•

Fundamental Thoughts 2500 K, the oxygen molecules begin

to dissociate (tear apart) into oxygen
*This path taken by a moving fluid element atoms;
is called a streamline of the flow. • temperatures above 4000 K, the
nitrogen begins to dissociate.
* Acknowledge of p, ρ, T, and V at each point
• the atmospheric entry of the Apollo
of a flow fully defines the flow field.
capsule, in which case the
Aerodynamic Force (natural sources) temperatures in some regions of the
flow field reach 11,000 K.
1.Pressure distribution on the surface.
• The net unbalance of the varying
pressure distribution over the surface
creates an aerodynamic force.
2. Shear stress (friction) on the surface. The Standard Atmosphere
• Shear stress acting on the surface, is The earth’s atmosphere is a dynamically
due to the frictional effect of the flow changing system, constantly in a state of flux.
“rubbing” against the surface as it The pressure and temperature of the
moves around the body. The shear atmosphere depend on altitude, location on
stress τw is defined as the force per the globe (longitude and latitude), time of
unit area acting tangentially on the day, season, and even solar sunspot activity.
surface due to friction.
Standard atmosphere is defined in order to
Air under normal conditions of temperature relate flight tests, wind tunnel results, and
and pressure, such as those encountered in general airplane design and performance to a
subsonic and supersonic flight through the common reference. The standard atmosphere
atmosphere, behaves very much as a perfect gives mean values of pressure, temperature,
gas. density, and other properties as functions of
altitude.
*A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular
forces are negligible.
*The relation among p, ρ, and T for a gas is
called the equation of state. For a perfect gas,
the equation of state is,

P =ρRT
Deviation of an actual gas in nature from
perfect gas behavior can be expressed
approximately by the modified Berthelot
equation of
 INCOMPRESSIBLE AND
Basic Aerodynamics COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
- V < 100 m/s (or V < 225 mi/h) can
also be assumed to be compressible

o Incompressible- density change from

point to point.
o Compressible- density is constant.

MOMENTUM EQUATION
• for an inviscid flow, called Euler’s
equation.

Force is a combination of three phenomena:

1. Pressure acting in a normal direction on all
six faces of the element.
2. Frictional shear acting tangentially on all
six faces of the element.
3. Gravity acting on the mass inside the
element.

Euler’s equation
dp = −ρV dV
Three fundamental physical principles from We neglected friction and gravity. For flow
physics. that is frictionless, aerodynamicists
sometimes use another term, inviscid flow.
1. Mass is conserved.
2. Newton’s second law (force = mass × BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
acceleration) holds.
3. Energy is conserved.

CONTINUITY EQUATION
• says, in mathematical symbols, that
mass is conserved in an aerodynamic The following important points should be
flow. Mass is conserved whether or noted:
not the flow involves friction. Hence,
1. Equations (4.9 a) and (4.9 b) hold only for
the continuity equation is equally
inviscid (frictionless), incompressible flow.
applicable to both types of flow.
2. Equations (4.9 a) and (4.9 b) relate
• Physical principle: Mass can be properties between different points along a
neither created nor destroyed. streamline.
3. For a compressible flow, Eq. (4.8) must be
used, with ρ treated as a variable. Bernoulli’s
equation must not be used for compressible
flow.
4. Remember that Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9 a) and SPECIFIC HEAT
(4.9 b) say that F = ma for a fluid flow. They
are essentially Newton’s second law applied is the heat added per unit change in
to fluid dynamics. temperature of the system.

The equation of state relates p, T, and ρ to one Two types of specific heat,
another at the same point; in contrast, the • constant volume
flow equations relate ρ and V (as in the • constant pressure
continuity equation) and p and V (as in
Bernoulli’s equation) at one point in the flow For air at standard conditions:
to the same quantities at another point in the
Cv = 720 J/(kg)(K)
flow.
= 4290 ft · lb/(slug)(°R)
MACH NUMBER Cp = 1008 J/(kg)(K)
= 6006 ft · lb/ (slug)(°R).
• which is the ratio of the flow velocity
to the speed of sound, and we will The first law of thermodynamics, can be
show that the flow must be treated as expressed as:
compressible when the Mach number
exceeds 0.3.
ΔQ + ΔW = E
ΔW be the total amount of work done on the
The energy of this molecular motion, system
summed over all the molecules in the system, ΔQ the total heat added to the system from
is called the internal energy of the system. the surroundings
ΔE the resulting finite change in internal
1. Heat is added to (or taken away from) the energy.
system. This heat comes from the
surroundings and is added to the system *Both Δw and Δq are process dependent.
across the boundary. Let δq be an incremental
amount of heat added per unit mass. ISENTROPIC FLOW
2. Work is done on (or by) the system. This - bridges both thermodynamics and
work can be manifested by the boundary of compressible aerodynamics.
the system being pushed in (work done on the First consider three more definitions:
system) or pushed out (work done by the • An adiabatic process is one in which
system). Let δw be an incremental amount of no heat is added or taken away:
work done on the system per unit mass. δq= 0.
• A reversible process is one in which
δq + δw =de no frictional or other dissipative
effects occur.
• termed the first law of
• An isentropic process is one that is
thermodynamics. It is an energy
both adiabatic and reversible.
equation stating that the change in
internal energy is equal to the sum of
*An isentropic process is one in which there
the heat added to and the work done
is neither heat exchange nor any effect due to
on the system
friction. (The source of the word isentropic is
another defined thermodynamic variable
called entropy).
*ENTROPY is constant for an isentropic Relates the temperature and velocity at two
process. different points along a streamline.
▪ ADIABATIC the flow of the fluid
element along the streamline.
▪ FRICTIONLESS

FLOW IS ISENTROPIC
- flow of the fluid element is both
adiabatic and reversible (frictionless). SUMMARY
- isentropic flows is relevant to To analyze Compressible Flows
compressible flows only. • Continuity Equation
• Momentum Equation [Euler’s
*Adiabatic, Compressible Flow Equation]
This is because the volume of the fluid • Energy Equation
element (of fixed mass) changes as it moves • Isentropic Equation
through regions of different density along the
streamline; when the volume varies, work is For steady isentropic (adiabatic and
done, hence the internal energy changes, and frictionless) compressible flow in a stream
hence the temperature changes. tube of varying area, p, ρ, T, and V are all
This argument holds for compressible flows, variables. They are obtained from
where the density is variable.

*Density is constant, Incompressible Flow

The volume of the fluid element of fixed
mass does not change as it moves along a
streamline; hence no work is done and no
change in temperature occurs.
(Incompressible flow is a myth).
To analyze Incompressible Flows
• Continuity Equation
• Bernoulli’s Equation

For the steady incompressible flow of a

ENERGY EQUATION frictionless fluid in a stream tube of varying
Physical principle: Energy can be neither area, p and V are the meaningful flow
created nor destroyed. It can only change variables; ρ and T are constants throughout
form. the flow.
Energy equation for frictionless, adiabatic
flow.
SPEED OF SOUND

Mach number
- The speed of sound leads to another
vital definition for high-speed gas
flows.
Mach number M at point B is the flow
velocity divided by the speed of sound:

Three different regimes of aerodynamic

flows:
1. If M < 1, the flow is subsonic.
2. If M = 1, the flow is sonic.
3. If M > 1, the flow is supersonic

In addition, two specialized aerodynamic

regimes are commonly defined:

TRANSONIC FLOW
- where M generally ranges from
slightly less than to slightly greater
than 1 (for example, 0.8 ≤ M ≤ 1.2)

HYPERSONIC FLOW
- where generally M > 5.

The definitions of subsonic, sonic, and

supersonic flows in terms of M as given are
precise; the definitions of transonic and
hypersonic flows in terms of M are a bit more
imprecise and really refer to sets of specific
aerodynamic phenomena rather than to just
the value of M.
Basic Aerodynamics Worksheet Questions 10. What are the 2 types if viscous flows?
& Answers Differentiate each.
• Laminar flow, the streamline are
1. What are the three fundamental physical smooth and regular
principles from physics in understanding • Turbulent flow, the streamlines break
Aerodynamics? up and a fluid element moves in a
• Mass is conserved random, irregular, and tortuous
• Newton’s second law holds fashion.
• Energy is conserved
11. Complete the sentence;
2. What are the basic types of aerodynamic • Mass can be neither created nor
flow? Define each destroyed.
• Inviscid flow, flow with no friction
• Viscous flow, flow with friction 12. These are group of streamlines that go
through the circumference of the circle.
3. According to this equation mass • Stream tube
conserved in an aerodynamic flow.
• ṁ = ρAV (Continuity Equation) 13. It is a simple algebraic equation that
relates the values of density, velocity, and
4. Is mass being conserved even without or are at one section of the stream tube to the
without friction in a flow? same quantities at any other section.
• Yes, the mass is being conserved • Continuity Equation for steady fluid
flow
5. The momentum equation for an inviscid
flow is also known as. 14. Write the continuity equation(formula)
• Euler’s Equation relating 2 points A and B
𝛒𝑨 𝑨𝑨 𝑽𝑨 = 𝛒𝑩 𝑨𝑩 𝑽𝑩
6. What Newton’s law will derive the
momentum equation for an inviscid flow. 15. What are the 2 classes of aerodynamic
• Newton's second law flow? Define Each
• Compressible flow – flow in which
7. What principle derive the energy equation the density of the fluid elements
for a flow? from point to point.
• Principle of conservation of energy. • Incompressible flow – flow in which
the density of the fluid elements is
8. What is a boundary layer? always constant.
• The region of flow immediately
adjacent to a solid surface, where 16. An equation that relates rate of change of
friction is particularly dominant. momentum to force. Another term for
• momentum equation.
9. Sketch the boundary layer. • dp = -ρV dV, Euler’s equation

17. Write the Bernoulli’s equation(formula)

relating points A and B
𝑽𝟐𝑩 𝑽𝟐𝑨
𝑷𝑩 + 𝛒 = 𝑷𝑨 + 𝛒
𝟐 𝟐
18. What are the 4 points to know in using 25. This equation relates the temperature and
Bernoulli’s equation? velocity at two different points along a
streamline.
1) Equations (4.9a) & (4.9b) hold only 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐𝟏 = 𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟐 + 𝑽𝟐𝟐
for inviscid, incompressible flow 𝟐 𝟐
2) Equations (4.9a) & (4.9b) relate 𝟏 𝟐
𝑪𝒑 𝑻 + 𝑽
properties between different points 𝟐
along a streamline
3) For a compressible flow. Eq. (4.8) NOTE
must be used with density treated as a Eq. 4.8, 4.9a & 4.9b
variable, Bernoulli’s equation must
not be used for a compressible flow 𝒅𝒑 = −𝛒𝐕 𝐝𝐕 (𝟒. 𝟖)
4) Eq. (4.8), (4.9a) & (4.9b) say that f = 𝑽𝟐𝑩 𝑽𝟐𝑨
ma for a fluid flow. They are 𝑷𝑩 + 𝛒 = 𝑷𝑨 + 𝛒 (𝟒. 𝟗𝐚)
𝟐 𝟐
essentially Newton’s second law 𝑽𝟐
applied to fluid dynamics. 𝒑+ 𝛒 (𝟒. 𝟗𝐛)
𝟐
19. This is the ratio of the flow of velocity to
the speed of sound.
• Mach number

20. The science of energy

• Thermodynamics

21. What is an Isentropic process?

• Is a process that is both adiabatic and
reversible

22. An adiabatic process is one of in which

no heat is added or taken away: δq=0

23. A reversible process is one which no

frictional or other dissipative effects occur.

24. What is the isentropic flow

relationship(formula) for pressure, density
and temperature.
𝒚
𝑷𝟐 𝛒𝟐 𝒚 𝑻𝟐 𝒚−𝟏
=( ) = ( )
𝑷𝟏 𝛒𝟏 𝑻𝟏