KEY CONCEPTS IN STYLISTICS

KEY CONCEPTS IN STYLISTICS

INTRODUCTION

Stylistics has always caused controversy: there are those who deny its usefulness,
and those from whom it is an essential branch of applied linguistics. This is partly because it
has proved notoriously difficult to define, since it functions as an umbrella term, covering a
range of different stylistic approaches to the study of texts. A further difficulty is that although
stylistic analysis originated as a way of applying linguistic models to literary texts, it has
become clear that such models can be applied to the analysis of any type of text: to non-
literary registers as well as the literary. Consequently the range of texts with which stylistics
concerns itself has extended from which stylistic theory and practice draws is no longer
limited to linguistics, as was the case at its inception, but also includes pragmatics, literary
theory, psychology, and social theory. What draws all these different aspects of stylistics
together, though, is the centrality of the language of the text – be it poem, advert or E-text –
to the consideration of its possible interpretations.

WHAT IS STYLISTICS?

In recognition of the difficulties in defining precisely what constitutes stylistics, many

textbooks in the field begin with an attempt at definition. One such definition
(Thornborrow & Wareing, 1998,p.4) identifies three aspects of stylistics. These are:

1. the use of linguistic (the study of language) to approach literary texts;

2. the discussion of texts according to objective criteria rather than according to purely
subjective and impressionistic values; and
3. an emphasis on the aesthetic properties of language (for example, the way rhyme can
give pleasure).

Stylistics, in a simple sense, refers to the study of style and pattern of use by a writer or
a speaker. It is the identification of patterns of usage in speech and writing. According to
Ogunsiji, “ Stylistics is also defined as a study of the different styles that are present in
either a given utterance or a written text or document.” It is a term mostly associated with
the literary genre but modern linguistic exercises have clearly shown that there is much
of stylistic analysis to be done on non-literary texts as is done in literary texts.

Stylistics primarily attempts to explain the principles that informed the choices made by
communicators which clearly manifests in their use of language. This is skillfully
unraveled by the reader or writer by studying the style of the initiator of the
communication (writer or speaker).

Stylistics is the study of the devices in languages (such as rhetorical figures and
syntactical patterns) that are considered to produce expressive or literary style.

Stylistics is the description and analysis of the variability of linguistic forms in actual
language use. The concept of style and stylistic variation in language rest on the general
assumption that within the language system, the same content can be encoded in more
than one linguistic form.

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Stylistics is linguistic branch that is immediately relevant to foreign language teaching.

This applies to both linguistic and literary stylistics. Language learners must know which
linguistic devices are preferred by native speakers in specific context.

It is a branch of applied linguistics, is the study and interpretation of texts of all types
and/or spoken language in regard to their linguistic and tonal style, where style is the
particular variety of language used by different individuals and/or in different situations or
settings. For example, the vernacular, or everyday language may be used among casual
friends, whereas more formal language, with respect to grammar, pronunciation or
accent, and lexicon or choice of words, is often used in a cover letter and resumé and
while speaking during a job interview.

As a discipline, stylistics link literary criticism to linguistics. It does not function as an

autonomous domain on its own, and it can be applied to an understanding
of literature and journalism as well as linguistics. Sources of study in stylistics may range
from canonical works of writing to popular texts, and from advertising copy to news, non-
fiction, and popular culture, as well as to political and religious discourse

NATURE OF STYLISTICS

Stylistics is a borderline discipline between language and literature. This is because it

focuses on language use in both literary and non-literary text.
Stylistics, like Discourse, is multidisciplinary in nature, even though it has its own
focus. It draws insights from disciplines such as Literature, Psychology, sociology,
philosophy, and so on.
Majorly, stylistics is the study of style of a text. It looks at style in so many
dimensions.

TWO CATAEGORIES OF STYLISTICS

1. Literary Stylistics – It is done on the purpose of commenting on the quality of a text. It also
assists in understanding the meaning of a text. In literary stylistics one goes ahead to give
additional information that will assist in understanding the text.
2. Linguistic Stylistics – deals with identification of language patterns in written text and
spoken. Here the question of why particularly elements of language have been used arises.

THE PURPOSE OF STYLISTICS

Why should we do stylistics?

To do stylistics is to explore language, and, more specifically, to explore creativity in

language use. Doing stylistics thereby enriches our ways of thinking about language and, as
observed, exploring language offers a substantial purchase on our understanding of (literary)
texts. With the full array of language models at our disposal, an inherently illuminating
method of analytic inquiry presents itself.

Interest in language is always at the fore in contemporary stylistic analysis which is

why you should never undertake to do stylistics unless you are interested in language.

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Three Basic Principles of Stylistics

1. Stylistic analysis should be rigorous - means that it should be based on an explicit

framework of analysis. Stylistic analysis is not the end-product of a disorganised
sequence of ad hoc and impressionistic comments, but is instead underpinned by
structured models of language and discourse that explain how we process and
understand various patterns in language.
2. Stylistic analysis should be retrievable - means that the analysis is organized through
explicit terms and criteria, the meanings of which are agreed upon by other students
of stylistics.
3. Stylistic analysis should be replicable - does not mean that we should all try to copy
each others’ work. It simply means that the methods should be sufficiently
transparent as to allow other stylisticians to verify them, either by testing them on the
same text or by applying them beyond that text. The conclusions reached are
principled if the pathway followed by the analysis is accessible and replicable. To this
extent, it has become an important axiom of stylistics that it seeks to distance itself
from work that proceeds solely from untested or untestable intuition.

THE CONCEPT OF STYLE

Stylistics, a yoking of style and linguistics, is a discipline which has been approached
from many perspectives. Its meaning varies, based on the theory that is adopted. When we
carry out the different activities that are connected to our area of business, either in spoken
or written forms, we often use devices of thought and the rules of language, but there are
variations so as to change meanings or say the same thing in different ways. This is what
the concept of style is based upon: the use of language in different ways, all for the purpose
of achieving a common goal - to negotiate meanings.

Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts in regard to their linguistic and tonal
style. As a discipline, it links literary criticism to linguistics. It does not function as an
autonomous domain on its own, but it can be applied to an understanding
of literature and journalism as well as linguistics. Sources of study in stylistics may range
from canonical works of writing to popular texts, and from advertising copy to news, non-
fiction, and popular culture, as well as to political and religious discourse.

Stylistics as a conceptual discipline may attempt to establish principles capable of

explaining particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language,
such as in the literary production and reception of genre, the study of folk art, in the study of
spoken dialects and registers, and can be applied to areas such as discourse analysis as
well as literary criticism.

Common features of style include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and
individual dialects (or ideolects), the use of grammar, such as the observation of active
voice and passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language
registers, and so on. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine
the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language.
Therefore, stylistics looks at what is 'going on' within the language; what the linguistic
associations are that the style of language reveals.

Stylistics is a broad term that has assumed different meanings from different
linguistic scholars. But it can simply be said to be the study of style. Style on its own as
defined by Lucas (1955:9) is: the effective use of language, especially in prose, whether to
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make statements or to rouse emotions. It involves first of all the power to put fact with clarity
and brevity.

The term is applied to the realm of linguistics and literary science which studies
peculiarities of a writer individual manner of using language means to achieve his goals of
influencing the reader.

The term “STYLE” originated from the Latin “stilus” which means a pen used by the
Romans for writing on wax, tablets. In the course of time it developed several meanings,
each one applied to a specific study of language elements and their use in speech.

Prof. Galperin defines INDIVIDUAL STYLE as a unique combination of language

units, expressive means and stylistic peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer’s
works or even utterances easily recognizable.

Saussure’s disciple Charles Bally modeled his ideas of style on a structural

conception of language and started that branch of general linguistics which is sometimes
called linguostylistics.

Style has also been defined as the description and analysis of the variability forms of
linguistic items in actual language use. Leech (1969: 14) quotes Aristotle as saying that “the
most effective means of achieving both clarity and diction and a certain dignity is the use of
altered from of words.”

Stylistics is also defined as a study of the different styles that are present in either a
given utterance or a written text or document. The consistent appearance of certain
structures, items and elements in a speech, an utterance or in a given text is one of the
major concerns of Stylistics. Stylistics requires the use of traditional levels of linguistic
description such as sounds, form, structure and meaning. It then follows that the consistent
appearance of certain structures, items and elements in speech utterances or in a given text
is one of the major concerns of stylistics. Linguistic Stylistic studies are concerned with the
varieties of language and the exploration of some of the formal linguistic features which
characterize them. The essence and the usefulness of stylistics is that it enables the
immediate understanding of utterances and texts, thereby maximizing our enjoyment of the
texts.

The concepts of style and stylistic variation in language are based on the general
notion that within the language system, the content can be encoded in more than one
linguistic form. Thus, it is possible for it to operate at all linguistic levels such as
phonological, lexical and syntactic. Therefore, style may be regarded as a choice of linguistic
means, as deviation from the norms of language use, as recurrent features of linguistic
forms and as comparisons. Stylistics deals with a wide range of language varieties and
styles that that are possible in creating different texts, whether spoken or written, monologue
or dialogue, formal or informal, scientific or religious etc.

Again, stylistics is concerned with the study of the language of literature or the study
of the language habits of particular authors and their writing patterns. From the foregoing,
stylistics can be said to be the techniques of explication which allows us to define objectively
what an author has done, (linguistic or non-linguistic), in his use of language.

The main aim of stylistics is to enable us understand the intent of the author in the
manner the information has been passed across by the author or writer. Therefore, stylistics
is concerned with the examination of grammar, lexis, semantics as well as phonological
properties and discursive devices. Stylistics is more interested in the significance of function
that the chosen style fulfils.

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The analysis of literary style goes back to the study of classical rhetoric, though
modern stylistics has its roots in Russian Formalism and the related Prague School of the
early twentieth century.

In 1909, Charles Bally's Traité de stylistique française had proposed stylistics as a

distinct academic discipline to complement Saussurean linguistics. For Bally, Saussure's
linguistics by itself couldn't fully describe the language of personal expression. Bally's
programme fitted well with the aims of the Prague School.

Taking forward the ideas of the Russian Formalists, the Prague School built on the
concept of foregrounding, where it is assumed that poetic language is considered to stand
apart from non-literary background language, by means of deviation (from the norms of
everyday language) or parallelism. According to the Prague School, however, this
background language isn't constant, and the relationship between poetic and everyday
language is therefore always shifting.

Roman Jakobson had been an active member of the Russian Formalists and the
Prague School, before emigrating to America in the 1940s. He brought together Russian
Formalism and American New Criticism in his Closing Statement at a conference on
stylistics at Indiana University in 1958. Published as Linguistics and Poetics in 1960,
Jakobson's lecture is often credited with being the first coherent formulation of stylistics, and
his argument was that the study of poetic language should be a sub-branch of linguistics.
The poetic function was one of six general functions of language he described in the lecture.

Michael Halliday is an important figure in the development of British stylistics. His

1971 study Linguistic Function and Literary Style: An Inquiry into the Language of William
Golding's The Inheritors is a key essay. One of Halliday's contributions has been the use of
the term register to explain the connections between language and its context. For Halliday
register is distinct from dialect. Dialect refers to the habitual language of a particular user in a
specific geographical or social context. Register describes the choices made by the
user, choices which depend on three variables: field ("what the participants... are actually
engaged in doing", for instance, discussing a specific subject or topic), tenor (who is taking
part in the exchange) and mode (the use to which the language is being put).

Fowler comments that different fields produce different language, most obviously at
the level of vocabulary (Fowler. 1996, 192) The linguist David Crystal points out that
Halliday's 'tenor' stands as a roughly equivalent term for ‘style’, which is a more specific
alternative used by linguists to avoid ambiguity. (Crystal. 1985, 292) Halliday’s third
category, mode, is what he refers to as the symbolic organisation of the situation. Downes
recognises two distinct aspects within the category of mode and suggests that not only does
it describe the relation to the medium: written, spoken, and so on, but also describes
the genre of the text. (Downes. 1998, 316) Halliday refers to genre as pre-coded language,
language that has not simply been used before, but that predetermines the selection of
textual meanings. The linguist William Downes makes the point that the principal
characteristic of register, no matter how peculiar or diverse, is that it is obvious and
immediately recognisable. (Downes. 1998, 309)

Style as Choice

While examining the concept stylistics, it is equally essential to give attention to the notion of
choice. Choice is a very vital instrument of stylistics since it deals with the variations and the
options that are available to an author. Since language provides its users with more than one
choice in a given situation, there are different choices available to the writer in a given text.
This then depends on the situation and genre the writer chooses in expressing thoughts and

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opinions. Traugott and Pratt (1980: 29 – 30) clarify the connection between language and
choice as the characteristic choices exhibited in a text.

With the writer’s choice, there is a reflection of his ego and the social condition of his
environment. In determining the appropriate choice of linguistic elements, two important
choice planes are open to the writer: the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic. The
paradigmatic axis is also referred to as the vertical or choice axis while the syntagmatic is
the horizontal axis. The vertical axis gives a variety of choices between one item and other
items; the writer then chooses the most appropriate word. Thus, the paradigmatic axis is
able to account for the given fillers that occupy a particular slot while still maintaining the
structure of the sentence. At the paradigmatic level, for example, a writer or speaker can
choose between “start” and “commence”, “go” and “proceed.”

Style as the Man

This is based on the notion that every individual has his or her own unique way of doing
things and that no two persons are of exactly the same character. There are always
distinctive features that distinguish one person from the other; thus in literary style, one is
able to differentiate between the writings of Soyinka and Achebe, based on their use of
language, among other things. A person’s style may also be shaped by his social and
political background, religious inclination, culture, education, geographical location, etc.
Simply put, the notion of style as the man sees style as an index of personality. But this
perspective is not without its own problems. For example, one may exhibit different styles on
different occasions; when this happens, do we say the writer has different personalities?

Style as Deviation

When an idea is presented in a way that is different from the expected way, then we say
such a manner of carrying it out has deviated from the norm. The concept of style as
deviation is based on the notion that there are rules, conventions and regulations that guide
the different activities that must be executed. Thus, when these conventions are not
complied with, there is deviation. Deviation in stylistics is concerned with the use of different
styles from the expected norm of language use in a given genre of writing. It is a departure
from what is taken as the common practice. Language deviation refers to an intentional
selection or choice of language use outside of the range of normal language. Language is a
system organized in an organic structure by rules and it provides all the rules for its use such
as phonetic, grammatical, lexical, etc. Thus, any piece of writing or material that has
intentionally jettisoned the rules of language in some way is said to have deviated. Stylistics
helps to identify how and why a text has deviated. Trangott and Pratt (1980: 31) believe that
the idea of style as deviance is favoured by the “generative frame of reference.” It is an old
concept which stems from the work of such scholars as Jan Mukarovsky. Mukarovsky
relates style to foregrounding and says that “the violation of the norm of the standard… is
what makes possible the poetic utilization of language” (see Traugott and Pratt 1980: 31).

Deviation may occur at any level of language description e.g. phonological, graphological,
syntactic, lexico-semantic, etc. At the graphological level, for example, we may see capital
letters where they are not supposed to be. At the syntactic level, subject and verb may not
agree in number. Or the normal order of the clause elements may not be observed e.g.
Adjunct may come before the subject. At the lexico-semantic level, words that should not go
together may be deliberately brought together. e.g. “dangerous safety,” “open secret.”

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Style as Conformity

Style as conformity can be seen as the first available option for a writer to express himself.
This is so because virtually all possible fields that a written material can belong to have been
established. Any style that is distinct is so as a result of deviation. In fact, it is on the notion
of “style as conformity” that the idea of “style as choice” operates and then results in or
brings out the possibility of style as deviation. That is, a writer needs, first of all, to decide
whether to conform with the established style or to deviate. It is not in all situations that a
writer enjoys flexibility to deviate. Style as conformity is often “strictly enforced” in certain
fields or circumstances. This is often in academic/educational field as regard students’
research projects. It is also found so in some professional writings, where a considerable
conformity to the established format or diction is expected for a text to earn acceptability.

One major weakness of conformity to the established style is that it clips creativity. But the
moment a text accommodates or injects some creativity in the style, it becomes marked as
deviation from the norm.

Style as Period or Time

Style may also relate to time/period. This is so because language is dynamic – it is always
changing. This becomes obvious when we look at the stages in the development of the
English language e.g. Old English, Middle English and Modern English. When we look at a
script in Old English now, it will seem as if it were written in a different language because of
the differences in syntax, vocabulary, spelling, etc. Even within the so-called Modern
English, there are variations. The type of English we use today is different from
Shakespearean English in many ways. So, since language changes along time axis, style is
also expected to vary along the same axis. The study of language along time axis is termed
diachronic linguistics. You may compare diachronic linguistics with synchronic linguistics
which deals with the study of language at a particular time/period. The style of any given
period has recognizably predominant features that make such a period distinct. A period
usually dictates the style employed by the writers. For example, Shakespeare and his
contemporaries used a particular style of writing i.e. writing in verses. It was not until Herik
Ibsen came up with plays in the prose form that the previous style was abandoned. Similarly,
the Victorian, Elizabethan, Renaissance and even the modern periods all have peculiar
styles different from another. In a nutshell, the noticeable convention and pattern of
language use that inform the urge of a particular period, make the style of that period.

Style as Situation

Usually, language is used according to situation or circumstance. It is the context that

determines language choice in speaking or writing. Certain words are appropriate for certain
occasions, while some are considered taboo, vulgar or abominable.

Consequently, a given situation has a great influence on the choice made at every level of
language description. The concept of register further buttresses this point. For example,
registers as aspect of style tend to be associated with particular groups of people or
sometimes specific situations of use (Journalese, Legalese, Liturgese, Babytalk, the
language of Sport Commentaries), the language of criminals –argot, the languages of the
courtroom, the classroom, etc). We shall say more about register, later in this course.

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Examples

Stylistic study helps cultivate a sense of appropriateness. First, a certain style is determined
by the characteristics of the USER of language, such as the age, sex, education, socio-
regional or ethnic background.

Second, it’s related to the characteristics of the USE of language in situation:

 # role-relationship between addresser and addressee (degree of intimacy)

 # medium of communication (speech or writing)
 # setting: private or public
 # purpose for which language is used (to inform, persuade…)

For instance:

(1)

Dear Sir,

I must apologize for the delay in replying to your letter of the 30th of December…

(2)

Dear Jane,

I’m terribly sorry not to have got round to writing before now …

1. Now allow me to propose a toast to the friendship between …

2. Here’s to the health of our friends!
3. Cheers!
4. Bottoms up!

 When his dad died, Peter had to get another job.

 After his father’s death, Peter had to change his job.

 On the decease of his father, Mr. Brown was obliged to seek alternative employment.

Stylistic study helps achieve adaptation in translation.

For instance,

1. Whoever tries to twist you up, may the end of his nose take a twist.

2. He said to his little son, “At that time, I was so fatigued after a day’s drudgery that I found
it very hard to mount the kang. My whole frame aching acutely, I couldn’t go to sleep
however hard I tried.”

3. He said to his little son, “ In those days, I was usually so done up after a day’s hard
work that I could hardly get on the kang. As my whole body ached like anything, I simply
couldn’t get to sleep even I tried to.

4. It has been noted with concern that the stock of books in the library has been declining
alarmingly. Students are requested to remind themselves of the rules of the borrowing and

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returning of books, and to bear in mind the needs of other students. Penalties for overdue
book will in the future be strictly enforced.

5. The number of books in the library has been going down. Please make sure you know the
rules for borrowing, and don’t forget that the library is for everyone’s convenience. So from
now on, we’re going to enforce the rules strictly. You have been warned!

6. Although learning is judged to require from teachers (and sometimes indeed it does),
real instructors may be found not so much in school or in great laboratories as in the
student’s powers of insight.

7. We think we learn from teachers, and we sometimes do. But teachers are not always be
found in school or in great laboratories. Sometimes what we learn depends upon our own
powers of insight.

8. You know, people are always saying they learn from teachers! Ok, so they do,
sometimes. But what I want to get across is this: you don’t always find your teachers in
schools or in labs, either. No sir! Sometimes you find the teacher right in your own eyes and
ears and brains. That’s where it’s at!

CONCLUSION

From the above, it becomes clear that the study of style is the preoccupation of stylistics.
Stylistics itself can be approached from different perspectives. The basic objective of
stylistics is to reveal how language is used to express what it expresses in a given text.

SUMMARY

Stylistics is an important area of linguistics which has attracted the attention of many
scholars. Apart from its academic relevance, stylistics is applicable in many other areas of
human endeavors where language is used. As a student, of stylistics you should pay close
attention to how language is used in any text. We have focused in this unit on some popular
perspectives on style, namely, style as choice, style as the man, style as deviation, style as
conformity and style as time/period.

ACTIVITY 1
INFOGRAPHICS

Make an infographic of the key concepts of stylistics.

ACTIVITY 2
ESSAY

Choose one sample of a text and discuss the style used by the author (style as choice, style
as the man, style as deviation, style as conformity, style as period/ time, and style as
situation).

BSEE 110 Stylistics and Discourse Analysis