has many of the desirable textura} charac- teristics
ofvegetable oil shortenings and contributes less of a greasy sensa- tion when
it is used at high levels. Molecular rearrangement is not com- mercially
applied to fats other than lards at this time.
Packing and Handling
Users of small amounts of fats and oils can obtain the solid ingredients
in "cubes" wrapped in plastic and overwrapped in fiber boxes. Sorne high-
melting fats are flaked and then packed in bags. Both fats and oils are
packed in pails and drums. Many commercial users receive supplies from
bulk tank trucks or rail cars. The most economical form of transportation
of fats and oils is generally by jumbo tank cars that hold approximately
150,000 lb. It is often more convenient and only very slightly more costly
to receive shortenings and frying fats in standard tank cars of 60,000-lb
capacity or even 30,000-lb capacity. Stainless steel insulated tank trucks
are still more convenient for many manufacturers. These containers usu-
ally hold 30,000-45,000 lb.
A bulk container properly designed for transporting fats from the sup-
plier to the snack food manufacturer will be insulated so as to hold the
contents within a suitable range for pumping. On arriva} at the destina-
tion, the truck driver will connecta hose to the intake of the plant storage
system and activate a pumping system on the truck (Woerfel 1981).
ANTIOXIDANTS

Although there is a great variety in the composition of snack foods, they all
contain some fat. All of these fats are subject to oxidative and hydro- lytic
rancidity, which can cause the development ofobjectionable odor and flavor.
Antioxidants are materials that can retard the development of rancidity
during storage of foods containing fat. Natural antioxidants are found in
many "non purified" fats, such as cocoa butter, and certain chemical com-
pounds can be added to fats to accomplish this purpose.
From a chemical standpoint, rancidity is of two types: (1) hydrolytic
rancidity, which can lead to the occurrence of soapy flavors, and (2) ox-
idative rancidity, which causes the pungent or acrid odor characteristic of
badly deteriorated fat. When hydrolytic rancidity occurs, oxidative deteri-
oration is facilitated. Oxidative rancidity is unquestionably the most
important of these two mechanisms so far as effects on food acceptability
are concerned. The susceptibility of a fat to oxidation depends to a consid-
erable extent on the number of unsaturated bonds in the fatty acid moiety.
Polyunsaturated fats are very prone to the development of oxidation,
whereas fully saturated fats and oils are much more resistant.
ln hydrolytic rancidity, moisture and enzymes cause splitting of the
triglyceride molecule into glycerol and free fatty acids. The rate of
lipolysis of the fat is strongly influenced by temperature. Optimum tem-
perature for this reaction is near 100°F. Hydrolytic rancidity can be con-
trolled by inactivation of the enzymes through sterilization, low moisture
content, and low storage temperatures. The high processing temperatures
to which most snacks are subjected effectively prevent hydrolytic rancidity
in these items.
The predominant fatty acids in cereals are palmitic, stearic, oleic,
linoleic, and linolenic, with the unsaturated acids, oleic and linoleic, ac-
counting for perhaps two-thirds of the oil content. The reactions leading to
oxidative rancidity attack the unsaturated portion of the fatty acid. The steps
in this process are not fully understood, but probably there is autox- idation
by a free radical mechanism catalyzed by heat, light, and trace quantities of
metal ions, especially copper and iron. When the fatty ester free radical
captures a hydrogen atom, the action of the free radical is terminated and
autoxidation is inhibited. The chain reaction can be bro- ken by adding
phenolic-type antioxidants, which readily give up a hydro- gen atom to the
free radicals.
A great amount of research activity has been directed toward finding
substances that will retard the development of oxidative rancidity in foods and
at the same time be acceptable to federal regulatory agencies as food
additives. At the present time, only four chemical compounds are commer-
cially important as antioxidants for foods. They are butylated hydroxyani- sole
(BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tertiary butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ), and propyl gallate (PG). Citric acid or phosphoric acid may be
added to improve the effectiveness of the antioxidants by chelating ions of
copper or iron, but they do not themselves fonction directly to prevent fat
oxidation.
TBHQ is a relatively new antioxidant that has been approved by the
FDA for use in foods. The permitted concentration must be such that the
combined total of BHA, BHT, propyl gallate, and TBHQ does not exceed
0.02% of the weight of the fat and oil, including essential oil. The regula-
tions concerning antioxidants in animal fats, as promulgated by the USDA,
are slightly different. According to data released by the manufac-turer (see
Table 2.2), TBHQ seems to be somewhat more effective than BHA in
retarding the development of rancidity in dry cereals (which rea- sonably
can be assumed to react similarly to many snack products).
 TABLE 2.2. Effectiveness of TBHQ in Dry Cereals

Days to develop rancid odor at 145°F

Mixed Corn Oat Wheat
Antioxidant % added cereala cereal cereal cereal

None 12 12 10 10
TBHQ 0.001 72 17 13 18
TBHQ 0.005 275 56 38 54
TBHQ 0.010 b 113 50 88
BHA 0.001 62 18 17 16
BHA 0.005 84 36 34 24
BHA 0.010 106 76 45 32
Source: Anon. (1973).
a This cereal contained a mixture of corn, rice, and wheat.
b Sample not rancid at the end of 375 days.

Companies such as Eastman Chemical Products offer mixtures of anti-

oxidants in convenient diluted forms. They can also provide advice as to the
legality of proposed uses of the materials.
The FDA limits the addition of BHA, BHT, and PG in food products to
0.02%, based on the weight of fat and oil (including essential oils) as 100%.
The antioxidant concentration applies to the total amount present, whether
the total includes one or more compounds.
Formulations containing PG are not recommended if there is substan-
tial contact of the treated material with iron equipment, since PG becomes
discolored as it picks up iron.
ln the antioxidant treatment of nuts or any other foodstuff subject to
oxidative rancidity, it is important to add the preservative before oxida-
tion begins in the oil phase of the kernel. When added to fresh nuts, the
antioxidant is available to terminate the free radicals as they form. The
antioxidant cannot reverse the fat oxidation that has already occurred.
Antioxidant can be applied by spraying a more or less dilute solution on
the nuts, popcorn, chips, etc., although it is more commonly added to the
frying or roasting oil. As described further in Chapter 5, "Salt," applica-
tion of salts containing antioxidants is a means of treatment. Packaging
materials are frequently treated with antioxidants so that oils that contact
and penetrate into the boards or films will not exhibit the rapid ran-
cidification that would otherwise occur. There is also reason for believing
that the antioxidant-treated packaging material may give off vapors that
can affect noncontacting product.

REFERENCES
ANON. 1963. The Atlas HLB Systems, 3rd Edition. Atlas Chemical Industries,
Wilmington, DE.
ANON. 1973. Tenox TBHQ Antioxidant for fats, oils and fat containing foods. Eastman
Chem. Prod. Pub!. ZG-210.
ANON. 1980A. Official and Tentative Methods, 3rd Edition. American Oil Chemists'
Assoc., Champaign, IL.
ANON. 1980B. Official Methods of Analysis, 13th Edition. Assoc. of Official Analyt-
ical Chemists, Washington, D.C.
ANON. 1982. Keeping foods fresh. Cereal Foods World 27, 261-262.
BASSETT, H.J. 1979. A technical overview of fats and oils. Cereal Foods World 24,
7-9, 24-25, 29-30.
CHANG, S.S. 1967. Chemistry and technology of deep fat frying: An introduction.
Food Technol. 21, 33-34.
COCKS, L.V. and VAN REDE, C. 1966. Laboratory Handbook for Oil and Fat Ana-
lysts. Academic Press, New York.
DEUEL, H.J., JR. 1951. The Lipids-Their Chemistry and Biochemistry. Inter-
science Publishers, New York.
ECKEY, E.W. 1954. Vegetable Fats and Oils. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York.
ERICKSON, D.R., PRYDE, E.H., BREKKO, O.L., MOUNTS, T.L. and FALB,
R.A. 1980. Handbook of Soy Oil Processing and Utilization. American Oil Chem-
ists' Society, Champaign, IL.
EVANS, C.D. 1955. Flavor evaluation of fats and oils. J. Am. Oil Chemists Soc. 32,
596-604.
FRIEDERICH, J.P., LIST, G.R. and HEAKIN, A.J. 1982. Petroleum-free extraction
of oil from soybeans with supercritical CO2. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 59, 288-292.
FRITSCH, C.W. 1981. Measurements of frying fat deterioration: A brief review. J.
Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 59, 272-274.
GREENWELL, B.A. 1981. Chilling and crystallization of shortenings and mar-
garines. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 59, 206-208.
HAWLEY, H.K. and HOLMAN, G.W. 1956. Directed interesterification as a new
processing tool for lard. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 33, 29-35.
JACOBSON, G.A. 1967. Quality control of commercial deep fat frying. Food Technol.
21, 147-152.
KNIGHTLY, W.H. 1981. Shortening systems: Fats, oils, and surface-active agents-
Present and future. Cereal Chem. 58, 171-174.
KROG, N.J. 1979. Dynamic and unique monoglycerides. Cereal Foods World24, 10-
11.
KROG, N.J. 1981. Theoretical aspects of surfactants in relation to their use in bread-
making. Cereal Chem. 58, 158-164.
LINK, W.E. 1973. Official and Tentative Methods of Analysis, 3rd Edition, American
Oil Chemists' Society, Champaign, IL.
MEHLENBACHER, V.C. 1960. The Analysis of Fats and Oils. Garrard Press, Cham-
paign, IL.
MOYER, J. 1965. Selection, maintenance, and protection of frying fats. Proc. Am.
Soc. Bakery Eng. 1965, 273-278.
POHLE, W.D. 1964. A study of methods for evaluation of the stability of fats and
shortenings. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 30, 186-190.
PONTIUS, W.I. 1965. The Meaning ofSolids Factor Index. Armour and Co., Chicago.
ROBERTSON, C.J. 1967. The practice of deep fat frying. Food Technol. 21, 34-36.
RUSCH, D.T. 1981. Emulsifiers: Uses in cereal and bakery foods. Cereal Foods World
26, 111-114.
SHERWIN, E.R. 1968. Methods for stability and antioxidant measurement. J. Am.
Oil Chem. Soc. 45, 632A, 634A, 646A, 648A.
STEVENSON, S.G., VAISEY-GENSER, M. and ESKIN, N.A.M. 1982. Quality con-
trol in the use of deep frying oils. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 59, 300A. (Abstract)
STINGLEY, D.V., VANDER WAL, R.J. and WHEELER, F.E. 1961. The solids con-
tent of shortening and its significance to the baker. Bakers Dig. 35 (8) 16-19.
THOMAS, B.L. 1968. Specifications: What do they really mean? Snack Food 57 (12)
30-32.
VERNON, H.R. 1981. Writing fats and oils specifications. Cereal Foods World 26,
441-443.
WEISS, T.J. 1963. Fats and oils. In Food Processing Operations, Vol. 2. Their Man-
agement, Machines, Materials, and Methods. J.L. Heid and M.A. Joslyn (Editors).
AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT.
WEISS, T.J. 1982. Food Oils and Their Uses, 2nd Edition. AVI Publishing Co., West- port,
CT.
WOERFEL, J.B. 1960. Shortenings. In Bakery Technology and Engineering. S.A. Matz
(Editor). AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT.
WOERFEL, J.B. 1981. Bulk handling of fats and oils. Cereal Foods World 26, 446- 448.

Puff ed Snacks

Following the lead provided by popcorn, food manufacturers made efforts

to puff other whole kernels. Consistent expansion to low densities could not
be achieved with other cereal grains when the simple processing methods used
for popcorn were applied. Good results were obtained, how- ever, when
moistened grain was superheated (i.e., brought to a tem- perature above the
boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure) and then suddenly
transferred to a region of substantially lower pressure. These methods
became commercially successful, and breakfast cereals "shot from guns"
resulted.
It was soon recognized that variations in shape, size, and composition were
severely limited as long as whole kernels had to be used as the raw material.
The desire for greater freedom in product design led to the devel- opment of
methods for puffing pellets made from corn meal.
The breakfast cereal industry was the first to make use of methods for
puffing cornmeal products. The puffing equipment was the same as had
been used for puffing kernels of wheat, rice, etc. Pellets were prepared by
adding water to a farinaceous material containing a substantial propor- tion
of dried corn particles (i.e., cornmeal, corn flour, or corn canes), drying the
pellets to a moisture content suitable for puffing, expanding the dried
pellets in a puffing gun, and further drying the puffed pellets.
Similar techniques have been used in the snack industry. Half-products
are pieces formed from doughs that have been cooked and extruded, but
not puffed, in continuous mixers. These doughs are sometimes shaped by a
second extruder. The half-products can be expanded by baking or frying
without using complex high-pressure extrusion apparatus.
The logical next step was puffing extruded material directly. Enough energy
and heat must be applied to the cereal-based feed material to thoroughly
gelatinize or cook the ingredients. All extruders perform this fonction.
Extrusion puffers are designed to compress the dough and heat it to more
than 212°F so that the water in the extrudate suddenly bursts into steam as the
extrudate emerges from the die. The dough then expands, becomes cellular
and porous, and finally sets up (becomes firm) due to cooling and drying. The
shape and size of the product are determined by the die design and the speed
of the knife that cuts the strands. Tem- perature, extrusion rate, pressure,
moisture content, and composition of the dough also affect the appearance
of the piece.
The preferred feed stock for most extrusion processes is number two grade
150
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 151

dry-milled cornmeal with hull and germ removed. The fat content of this
material is normally less than 1%. Particle size is important. Combinations
of rice and corn may be used. Rice provides a crisper and blander product.
Milled second-head rice is suitable. Certain pregelatinized starches can also
be extruded into puffed forms.
Moisture content of the meal is critical in determining extrusion tem-
perature, pressure, and product texture. As feed moisture is increased,
extrusion temperature drops and less expansion occurs in the extrudate.
The pores in the product become larger and walls become thicker. After it
is baked, the product is crisper or crunchier in texture. High moisture
results in a dense and hard product due to incomplete gelatinization of the
starch. Such products are suitable for frying under some conditions.
As feed moisture is reduced, extrusion temperature rises, the extrudate
expands more, and the pores get smaller with thinner walls. After baking
(drying), the collet is softer and has less crunch. The collets start to darken
and scorch as the moisture approaches a low level. Production rate is also
affected by the moisture content of the meal. The throughput can be in-
creased by decreasing the moisture content, but this generally has an
adverse effect on the product quality.
Moisture should be evenly distributed throughout the meal. Gross non-
uniformity can cause stratified areas in the collets, scorched particles, and
other product defects. Ideally, any moisture added as water or aqueous
solutions should be allowed to equilibrate throughout the bulk material
before it is extruded, even though acceptable results can sometimes be
obtained by dripping moisture into the extrusion chamber, particularly if
only very small amounts are involved.
Moisture contents of 13-14% are generally recommended. The product
collected from the extruder normally reaches an overall moisture content of
about 8%, and this is further reduced to 4% or less in hot air avens or deep
fat fryers.
Further developments in the last several years have included the intro-
duction of modified starches that permit the formation of half-products
with relatively simple equipment. This has further blurred the dividing line
between extrusion-puffed snacks and baked snacks, since the mixingand
forming methods closely resemble those used in cookie and cracker
baking. In this book, baked snacks will be defined as those products leav-
ened (i.e., expanded) primarily by carbon dioxide from yeast or sodium
bicarbonate and heat-processed at ambient pressures. They are discussed
in Chapter 15, whereas puffed snacks formed by high-pressure extrusion
and by frying or baking half-products are discussed in this chapter.

FORMULATIONS AND PROCEDURES

Puffable Materials
The following flours and meals have been used for puffed snack pro- ducts.
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 152

Rice Flour. This expands readily into a low-density, white, and bland-
tasting product of crisp texture.

Cornmeal or Flour. This expands very well into crisp pieces with the
typical corn flavor.

Oat Flour. Due to its relatively high fat content, this cereal requires
high moisture and high temperature for adequate expansion. The puffs
have a fairly soft texture.

Wheat Flour. Relatively high moisture and high temperature are needed
to obtain satisfactory puffing performance. It does not expand as well as
corn, rice, etc.

Potato Flour. This requires high moisture and high temperature, but
extrudes well under these conditions, and forms collets of excellent texture.

Tapioca Flour. This gives bland-tasting puffs when treated at high

temperature and moderate moisture content.

Soy Flour. This can be used as an auxiliary ingredient with generally

adverse effects on color, flavor, and texture.

Unmodified Cereal Starches. These can be puffed at medium to high

temperatures using either steam or water as moisturizers and longer dwell
time in the pressurized chamber. They can serve as bland-tasting bases for
formulated products, including nutritional snacks.

Granular Starch Systems. Uncooked granular starches are suitable bases

for half-products. A simple formula would include fat and mono- glycerides,
color, flavor, and 16% water. The ingredients would be pre- blended and
processed through a continuous-cooker extruder at 250°- 350°F. Conditions
must be sufficiently rigorous to rupture the starch gran- ules. After cooking,
the dough is formed into the desired shape and size by any convenient
method. As with most half-products, the dough pieces can be either baked
immediately or dried to the specific moisture and deep-fat fried. Depending
on the conditions of cooking and expansion. and the amount and type of
ingredients, structures will vary from a low-density, large-cell foam to a
brittle, dense network.

Pregelled Starches. Certain pregelatinized and chemically treated

starches have been offered specifically as bases for half-products. Many of
these can be satisfactorily formed by conventional laboratory, pilot plant,
or commercial sheeting and cutting equipment after the dough has been
mixed in conventional vertical blenders. The starch ingredient is first
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 153

mixed with the other raw materials, such as flour, color, flavor, and spices.
About 20% (15-25%) water is then added and the mixture is fed into an
extruder, from which the desired shapes are obtained. The formed piece can
be baked in microwave ovens, or in standard ovens at 375°-425°F. When
dried to 10-15% moisture, the dough pieces can be deep-fat fried. This
method is very suitable for addition of flavors in the dough because of the
blandness of the starch base and the relatively low processing temper- ature.

Puffing Behavior of Varions Starches

The use of cereal flours and meals as the predominant ingredients in
puffed snacks has been a natural result of the low cost and excellent
expansion of such materials as cornmeal. A demand for blander base mate-
rials that could also give structures and textures not obtainable with cereal
or root flours has led to extensive experimentation with purified or
modified starches.
Available cornstarches range from high (50-70%) amylose through reg-
ular dent (25-27% amylose) to the waxy maize varieties that are virtually
100% amylopectin. Sorghum starches with amylopectin contents from 100 to
about 17% are also offered.
The extent of puff and the texture of the finished snack are influenced
by the amylose:amylopectin ratio. High amylopectin content starches tend
to give fragile products of low density. Sorne amylose is needed to give
adequate resistance to breakage and textures that are acceptable. On the
other hand, products containing only corn, red milo, and tapioca starches
will be hard in texture and too high in density. The texture can be softened
somewhat by the addition of plasticizers such as sucrose, dextrose, or
sorbitol, but normally 50% or more amylopectin is needed for a good-
quality product. A starch system containing 5-20% amylose was sug-
gested as most suitable (Feldberg 1969).
ln baked-type puffed snacks, pre-extrusion moisture contents in the
range of20-35% and a starch having about 80-100% amylopectin content
are necessary to yield acceptable products.
Sorne modified and derivatized starches have found limited application
in puffed snacks. Chemical modification processes include cross-bonding,
pregelatinizing, and forming phosphate, acetate, and hydroxypropyl deriv-
atives.
"Third-generation products" is a term that some writers have applied to
snacks made in a two-stage extrusion process. The ingredient mixture is
heated by mechanical shear and steam injection in an extruder so as to
form a cooked, expanded material having an open cell structure. This
extrudate is fed to a second extruder that compresses the gelatinous mass. The
redensified dough passes through a finishing die where the length is
established by a cutoff knife. The resulting pieces pass through a dryer-
cooler that reduces their moisture content to about 7%. The finished pel-
lets may be bagged and sold for frying at locations near the points of sale,
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 154

or they may be deep-fat fried, possibly coated with salt or other flavoring
material, and packaged at the central plant (Matson, 1982).

Effect of pH
The variations in the pH of the ingredient mixture that can be expected
to result from the usual combinations of cereal flours and tap water seem
to have little effect on the extrusion operation or the quality of the finished
product. When Cabrera (1978) extruded wheat starch at pH levels between
4.4 and 9.0, the expansion ratio remained substantially constant. Below 4.4,
expansion decreased, a phenomenon Cabrera attributed to acid hydro- lysis of
the starch in the extruder barrel. At alkaline pH levels, the extru- date became
darker. When the pH was between 3.0 and 3.4, extruder throughput and power
consumption were reduced, no doubt because of a viscosity reduction as the
starch hydrolysed. Most food producers will not be dealing with ingredient
mixtures containing strongly acidic or alkaline components, so they can
expect to avoid the complicating effects ofhigh or low pH. Water, in the
amounts usually added, should not have a marked effect on the pH of the total
mixture, especially since the cereal ingre- dients have good buffering
capacity. If alkalized corn dough (masa) is being used, the situation is
different.
The two main types of extrusion cooking systems have been described as
high temperature/short time extrusion cookers and pressure-cooking
extruders.

Extrusion Methods
Puffed snack products may be prepared commercially by means of at least
two methods.
1. An intermediate piece of material composed in large part of gela-
tinized starch is formed without significant expansion and main-
tained at a moisture level of 12% until it is puffed by frying, baking,
or other application of high temperatures. It should be noted that
some direct-expansion snacks are also cooked in hot fat to give the
typical french-fried flavor, but no further puffing is expected in
these cases.
2. ln direct-expansion puffing, the desired volume increase occurs as
the material containing gelatinized starch emerges from a pres-
surized chamber into the atmosphere. The puffed piece still contains
excess water and must be dried by frying or baking. Further expan-
sion is not obtained in these drying steps.
Half-products have been defined as special food formulations that, upon
immersion in hot frying oil, rapidly expand into a low-density product.
These half-products, also sometimes called intermediates, are often pro-
duced by gelatinization of a starchy dough that is then shaped into chip
form and dried to a horny consistency.
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 155

A representative process has been revealed in the patent of Campfield

(1964). A raw starchy material such as corn, potato, tapioca, wheat, rice,
sorghum, or oatmeal undergoes a simultaneous cooking and kneading
operation so that the starch granules are swollen. A typical dough would
consist of 81.5% corn flour, 16.5% water, and 2.0% salt. The dough is
directly transferred to an extrusion chamber under pressure sufficient to
cause rupture of some of the starch granules. The pressures are of a magni-
tude sufficiently great to cause the extrudate to expand upon emergence to
normal atmospheric conditions, but expansion is avoided by cooling the
dough. An extrudate having a moisture content of about 15-35% issues in
a compact, densified condition. It is usually eut or shaped into desired
shapes before further processing.
The strand of dense, gelatinized dough is dried to a moisture content of
less than 12% (e.g., 9%). Equilibration of the moisture content may be
introduced at this point. If conditions are satisfactory, the horny chips will
puffupon immersion in hot (e.g., 400°F) frying oil for 5-10 sec. The resul-
tant snack base has a light, vesicular, crisp texture and a pleasant flavor.
Further details of cold forming and low-pressure cooking procedures
follow.

Cold Forming. Doughs of relatively low apparent viscosity can be ex-

truded at low pressures. If the orifices are of reasonable size or the extru-
sion rates are low, pressure buildup is avoided, shear is nominal, and
temperatures can be held close to ambient. Bakery doughs and masa for
corn chips are typically handled in equipment of the cold-forming type.
Further discussion of these methods will be deferred until the next chap-
ter.

Low-pressure Cooking and Forming. In these processes, the dry ingre-

dients are mixed with water and fed to a cooking extruder. High-tem-
perature fluid is circulated through the jacket and, in some designs,
through the screw, and additional heat is generated by the work per-
formed on the dough. Temperature and time are controlled to get the
necessary degree of starch gelatinization in the product. The dough is
cooled, usually by a refrigerated die, before it is extruded into the atmo-
sphere, so that the water it contains does not flash into steam. As a result,
the extruded dough is compressed and substantially free of bubbles in-
stead of being expanded and foam-like.

High-pressure Cooking and Forming. These procedures require rais- ing

the starchy dough to temperatures substantially above 212°F. Energy input is
from the heated jacket and internal friction. Compression of the plastic mass
within the chamber by the tapered screw prevents vaporiza- tion of the water
content (Schaeder et al. 1969).
Pressure represents a resistance to flow of the extrudate leaving the
extruder. The meal or dough is held in the extruder for a longer time so
that more mechanical energy is absorbed and the temperature rises, i.e.,
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 156

higher pressure results in higher product temperatures. As a result, the

extrudate expands more and has smaller pores and a softer texture. Lower
back pressure leads to lower extrusion temperatures, other conditions
being equal, and there is less expansion with larger vesicles, coarser walls,
and a harder texture.
There are a number ofways to adjust the pressure in an extruder. As the
number of die openings (or their size) is increased, the pressure falls.
Increasing the rpm of the extruder will increase pressure. A secondary
backup die through which the product must flow before it reaches the
extrusion orifices will increase the temperature.
The strand of dough passing through the orifice contains water at a
temperature far above its boiling point at atmospheric pressure, but the
water is held in liquid form by the high pressures existing in the chamber.
As soon as the dough emerges from the orifice, the excess pressure is
released and the free liquid vaporizes almost instantaneously. The dough
is elastic and very viscous at this point, and large amounts of steam are
temporarily trapped within its structure and force the dough to expand. At
some point, the elastic limit of the structure is reached, vesicles burst, and the
hot gas escapes. The bubbles tend to collapse and the dough piece to shrink
as the internal pressure drops precipitously and the walls of the vesicles
contract. This process normally stops far short of a complete re- turn to the
original density, however, because the entire structure "sets up" or
becomes relatively firm and rigid as a result of loss of water and reduction
in temperature. It is noteworthy that the structure is normally still under
stress at the time it sets up, and that renewing the mobility of the
intramolecular bonds, as by absorption of moisture, will permit addi- tional
shrinkage to occur. Retention of maximum specific volume ofpieces is
facilitated by factors that accelerate the time of setup, probably includ- ing
the following, among others.
1. Minimum amount of moisture consistent with attainment of desired
expansion
2. Minimum exit temperature consistent with desired expansion
3. Small piece size (or, rather, at least one dimension being held to a
minimum)

Drying
Extrusion-puffed pieces normally reach a moisture content of about 8%
as they set up, representing a loss ofjust a few percentage points of water.
To gain the necessary crispness, it is necessary to dry them to about 4%
moisture content in a hot-air oven or some equivalent type of heater.
Lower moisture contents are not considered necessary and may even lead
to the accelerated development of oxidative rancidity. In some cases, lower
moisture contents may also cause a powdery mouth feel as the structure
becomes excessively friable. The exact level to which the product must be
dried depends to some extent on its composition and its surface area, but
for most expanded snacks composed mostly of starch, 4% is a reasonable
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 157

target. The 4% is, of course, calculated on the basis of the puff, not the finished
product with added oil, salt, and seasonings.

Controls in Extrusion Puffing

According to Smith (1971), steps that can be taken to affect texture,
density, mouth feel, solubility, and form of extrusion-puffed snacks in-
clude the following.
1. The method of feeding and preconditioning of ingredients and
mixtures
2. The method and point of moisture application
3. Control of temperature and moisture contents of product entering
the extruder
4. Control of temperatures within each extruder section
5. Control of the point within the extruder where maximum dough
viscosity is attained
6. Control of extrusion speeds
7. Control of time and temperature relationships within each section
of the extruder
8. Control of the time during which product temperatures are ele-
vated to maximum extrusion temperatures
9. Control of final extrusion temperatures
10. Selection of the shaping and sizing devices
11. Selection of the type, dwell time, drying temperatures, and ve-
locities within the drier and cooler and of the desired final product
moisture
12. Point and method of flavor application
Large differences in the physical character of the product can be achieved
by modifications in the conditions of the process. As an example, there are
two main types of corn curls: the fried type, which is denser, crunchier, and
more irregular in shape; and the baked type, which is more uniform, more
highly puffed, and softer in texture. The original corn curl was of the fried
type, but it was largely replaced in the late 1940s and early 1950s by the
baked collet. The feed stock is the same for the two products, with the usual
exception of a slight variation in moisture content, and the very significant
difference in organoleptic quality is achieved solely by adjusting the extru-
sion conditions.

Examples and Modifications. Normal Extrusion Pu/Jing. The follow- ing

text, adapted from a patent of Corbin et al. (1972), describes the main steps
in an extrusion-puffing operation.
The moisture content of a given lot of cornmeal in the particle size range of
40-60 mesh was adjusted to 12.5% moisture by addition of the calcu- lated
amount of water. The moistened meal was stored in a closed con- tainer
for 3-24 hr to allow equalization of the moisture content before feeding to
an extruder at the rate of about 400 lb/hr with the metering in of additional
water to increase the total approximately 25%.
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 158

The extruder was preheated by means of a high-pressure steam jacket.

After operation started, the head of the extruder was cooled and the flow of
steam adjusted to maintain a temperature of approximately 315°F. Prod-
uct from the extruder was transferred to a hot-air dryer operating at 375°F
and brought to a moisture level of less than 2%. The hot, dry collets were
transferred to a flavoring reel, where a mixture of oil, salt, and cheese
flavoring was added by means of a meter pump and spray nozzles so that
the final product contained 15% fat, 9% cheese flavor, and 3.5% salt. These
flavored collets were then cooled and packaged.

Puffing Half-products in a Hot Airstream. Clausi (1969) described a

method for puffing cereal pellets from 1.5 to 3 times their original size by
heating in a high-velocity hot airstream. Although the patent indicates the
application is for breakfast cereals, it is obviously suitable for certain kinds
of snacks. A cereal dough containing from 22 to 27% moisture is prepared
by mixing corn, wheat, barley, or flour with flavoring syrup. The dough is
cooked, as in a closed pressure vessel, at approximately 20 psig for 6-30
min.
The cooked mixture is formed into pellets, which are case hardened by
blowing ambient air through a bed of them until the critical moisture
content of 16-21% is reached. Drier pellets will be hard and will not puff,
whereas pellets having a moisture content above about 21% will puff into
very fragile hollow spheres.
The case-hardened pellets are reduced in thickness by passing them
through flaking rolls adjusted in separation distance to give pellets thick-
er than conventional corn flakes, since thinner pellets cannot be puffed.
The bumped pellets are then heated at temperatures of from about 350° to
about 750°F for 8-35 sec while being conveyed by air having a velocity ofat
least 500 ft/min.
The moisture content of the cereal immediately after puffing is usually
in the range 3- 7%. The moisture may be further reduced and the product
toasted at 225°-500°F for about 2-10 min.
Simplification of the Forming Process for Half-products. Popel
(1974) patented a method for producing a puffed snack food item from
starch-containing foodstuffs without the use of expensive high-pressure
extrusion equipment and in a continuous process, without the need for a
holding or refrigeration step prior to forming the product and drying it. He
also claimed that improved flavor resulted from the use of this process.
A relatively dilute mixture of starchy material, water, and flavor is
prepared and then heated sufficiently to gelatinize a substantial part of
the starch. After a thin sheet of the dough has been formed, the surface is
partly dried and it is subdivided into pieces of convenient size before the
completion of drying. The pieces are deep-fat fried to puff them.
Workable ingredient ranges described in the patent are 60-90% water
and 10-40% total starch. One unique feature is the inclusion in the start-
ing mixture of a relatively high proportion of starch with a high setback or
congealing power. The presence of 20% or more of amylose in the starch is
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 159

recommended. Specifically, in selecting the added starch for the mixture,

corn, wheat, or sago starches are found to give the desired characteristics
when mixed with the foodstuff in the amount of about 25% solids. For
operating in the higher-solids range, where the viscosity of the extruded
gel may tend to be too high, acid-modified or "thin-boiling" starches from any
source may be substituted.
The inventor daims particulate substances such as grains and potato
pieces can be added to the gel to add interesting flavor and texture con-
trast to the finished puff.

Modification of Dough Rheology. When pregelatinized potato flour is used

to prepare a dough, the developed dough is hard to handle and will set to form
a hard plastic mass that may not lend itself to extrusion with available
equipment. Singer and Beltran (1970) patented a method for improving the
handling characteristics of doughs containing pregelatin- ized potato flour
and for providing snacks having a low fat and low calorie content but with the
texture of snacks containing a relatively high fat content. The essential steps
are (1) forming a dough from pregelatinized starch, a saturated
monoglyceride, and water; (2) extruding the dough; (3) forming the dough
into pieces of the desired shape; (4) drying the dough to a suitable moisture
content to form a half-product; (5) allowing the half- product to cool or age;
and (6) puffing the half-product by exposing it to a uniform field of high-
intensity infrared radiation. Chips containing less than 5% fat simulate the
texture and much of the eating quality of snacks containing up to 50% fat.
Recommended conditions are (1) 32-45% moisture content in the dough,
(2) dough temperature of ll0°F and die temperature of 180°F, (3) stock
pressure of 1000 psig, (4) dough sheet thickness of0.4 mm, (5) half-product
moisture content of 5-8%, and (6) puffing temperature of 230°F, reached in
5-10 sec. Hot-air ovens and microwave radiation do not provide satis- factory
results.
A snack product having the shape and other desirable characteristics of
a potato chip was prepared by means of the foregoing method and the
following formula (solid basis):
%
Potato flour 83.74
Carrageenan 0.3
Cottonseed oil 0.78
Myverol 18-07 1.05
Phosphated monoglyceride 0.3
BHT antioxidant 0.03
Food color 0.02
Monosodium glutamate 2.6
Sucrose 0.73
Flavor, smoked meat type 4.8
Salt 2.0
Powdered hydrogenated cottonseed oil 3.2
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 160

Simulated Popcorn. Extrusion puffing can be used to produce a very

reasonable facsimile of popped corn from corn meal. The product is denser
than most popped corn and is missing the hulls, of course, but the ap-
pearance is entirely satisfactory in some cases. The patent of Wood et al.
(1969) describes a suitable method. Cornmeal having a moisture content
between 10 and 12.3% is forced at high velocity, e.g., 950-1800 in./min, by
means of a high-pressure feeder through orifices in one or more extrusion
plates. The size of the collecting pocket in the proximal die face and the
extrusion rate must be closely controlled. The orifice size and cutoff length
are obviously critical. The preferred particle size is no less than 20% on a
No. 12 screen and 5% through a No. 40 screen. Temperature of the mass
before it emerges from the die will be in the range of250°-400°F. The puffs
formed under these conditions have smaller cells and are expanded more
than corn curls. The small cells make the product whiter and provide eating
qualities similar to those of popcorn.

Snacks with Reduced Fat Content. The low-calorie puffed snack de-
scribed in the patent of Corbin et al. (1972) contains only about 5-18%
(typically 10%) oil as compared with the 25-45% oil normally found in a
snack of the corn curl type. Less than normal amounts of oil usually result
in poor adhesion of the sait, but the patented method circumvents this
difficulty by spraying an aqueous sait solution onto the puffed piece before
it is dried.

Improvements in Gun-puffing of Dough Pellets. Sticking or cluster- ing

of the dough pellets is often encountered in gun puffing. Chilling of the pellets
prior to puffing somewhat reduces these tendencies. Coating the pellets with
an edible oil is also effective if the oil can be retained on the pellets during the
heating process. Using a small amount (e.g., 1.5%) of a fatty acid
monoglyceride as an ingredient will reduce or eliminate the sticking problem
but apparently causes unevenness of color in the finished product. It is not
entirely clear whether or not this is due to poor distribu- tion.

ADDITION OF FLAVORS AND COLORS

Added Flavors
Flavoring materials added to extruder feed stock undergo significant
changes during puffing, and most of the changes are undesirable. Volatile
flavor components flash off. Interactions and decomposition occur as a
result of the high temperatures. There are some indications that improved
results are obtained when encapsulated flavors are used (Kinnison and
Chapman 1972). In some cases, the flavoring materials interfere with
texture development, this being particularly true if they introduce fatty
substances. For these reasons, the usual practice is to add flavors to the
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 161

puffed and dried collet. A popular combination is oil, salt, and cheese
powder, and the ingredients are often mixed together in stainless steel
kettles before being dribbled or sprayed onto the collets in a tumbling-type
coater. The vegetable oil is generally coconut oil or a combination of co-
conut with soybean or cottonseed oil.
Half-products made with integral flavoring ingredients may retain them
reasonably well through the oven-puffing or frying process. The chemical
stability and volatility of the flavor components are the chief determinants of
success in this approach. Natural flavoring materials such as cheese powder
have noticeable effects on the texture and amount of expansion.
Certain waxy cornstarches designated as cold-water-swelling can be
used to prepare workable doughs containing flavors from which pieces can be
eut for later baking or frying into snacks having about 1.5 to 10 times the
specific volumes of the original. Sorne suggested formulas (Belshaw
1972) are:

Cheese-flavored snacks

Starch 53.0
Spray-dried Cheddar cheese 18.0
Salt 2.0
Water 27.0

Peanut butter-flavored snacks

Starch 55.0
Peanut butter 20.0
Water 25.0

Potato- and onion-flavored snacks

Starch 29.6
Potato granules 27.8
Salt 2.3
Onion powder 0.2
Water 34.6
Soy concentrate 5.5

The dry ingredients are blended in a planetary mixer. then worked up

into a homogeneous dough. The dough is formed into desired shapes by
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 162

TABLE 13.1. Dough Formula for Half-products

%
Minimum Maximum
Clams, fresh shucked 25 51
Wheat starch, powder form 44 70
Salt, powder form 2 5
Baking powder 0.05 2
Monosodium glutamate, pure powder form 0.15 3
Soy sauce 0.085 0.17
Lemon, pure juice 0.025 0.068
Water 250 650

sheeting and cutting, extruding, or other methods and either baked at 400°-
450°F for a short period of time, e.g., 4 min, or fried at 375°F.
Many kinds of natural flavoring ingredients can be added to half-prod-
ucts. Walter (1972) patented a method for making chip-type foods contain-
ing flavoring materials derived from seafoods, meats, fowl, vegetables. and
fruits. A typical dough formulais shown in Table 13.1.
About 1 part of shucked clams to 3.5 parts (by weight) of water are
heated to about 212°F for 5-20 min in a closed vessel and then allowed to
cool before being mixed with the other ingredients, including the remain-
ing water. The clams are chopped into finely divided form. The entire
mixture is then cooked to a specific viscosity as determined by Brookfield
viscometer testing, and the slurry is poured on to a thin and relatively
smooth supporting surface so as to forma layer about 0.1875 in. thick. The
slurry is baked on the supporting surface until both the upper and lower
surfaces of the slurry harden to a skin-like formation and the moisture
content is reduced to between 7 and 9.75%. The product of the heat treat-
ment may be formed into smaller pieces. The thickness of the dehydrated
pieces should be relatively thin as compared with their surface areas,
however. The intermediate product will, ifproperly packaged, keep almost
indefinitely. When it is time to finish the snack, the pieces are fried,
preferably in peanut oil held between 425° and 450°F. Under optimum
conditions, a 4- to 5-fold expansion is obtained.

Added Colors
Extrusion-puffed snacks can be satisfactorily colored with food dyes in
some cases. Between 30 and 600 ppm of FD&C pigments may be required
(Kinnison and Chapman 1972) to achieve the desired results. Higher lev-
els often lead to products that are gaudy and unnatural looking.
Colors can be added by means of a dry-blending process prior to extru-
sion. Dye solutions are sometimes metered at the feed screw ahead of the
pressure chamber. If added moisture cannot be tolerated, it may be possi-
ble to use other polar solvents, such as propylene glycol or alcohol. Ti-
tanium dioxide, FD&C lakes, and iron oxides, being insoluble, cannot be
metered into batches in the form of solutions.
 13 PUFFED SNACKS 163

Fading of color in extruded and expanded snacks is frequently observed and

can be related to four key factors: (1) excessive heat, (2) reaction with various
proteins, (3) reaction with reducing ions such as iron and alumi- num, and
(4) reactions with reducing sugars.
There is also a physical cause of fading. The foam structure causes a
refraction of light, which whitens or lightens the basic color of the mate-
rial. The smaller the bubbles (or cells), the lighter the color.

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