ADENTALTHERAPYPROFESSI

ONALREVI
SIONNOTECOMPI
LEDBY
COMRSIMONU.

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monor@Si
monymobi
l
eDent
alCl
i
nic

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MONYWI
SHYOUTHEBESTOFLUCK.
What
sApp@07062204727.

SOMEOFTHECOURSESTOSTUDYARE;

DENTALRADI
OGRAPHY

DENTALEMERGENCY

DENTALMATERI
ALS&I
NSTRUMENTATI
ON

TOOTHMORPHOLOGY.

ORALPHYSI
OLOGY

DENTALTHERAPI
STETHI
CS

ORALHYGI
ENE

ABOUTDENTALTHERAPI
STBOARDANDASSOCI
ATI
ON

HEADANDNECKANATOMY

PHARMACOLOGY

PRI
MARYHEALTHCARE

CLI
NICALPRACTI
CE
 DENTALRADI
OGRAPHY

WHATISARADIOGRAPH;t
hisi
sanimageonaf
il
m whi
chi
spr
oducedbyt
he
passageofanx-raythr
oughanobj
ect

Dentalr
adi
ology:t
hisisaspeci
alt
yindenti
stryt
hatdeal
swiththest
udyof
radi
ati
onanditsuseintheeval
uati
onofteeth,t
hei
rassoci
atestr
uct
ures,
faci
alandcr
anialbones

Dental
x-raywasdiscov
eredbyWi
l
hel
m Roent
gen,
Prof
essorofPhy
sicsi
n
Wurzburg,Bav
ari
a,1895.

Heobser
vedsomeunknownr
aysemanat
ingf
rom hi
scat
hodeRayt
ube
andnameditx-
ray
.

Thex-
rayi
sani
oni
zat
ionel
ect
romagnet
icr
adi
ati
on

Radiol
ucencyr
efer
stoasubst
ancet
hati
swhi
ti
shonanx-
rayf
il
m when
exposedtoanx-r
ay.

Hardt
issuest
hatarecal
cif
iedar
eknownt
oexhi
bitr
adi
olucency
.Egbone,
enamel,
cementum et
c

Radi
opaque:
Radiopaci
tyref
erst
othefactthatasubst
anceappear
sdar
k
onanx-r
ayfi
lm whenexposedtox-
rayradi
ati
on

Al
lsof
tti
ssuesoft
hebodyex
hibi
tradi
olucency
.

Lookupt
hemeani
ngofat
om,
prot
on,
neut
roni
oni
zat
ionandf
luor
escence
TYPESOFDENTALX-
RAYFI
LMS

I
ndent
ist
ry,
wehav
etwomaj
ort
ypesofx-
rayf
il
m

No1.I
ntr
a-or
alx-
rayf
il
m and

[Link]
ra-
oral
x-r
ayf
il
m

Basi
cal
l
y,t
her
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofi
ntr
a-or
alx-
rayf
il
m

[Link]
usal
x-r
ayf
il
m

[Link]
iapi
cal
x-r
ayf
il
m

[Link]
tewi
ngx-
rayf
il
m

WHATARETHEI
RUSES

No.
1Theocclusalx-
rayf
il
m exposesbot
htheupperandl
oweroccl
usal
sur
facesi
nonefil
m

NB:
iti
sdwi
destofal
ldi
ntr
a-or
alx-
rayf
il
ms.

No2per
iapi
cal
x-r
ayf
il
m

Thi
sf i
l
mi susedtoexposetheent
ir
elengt
hoft
het
eet
h,showi
ngt
he
per
iapical
area.
Itcov
ers2to3teet
hatat i
me

No3:
Bit
ewi
ngx-
rayf
il
m

Thisi
susedtovisual
i
zet
hecr
ownsoft
heopposi
ngt
eet
handt
hecr
est
al
areaoft
heteet
h.

I
tusuall
yhasaf l
apwhichmustbeli
ft
edupt
oexposethewi
ngonwhich
thepat
ientbi
teson.I
texposesdcr
ownsoft
heupperandl
owert
eet
[Link]
noteofthi
sforvi
vaquesti
on.

Theext
ra-
oralx-
rayfi
l
m usedi
ndent
ist
ryi
sbasi
cal
l
yknowast
he
par
onamicx-r
ayfil
ms.
CLASSI
FICATI
ON

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofx-
rayf
il
m basedonsi
ze

Her
ewehav
etwocl
assi
fi
cat
ion

[Link]
icx-
rayf
il
m and

[Link]
tx-
rayf
il
m

Act
ual
l
ythesi
zesi
ncl
ude:
sizes0,
1,2,
3,and4

Si
zes1-
3ar
eusedf
orchi
l
drenandadul
tsbutcanexposeonl
y2or1t
eet
h

Si
ze0i
sforchi
l
drenal
one

Whi
l
esi
ze4i
sforadul
ts

Thi
spar
ti
cul
arsi
zei
sthel
argestofal
landi
susedf
oroccl
usal
sur
faces

Weal
socl
assi
fyx-
rayf
il
msbasedonsensi
ti
vi
ty

Thatis,
thespeedatwhi
cht
hef
il
m canpr
oducer
adi
ogr
aphwhenexposed
tothex-r
ay

Now,
wehav
espeedA-
F

SpeedA-
Car
eKnowassl
owspeedf
il
ms

Whi
l
espeedD-
Far
efastspeedf
il
ms

NB;sl
owspeedfi
l
msexposespat
ient
sandtheoper
atoroft
hex-
rayt
ohi
gh
doseofr
adi
ati
onduet
omor et
imeofexposur
e

Butthef
astspeedf
il
msr
espondf
ast
ert
other
adi
ati
onandposesl
ess
dangert
otheuser

FI
LM SENSI
TIVI
[Link]
ear
ethr
eef
act
orst
hatdet
ermi
net
hesensi
ti
vi
tyof
afi
lm

[Link]
zeofdsi
l
verhal
i
decr
yst
al,
thel
argert
hesi
zeofsi
l
verhal
i
decr
yst
al,
t
hef
ast
ert
hef
il
m,

[Link]
cknessoft
heemul
sion,
thet
hickert
heemul
si
on,
thef
ast
ert
he
f
il
m,

[Link]
r adi
osensi
ti
vedye;
usual
ly,
manuf
act
urer
saddsomedy
eto
f
astenorincreasethespeedoftheFi
l
ms.

I
mpor
tanceofDent
alr
adi
ology
.

[Link]
epat
ient
saboutt
hei
rdent
alheal
th

[Link]
ect
,conf
ir
m andcl
assi
fydxsandl
esi
ons

[Link]
aluat
egr
owt
handdev
elopment

[Link]
ectmi
ssi
ngorext
rat
eet
h

[Link]
alcondi
ti
onsofapat
ient(
medi
cal
recor
ds)
PROPERTIESOFX-RAYS

[Link]
einv
isi
ble,

2.X-
ray
str
avel
inst
rai
ghtl
i
nes,

[Link]
rav
elatt
hespeedofl
i
ght
,

[Link]
enomassorwei
ght
,

[Link]
enochar
ge,

[Link]
nter
actwi
thmat
tercausi
ngi
oni
zat
ion

X-
ray
scanaf
fectphot
ogr
aphi
cemul
sion,

X-
ray
scanpenet
rat
eopaquet
issuesandst
ruct
ures,

Fi
nal
l
y,x-
ray
scanaf
fectbi
ologi
cal
tissues(
Mut
ati
ons)
 PROTECTI
VEMEASURESYOUCANADOPTTOPROTECTYOURSELF
DURI
NGX-RAYUSAGE/
EXPOSURE

[Link]
ethef
il
myouar
eusi
ngi
snotexpi
redt
oav
oidr
epeat
ingi
t,

[Link]
dthex-
rayf
il
mint
hepat
ientmout
hbyy
our
sel
f,t
hepat
ient
shoul
ddothat,

[Link]
rectt
heconet
otheappr
opr
iat
eteet
htoav
oidr
epeat
ingi
t

[Link]
ayatleast6f
eet'
sawayf
rom t
hepat
ientb4y
oupr
esst
heknoboft
he
machinef
orexposur
e

[Link]
htheoper
atoranddpat
ientshoul
dwearal
eadapr
onf
orpr
otect
ion

FI
RSTAI
DANDDENTALEMERGENCY.

Fi
rstAi
disahumanitar
iancar
e,t
reat
mentorassi
stancewegivetoan
i
njur
edpersonbef
orerushi
ngper
sontothehospi
talortoaheal
th
pr
ofessi
onal.

I
t'
sthef
ir
sttempor
aryt
reat
mentav
ict
im ofacci
dentr
ecei
vebef
oregoi
ng
t
othehospi
tal
.

TheAi
m ofFi
rstAi
d

*
Tosav
eli
fe

*Topr
eventf
urt
heri
njur
y

*
Toav
oidcompl
i
cat
ions

*Tomi
nimi
zet
her
iskofi
nfect
ion

*
Toav
oidexcessi
vel
ossofbl
oodet
c.

THEFI
RSTAI
DBOX
Fir
stAidboxi
saboxt
hatcont
ainsessent
ial
mat
eri
alst
hatcanbeusedt
o
renderf
ir
stai
d.

Fi
rstAi
dBoxCont
ent
.

Thef
ir
stai
dboxi
smadeupoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcont
ent
s;

Dr
essi
ngMat
eri
[Link],
guaze,
cot
tonwool
,pl
ast
er

Pr
otect
iveMat
eri
als;
[Link]
acemask,
handgl
oves,
faceshi
eld

Dr
ugs;
par
acet
amol
,met
hyl
atedspi
ri
t,i
odi
ne,
glucose,
inhal
erv
itami
nc
et
c

Wr
it
ingMat
eri
als;
penandpaper

Rul
esoff
ir
stai
der

Mov
eacasual
tyonl
yifi
t'
snecessar
y

Ensur
eyoursaf
etyandt
hatt
hesaf
etyoft
hev
ict
im

Gi
vet
hesi
tuat
ionofi
njur
ytot
hepat
ientf
orbet
tercooper
ati
on

Ensur
eyouusecor
rectl
i
fti
ngwhenhandl
i
ngacasual
ty

Qual
i
tiesofagoodf
ir
stai
der

Goodknowl
edgeofAnat
omy

*
Empat
het
ic

*
Obser
vant

*
Tol
erance

*
Smar
tandAgi
l
e
*
Conf
idenceet
c.

Agoodf
ir
stai
dermustal
sohav
eagoodknowl
edgeofv
ital
signs.

Whati
svi
tal
signst
hen?

Vi
talsi
gnscanbedefi
neasthebasi
cmeasur
ementofbodymetabol
i
sm
whichhel
psustocheckandmonit
oraper
son'
sst
ateofheal
th.

Fact
orst
hataf
fect
svi
tal
signsi
ncl
udes;

Age

Env
ironment
alt
emper
atur
e

Bodybui
l
dup(
fat
,sl
i
m)

Thest
ateofheal
thofaper
son

Ti
meoft
heday

Thef
ourmostbasi
cvi
tal
signswehav
eincl
udes;

*
Temper
atur
e

*
Pul
ser
ate

*
Respi
rat
oryr
ate

*
Bloodpr
essur
e

Temperat
urei
sthedegr
eeofhotnessorcoldnessoft
hebody
.Thenor
mal
bodyt
emperat
ureis36.
5°c-
37.
2°cor97.8°
F-99° F

C-Cel
cus

F-Fer
inhei
ght

PulseRatei
sameasur
ementoft
henumberoft
imet
hehear
tbeat
sper
minute.
Respi
rat
oryRat
eist
henumberofbr
eat
haper
sont
akespermi
nut
e.

Thenor
mal
pul
ser
atei
s60-90beat
spermi
nut
e.

Whi
l
ethenor
mal
respi
rat
oryr
atei
s12-16beat
spermi
nut
e.

Bl
oodPr
essur
e

Bl
oodpressur
eist
hemeasur
ement
sofhowt
hehear
tpumpsbl
oodper
minut
e.

Wehav
esy
stol
i
cpr
essur
eanddi
ast
oli
cpr
essur
e.

Syst
oli
cpressureisthepressureinsidetheart
erywhent hehear
tcontr
act
andpumpbl oodwhileDiastol
icpressureisthepressur
eofthearter
ywhen
thehear
tisatrestandbloodisf i
l
lingup.

Thecor
rectbl
oodpr
essur
eofanor
mal
per
soni
s120/
80bpm.

120i
sthesy
stol
i
cpr
essur
ewhi
l
e80i
sthedi
ast
oli
cpr
essur
e.

Quest
ion6.
[Link]
rstai
disf
ir
stski
l
ledassi
stancegi
vent
oacasual
tywi
tht
heuseof
avai
labl
emateri
alsbef
oret
hear
ri
val
ofaphy
sici
anofbef
oret
aki
ngt
he
casualt
ytohospi
tal
.

[Link]
dinal
signsoff
aint
ing(
syncope)
..

[Link]
ousness

[Link],
slowpul
se

[Link]
l
owbr
eat
hing

[Link]
esdi
l
ati
ng.
.

[Link]
lept
icFir
stAidint
heDent
alOf
fi
ce•I
fasei
zur
eoccur
swhi
l
eapat
ient
i
sinthedentalchai
r.
[Link]
earal
li
nst
rument
sawayf
rom t
hepat
ient
.

•[Link]
chai
rinasupported,
supi
neposi t
ionasneartothe
fl
ooraspossibl
e.•[Link]
acethepati
entonhisorherside(todecr
easethe
chanceofaspir
ati
onofsecret
ionsordent
almateri
alsinthepati
ent
’s
mouth).

•[Link]
est
rai
nthepat
ient
.•[Link]
ourf
inger
sinhi
sorher
mouth(y
oumightbebi
tt
en).

•[Link]
methesei
zur
e(t
hedur
ati
onoft
heev
entmayseem l
ongert
hani
t
act
ual
lyi
s).

[Link]
lemer
gencyl
i
ne.

•[Link]
nist
eroxy
genatar
ateof6–8L/
minut
e.

•[Link]
heseizur
elastslongerthan5minut
eorforr
epeatedseizur
es,
admini
stera10-
mgdoseofdi azepam i
ntr
amuscul
arl
y(I
M)ori ntr
avenousl
y
(I
V),
or2mgofat ivan,I
VorI M,or5mgofmi d-
azol
am, I
M orIV.32,
33

•[Link]
eoft
hepossi
bil
i
tyofcompr
omi
sedai
rwayoruncont
rol
l
abl
e
sei
zure.

[Link]
shaemor
rhage?

anescapeofbl
oodf
rom ar
upt
uredbl
oodv
essel
.Inot
herwor
dsBl
eedi
ng.

DENTALEMERGENCY

Dent
alemergencyar
eemer gencycasesadent
alt
herapi
st/pr
ofessi
onal
mayencounteri
nthecauseofhispract
icei
nsi
dethedent
alcl
ini
c.

Suchemer
gencycasesi
ncl
udesbutnotl
i
mit
edt
othef
oll
owi
ng;

Shock

Sy
ncope
 Epi
l
ept
icpat
ient

Ast
hmat
icpat
ient

Asphy
xiat
ion

Bl
eedi
nget
c.

Shockcanbedef
inedasfai
lur
eofthecar
diov
ascul
arsy
stem t
odel
i
ver
enoughbl
oodtothebodyti
ssues.

suchsi
tuat
ionoccur
,thev
ict
iml
osesconsci
ousnessi
naf
lash.

Wehav
eaboutf
ourt
ypesofshockwhi
chi
ncl
udesm

*
Hypov
olami
cshock

*
Car
diogeni
cshock

*
Dist
ri
but
iveshockand

*
Obst
ruct
iveshock

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofshock.

Feel
i
ngt
hir
sty

Pal
enessoft
heey
es

Hy
pot
ensi
on

Gr
adual
lossofconsci
ousness

Dr
owsi
ness

Feel
i
ngcol
d.

Wheny
oumeetashockepi
sodei
nthecl
i
nic;

Fi
rst
-st
opwor
kandf
indt
hecauseoft
heshock
 El
evat
ethedentalchai
rst
orai
set
hel
owerl
i
mbsoft
hepat
ientsot
hat
bl
oodcanret
urntotheheart

Loseal
lti
ghtcl
othi
ng

Checkt
hev
ital
signs

Mov
ethev
ict
imt
othehospi
tal

Sy
ncope/Fant
ing

Thisisasuddenl
ossofconsci
ousnessduet
oinsuf
fi
ci
entbl
oodsuppl
ythe
vi
talorgans.

[Link]
veabr
iefhi
stor
yofdent
alt
her
apypr
ofessi
oni
nNi
ger
ia

[Link]
oundedt
hef
ir
stdent
alt
her
apyschool
inNi
ger
ia

[Link]
sadent
alt
her
api
st

[Link]
st5r
olesofadent
alt
her
api
st

[Link]
edoesadent
alt
her
api
stf
unct
ion

2aDef
inesi
mpl
etoot
hext
ract
ion

[Link]
ver
easonwhyt
oot
har
eext
ract
ed

[Link]
plai
npossi
blecausesofbl
eedi
nggum

[Link]
evi
tal
signs

[Link]
atet
hev
ital
signswi
tht
hev
alueofsi
gni
fi
cance

[Link]
sty
ourar
mament
ari
um f
orchecki
ngpat
ient
svi
tal
signs

[Link]
aint
hepr
ocedur
esf
orchecki
nganddet
ermi
ningbl
oodpr
essur
e

No.2si
mpl
etoot
hext
ract
ioni
sdr
emov
aloft
oot
hfr
m dsocketi
ndav
elor
bone.
b.r
easonsar
e:

[Link]

2.t
oot
htr
aumaaccompanywi
thpai
ns

3.
Toot
himpact
ioni
ncaseofper
icor
oni
ti
es

4.
toot
hcr
owded

[Link]
iodont
aldi
seases

1.
dent
alpl
aquei
mpact
ionatdguml
i
ne

2.l
eukaemi
a

[Link]
ngi
vi
ti
s/per
iodont
it
is

[Link]
it.
candv
it.
k

ot
hersy
stemi
cdxsuchD.
m orHI
VorHemophi
l
iadi
sor
der

Howcany
ouhandl
ethef
oll
owi
ngcasesonadent
alchai
r

i
.Pat
ientcompl
aini
ngofpai
naf
terext
ract
ion

i
i
.Anav
erageagedwomanwhohasanepi
l
ept
icat
tack

DENTALMATERI
AL

Thepur poseofcl i
nicalinstrument ationi stocreateanoralenv i
ronment
wher eperi
odont alhealthismai ntainedandt i
ssuescanr eturntoheal t
h.I
t
i
saccompl ishedbydebr i
dement( orscal i
ng)oft heteet
htor emov ehard
deposi t
stodi scour agedent albiofil
m( dentalplaque)at
tachment ,suchas
calculusand/ orstaindur inganor al prophy l
axisornonsurgicalperiodont
al
therapy(NSPT) , aswel lasper i
odont al maintenance( PM).Manual
i
nst r
ument s,power -dr
iveninstrument s,orcombi nati
onofthet wocanbe
usedt oeffectivelydebride( scale)thet eethandaccompl i
sht hi
sgoal .
Loupesandaheadl i
ghtareBOTHusef ulf
ori
mpr ovi
nginstr
umentat
ion.
Useoft hedental
endoscope(Peri
oscope)cr
eatesfurt
heroppor
tuni
tyfor
successfulNSPTorPM byofferi
ngatooltoaidindefi
nit
ive
i
nstrumentati
on.

GROUPI
NGSOFDENTALI
NSTRUMENTS.

[Link]
nat
ionset
s.

[Link]
s

[Link]
orat
ivei
nst
rument
s

[Link]
nisher
s

[Link]
ugger
s

[Link]
iodont
ali
nst
rument
s

[Link]
ost
hodont
ici
nst
rument
s

[Link]
ract
ionandsur
gical
inst
rument
s

[Link]
thodont
ici
nst
rument
s

[Link]
ici
nst
rument
s

[Link]
ract
ors

[Link]
anest
hesi
a

[Link]
alhandpi
eces

[Link]
all
aser

[Link]
alt
orquewr
enchEt
c

Mostofallasdent
alt
her
api
stwehav
ethesi
mpl
escal
erswhi
chwear
eal
l
conv
ersantwit
h.

Thescal
ari
spr
imar
il
yusedt
oscr
apesol
i
dif
iedpl
aqueandt
art
erof
fthe
surf
acesoftheteethbot
habov eandbel
owthegum l
i
[Link]
onal
l
y,the
scal
arisusedtoscrapeoffexcessiv
egluef
rom cr
ownsorseal
antmateri
al
fr
om theappli
cati
onofsealants.

Somequesti
onst
haty
oumi
ghtaski
nor
dert
odet
ermi
newhati
nst
rument
tosel
ectwoul
dbe:

[Link]
ypeofblade(
shape,
thickness,
lengt
h)doIneedt
oaccesst
he
sur
facet
hatneedstobedebr
ided?

[Link]
ypeofshankf
lexi
bil
i
tydoIneedi
nor
dert
oadaptt
hecut
ti
ngedge
tot
hesurf
ace?

[Link]
peofst
rokeswil
lIbeusingandcanthebl
adeaccommodat
eme
wit
hthosety
pesofstr
okes(heav
y,li
ght
,et
c.)
?

[Link]
eat
echal
lengest
hatcanbeaddr
essedbyaparti
cular
i
nstrument(
suchasmaxi
ll
ary3rdmolari
napati
entt
hatcannotopen
widely
)?

[Link],asacli
nician,
haveanyspecialcomfor
tneeds(suchasuseof
ext
ra-
oral
fulcr
ums, comfor
tgri
pont heinstr
umenthandl
es,etc.

POSI
TI NG.
ONI

Thecor r
ectposit
ioningofbothpati
entandcl i
nici
andur i
nginstrumentati
on
i
scr i
ti
caltolong-
term comf or
tandef f
ect
ivenessofcli
[Link]
accountergonomi c(
posture}pri
nci
plesandincorporat
ionofneut ral
posit
ioni
[Link] eventi
njurytopati
ent,i
nstr
ument sshouldnev erbe
passedov erthepati
ent’
sfaceorey es.

Adv
ant
agesofcor
rectpat
ientposi
ti
oni
ng:

1.I
mpr
ovesv
isi
bil
i
tyandaccesst
otr
eat
mentar
ea.

2.I
ncr
easest
reat
mentef
fi
ciency
.
3.I
ncr
easespat
ientcomf
ortdur
ingappoi
ntment
.

[Link]
i
nici
andi
scomf
ortandf
ati
gue.

[Link]
l
ityofoccupat
ional
inj
urysuchascumulati
vetr
auma
di
sorder(r
epeti
ti
vestrai
ninjur
y)t
oneck,shoulder
s,wr
ist
,hand.

Pr
inci
plesofpat
ientposi
ti
oni
ngf
ori
nst
rument
ati
on:

[Link]
cpositi
onusi
ngsupi
neposi
ti
onf
rom upr
ightposi
ti
onf
ori
nit
ial
pati
entseat
ing:

[Link]
rbacki
salmostparall
elt
ofl
oor
;par
all
elt
ofl
oorf
ormaxi
l
lar
yar
ch
andrai
sed20°f
ormandibularar
ch.

[Link]
enti
salmostpar
all
eltof
loor
;head,
hear
t,andfeetar
eat
approxi
matel
ysameheight;
pat
ienti
sNOTupright:

(1)Reducespossi
bil
it
ythatpat
ientcoul
dunder
gosyncope(fai
nti
ng)
,
especi
all
yduringi
nvasi
veproceduressuchasl
ocal
anesthet
ic
administ
rat
ion.

(2)Rel
ati
vecontrai
ndi
cati
on:congest
ivehear
tfai
l
ure,
sev
erebr
eat
hing
dif
fi
cul
ti
es,advancedpregnancy
,backinj
uri
es.

[Link]
ient
’sheadposi
ti
on:

[Link]
opofchai
rtopr
ovi
decl
i
nici
anaccesst
othe
mouth.

[Link]
i
gnedwi
tht
hespi
neandsuppor
tedbychai
r
andheadr
est
.

[Link]
ust
ment
stoi
mpr
ovev
isi
bil
i
tyandaccess:

[Link]
eat
mentofmaxi
l
lar
yar
ch:
(
1)ArchSHOULDbeposi
ti
onedsot
hatoccl
usal
planei
sper
pendi
cul
art
o
f
loor
.

(
2)Li
ghtposi
ti
onedov
erchest
;shi
nesi
ntomout
hatanangl
e.

Cumul
ati
vet
raumadi
sor
der
s(r
epet
it
ivest
rai
ninj
uri
es)
:

[Link]
njur
iesresul
ti
ngfrom t
heaccumul at
ionofchr
onicsmal
l
tr
aumast othesamear eaareapotenti
aloccupat
ionalhazar
dfordent
al
personnel
.

2.I
njuriestoneck,shoul
der
s,hand,wr
ist
,andbackhaveALLbeenrepor
ted
(e.
g.,carpalt
unnelsyndr
ome,entr
apmentofmediannerv
eincarpalt
unnel
l
eadingt opainandnumbness).

[Link]
event
ivebehav
ior
:

[Link]
ectbodymechani
csorer
gonomicconsi
der
ati
onsMUSTal
way
sbe
i
ncorporat
ed,usi
ngneut
ral
bodyposi
ti
ons.

[Link]
ti
oni
ngofpat
ientf
orcl
i
nici
an’
scomf
ortandaccess.

[Link]
umentat
iont
omi
nimi
zer
epet
it
iousmot
ions;
incl
udesusi
ng
sharpi
nstrument
s.

[Link]
yingt
heact
ivi
ti
esandposi
ti
onsdur
ingappoi
ntmentt
oal
ter
nat
e
muscl
esused.

Let
'
sal
ll
ookatt
hiscl
i
nical
study
.

Adentalhygienisti
sont hef i
rstdayofhi snewposi t
ionatal argedental
cl
ini
[Link] t
ion,hewast heonl ydental hygi
enistf
or
over10yearsatt hesamesmal ldentalpract
iceaftergraduatingtopofhis
cl
[Link] i
cest hathei sunabletoputhi sfeetont hefloor
whenhesi t
sont hestoolprovidedf [Link] sohast rouble
i
nstrumenti
ngt helowerar ch;itj
ustseemst hereisnotenoughov erhead
l
ight
,especiallyonthel
ingualoftheanteri
[Link] sowantstogetcloser
tohi
spatients; hehasf
orgott
enwhatt heef f
ectivedist
ancetoapatient’
s
[Link] heendofthedayhenot i
cest [Link] r
ied
aboutwhatt hismeanstohisfuturei
nhi sprofession.

[Link]
orsdoest
hedent
alhygieni
stneedt
oconsi
deri
nor
dert
o
di
scoverwhyheishav
ingabackache?

[Link]
dhehavedonet
ohel
pwithoverheadli
ght
ingdur
ing
i
nstr
umentat
ionoft
hemandi
bul
arar
ch,especial
l
ytheli
ngual
ofthe
ant
eri
ors?

[Link]
sthedi
stanceheshoul
dhavemai
ntai
nedtohi
spat
ient
’smout
hs?
Whatcanhedoifthi
sdist
anceseemst
oofaraway
?

4.I
fthi
ssit
uati
onconti
nuesformanyyear
swithoutanychangest
ohi
sway
ofpr
acti
ce,whatcoul
dtheoutcomebeforhi
m

Hoescal
er7ci
susedatwher
eAnd9ct
oo?
???

HoeScal arsareusedf ort

her emovalofsub-gi
ngivalcal
culusatt
he
cervi
calmar ginsofal
l sur
facesoftheteetheg4c,7c,
9car eusedonpalatal
,
bucal,andlingualsur
faceswhi l
eCushionsscalars64areusedont he
anter
iorteethonlytoremov esub-gi
ngival
calculusatthecervi
calmargi
ns
andhoe8ci susedatt hedist
alsurf
aceoft hel
astmol ar
st oremovesub-
gingi
valcalculus

Allareusedf
ort
her
emov
alofsub-
gingi
val
cal
cul
usandal
lar
eheav
y
scalars

Alsoremembercushi
onsscal
ars64(pul
l
ingscal
ars)
isamongt
hehoe
scalar
s

Pleasehoescal
erareusedfortheremov
alofsubgi
ngi
val
cal
cul
usatt
he
cervi
calmargi
noftheposter
iorteet
h.
 TOOTHMORPHOLOGY

Morphol
ogyasweal
lknowi
sthest
udyoff
orms,
shapesandst
ruct
uresof
l
iv
ingorgani
sms.

Whenappli
edtodent
ist
ry,
toot
hmor phol
ogyi
sthest
udyoff
orms,
shapes
andst
ruct
uresoft
hehumanet eet
h.

WEHAVE3TYPESOFDENTI
TION

Pr
imar
ydent
it
ions,
alsocal
l
eddeci
duoust
eet
hormi
l
kteet
h

per
manentdent
it
ionwhi
chi
sal
socal
l
edsuccedenousdent
it
ionand

Mi
xedDent
it
ion

Deciduousdentit
ionisalsocall
edbabyorpri
maryteet
hwhichcomes
[Link]
duoust
eethstar
tdevel
opi
ngduri
ngthe
embr yonicst
ageandthencommonl ybegi
nt ocomeinabout6months
aft
erbi r
th.

Ther
earetypical
ly20primaryteeth—[Link],
mostofthem eruptbytheti
met hechil
disabout2½yearsol
[Link]
compri
ses4l owerandupperincisor
s,2upperandl
owercanineseach,
and
2molarsall
onsepar at
[Link] emolar
sinpri
marydenti
ti
on

Permanentdent i
ti
oni salsosomet i
mesconsi der
edt hesuccedaneous
denti
tionbecausemostoft hesepermanentteethsucceedpr i
mar y
predecessorsandt husismadeupoft hir
ty-
twoper manentteeth,
consisti
ngofsixmax i
l
laryandsixmandibul
armol ars,f
ourmaxi l
laryand
fourmandibularpremolars, t
womaxi l
l
aryandt womandi bularcanines,
fourmaxill
aryandf ourmandi bul
ari
nci
sors.

Ot
hert
ermi
nol
ogi
esi
ncl
ude

ALI
GNMENTS:
thi
sist
hear
rangementoft
eet
hint
hedent
alar
ches
OCCLUSIONisther
elat
ionshi
porcontactoft
het
eet
hofbot
hupperand
l
owerarcheswhenthej
awsar ecl
osed.

INTERPROXIMALSPACESaret
ri
angularshapedspacesbetweentwoteet
h
closetoeachot
heront
hesamearch,thisspacei
susuall
yfil
ledwit
h
i
nt er
dent
alpapi
l
la

EMBRASURE:ist
hespacesbetweent
woteet
honthesamearch,up
towardst
heoccl
usal
surf
[Link]
sspacei
sfor
medduetothepresentof
cusps.

I
tsatri
angul
arcur
vat
ure,
adj
acentf
rom t
hecont
actar
ea,
towar
dst
he
occl
usal

CUSPS:theyar
eelevat
ionsonthecrownpor
ti
onofthet
eeth,maki
ngup
thepar
tofoccl
usalsur
[Link]
emolar
sandmolars

CINGULUM ist
helobeontheant
eri
orwhi
chi
sseenont
hecer
vical
thi
rdof
thel
ingual
surf
acesforl
owerant
eri
or

Andpal
atal
sur
facesf
orupperant
eri
ors

I
rr
egul
arconcav
ity
,ordepressi
onf
oundont
hesur
faceofat
oot
hiscal
l
ed
f
ossa,
egisli
ngualfossa

MAMMELONi
sthef
oundont
henewl
yer
upt
edant
eri
orsi
nci
sor
s

Theyarepr
otuber
ancesfoundonthei
ncisal
edgesofnewi
nci
sor
swhi
ch
hasnotbeatt
ri
tedorsubj
ectedt
oattr
it
ion

EXFOLIATION,Exfol
i
ati
onist
henat
ural
sheddi
ngofmi
l
kteet
hfort
he
subsequentr
eplacementbyt
heper
manentones.

BIFURCATION,ext
ensionsofrootsint
ot [Link]
hthathastworoot
sis
bif
urcat
ed.
Teeththathasthreerootsaretr
ifur
cat
ed:Tri
fur
cati
onist
he
extensi
onofrooti
ntothreeplaces

MASTI
CATI
ONi
stheactofchewi
ng,
breaki
ngdownoff
oodpar
ti
cl
esi
nto
t
inyswal
l
owabl
epi
ece.

ABRASIONisthemechani
cal
weari
ngawayoftoot
hsurf
acesandcanbe
asaresul
tofusinghi
ghl
yabr
asi
vetoot
hpast
eordent
if
ri
ceandthemethod
oft
oothbr
ushi
ng.

EROSI
ONi st
hewear
ingawayoft
oot
hsur
facesduet
ochemi
cal
di
ssol
uti
onofaci
d.

ATTRI
[Link]
ural
wear
ingawayoft
oot
hsur
facesduet
omast
icat
ion
andbr
uxism

DI
FFERENCEBETWEENDECI
DUOUSDENTI
TIONANDPERMANENT

 Deci
duoust
eet
har
esmal
l
eri
nsi
ze,

 cr
ownofdeci
duousmol
arsar
ebul
bousi
nnat
ure,

 Deci
duoust
eet
har
ewhi
teri
ncol
our

 Deci
duouscr
ownsar
eshor
teri
ncompar
isonwi
tht
her
oot
.

 ar
enotsohi
ghandt
hegr
oov
esar
enotsomar
ked

 Deci
duousr
oot
sar
emor
edi
ver
gence

 Root
sofdeci
duousant
eri
orar
emor
enar
rowerandl
onger

 Cr
ownofdeci
duoust
eet
har
emor
ewi
l
dermesi
odi
stal
l
y

ABOUTDENTALTHERAPYBOARD/
DENTALTHERAPI
ST

[Link] spartofthemini
str
yofheal
th,i
tisthatbodyofmini
str
yof
heal
ththatregul
atesthedent
alther
api
stpract
iceinNiger
ia.

Whi
let
hedent
alther
api
stassoci
ati
oni
sanucl
eust
hathol
dsdent
al
t
her
api
stsi
nNigeri
a.
[Link] heauthorit
ytolicences,andmoni tortheNigeriant her
api
st
andNigeri
antrai
ningschoolstoensur ecorrectstandardsaret aken,whi
le
theassoci
ati
onexisttoprotecttheinter
estofit'
smember s..
..The
associ
ati
ontherebyexistasawat chdogov erit'
smember .

1DFUNCTI
ONSOFDTRBN

[Link]
ermi
nethest
andardsofknowl
edgeandski
ll
tobeat
tai
nedbyper
sons
seeki
ngtobecomeregi
ster
edmembersoftheBoard.

2.
Establi
shandmaintainaregi
sterf
orDentalTher
api
sts,Dent
alNur
ses,
Dent
al Heal
thTechni
ciansandDentalSurger
yAssist
ants.

[Link]
nat
ionsandAwar
dofCer
ti
fi
cat
es.

[Link]
inui
ngHeal
thDev
elopmentPr
ogr
ammesf
ormember
s

5.
Promot
eOr
alHeal
th

6.
Perf
orm otherf
unct
ionsdeemednecessar
yfort
hepr
act
iceofDent
al
Heal
thPersonnel
.

7.
Enf
orcepr
ofessi
onal
ethi
cs.

Otherfunct
ionsi
ncludesandnotl
imi
tedto:I
ndexi
ngofSt
udent
s,
Regist
rati
onandLicenci
ngofprof
essi
onals

ADENTALTHERAPI STisamemberofDentalt
eam,trainedandlicensedto
carr
youtpreventi
ve,
cur
ati
ve,andemer
gencydent
alhealthserv
icest hr
ough
oralheal
thEducati
on,
oral
healt
hpromot
ionandoral
pr ophyl
axi
s.

I
samemberofor al
healt
hpr ofessi
onalwhopracti
ceasadental
team t
o
pr
ovi
deaeducat
ional,
cli
nicalandtherapeut
icser
vicest
opat
ient
s..
DUTI
ESOFDENTALTHERAPI
ST

1;
scal
i
ngandpol
i
shi
ng

2;
Oral
exami
nat
ioni
nbot
hAdul
tandchi
l
dren

3;
Pul
ptr
eat
mentofdeci
duoust
eet
h

4;
Int
raor
alandext
raor
alassessment

5;
Dent
alr
adi
ogr
aphs

6;
Ext
ract
ionofpat
hol
ogi
cal
Deci
duousDent
it
ion.

ROLESOFADENTALTHERAPI
STAREASFOLLOWS

[Link]
i
nici
an

2educat
or

3admi
nist
rat
or

4adv
ocat
e

Rememberr
olei
sdi
ff
erentf
rom f
unct
ion.

HI
STORYOFDENTALTHERAPYPROFESSI
ONI
NNI
GERI
A

PREAMBLE

Thehi stor
yofDentalTher apyprof
essi ondat esbackst othepre-coloni
al
[Link]
denceofper iodontaldiseasesandcancr um or
iswer e
prevalentandaresti
llcommoni nNi [Link] opooror al
hygieneandlackofgoodnut ri
ti
oni ntheear lyfi
ft
[Link],theev er
i
ncreasingdemandf oror alheal
thcar eledt oanincreaseintheawar eness
ofthei mport
anceandt heuseofpr event i
vemeasur [Link]
sbr oughtabout
thebirthofDentalTherapyprofession.
Ateam ofdent i
stscamefrom Uni
tedKingdom asar esultofev
ergr
owing
dent
alproblemst ofi
ndoutthepossibi
l
ityofestabl
ishi
ngacadr et
hat
wouldbetrainedtocomplementtheserviceofthedentists.

ThefounderofDent
alTher
apypr
ofessi
onwasDrAl
fr
edCi
vi
li
an.
Fonesi
n
they
ear1906.

Helearnti
tfrom t
helectur
[Link]
honor al
prophy
laxi
s
I
nthey ear1898inPhil
adelphi
[Link].
[Link]
eagueofDrAlfr
ed
[Link] aldi
seaseprevent
ion(Prophyl
axi
s)

Intheyear1906whenAl fredFonestookinteresti
ntoDrSmi thwor k,he
begant otrainhiscousinIreneNewmant oactasanappr enti
ceinscal i
ng
andpol i
shingandaswel lgivi
ngoralhygi
enei nstr
[Link] o
becomet hef ir
strecognizeddentalhygi
enistbutasat1910, thecollegeof
dentalsurgeryatOhiost ronglyopposedt
het r
aini
ngschool .
Eventhosewho
completedt hecoursewer eneveral
lowedtopr acti
ce, suchthatthecour se
wast obedi sconti
nuedbef or
e1914duet ot hebacklashf rom thedent al
communi ty.

In1913,
DrAlfr
edCFoneschangedthenamet oDent
alHygieni
stand
star
tedoff
ici
aldent
alhy
gieni
stt
rai
ningschool
inConnect
icut.

I
n1914, t
hefir
stdent
alhygi
enistt
hatgraduat
edf
rom DrAl
fer
dFones
dental
hy gi
eneprogr
am waslegal
lyal
lowedtopr
ovi
depati
entswi
th
prophyl
axistr
eat
ment.

In1915,
Connecti
cutamendedthedental
pract
iceact(
Regul
ati
onand
scopeofpract
iceofdent
alhygi
eni
st)
.

I
n1923,
thef
ir
stmeet
ingofdent
alhy
gieni
stAssoci
ati
ont
ookpl
ace.

I
n1935,
aft
ert
hewor l
dwar ,
Wil
l
iam Ki
ngsl
eyFr
ytraineddent
alhygi
eni
stt
o
j
oint
heRedCrosssociet
yandArmyandthedi
rectorwasDrsting.

I
ntheyear1938,
DrAl
fr
[Link]
nthey
ear1939,
ther
ewer
eabout
8,
000dental
hygi
eni
sti
ntheUnit
edSt at
eofAmeri
ca.
ESTABLI
SHMENT

I
n1958,aschool wasestabl
ishedbyMi ssVeraMar yCreaton,aBri
tonat
No.1BroadStreet
,Lagosforthetrai
ningofDentalHygienist
swhichl at
er
metamorphosi
sintotheFederalSchoolofDentalTechnology&Ther apy,
Enugu-
Niger
ia.

I
n1961,t
heschool
wasgrantedaccredi
tat
ionwhichwasrenewabl
eev
ery
10y
earsbyt
heteam f
rom Br
itai
nledbySirWil
li
amsKesleyFry.

In1958Mi
ssVer
aCli
ntonf
oundedthedental
hygieneschoolofOj
oLagos
stat
ewher
eMrsOsi
me,MrsV.
Smithtrai
neddentalhygi
eni
st.

I
n1955,Feder
alschool
ofDentalTechnol
ogyandTherapyEnuguwas
regi
ster
edint
heboardofAuthori
tybutgotf
ull
yest
ablishedi
n1978,
buti
n
1982FSDT&Tmov edtoit
'sper
manentsite(
TransEkuluEnugu)

Dent
alr
egul
ati
oni
nNi
ger
iawasi
n1993.

HEADANDNECKANATOMY

We'
l
llookat

skul
landdi
vi
sion

Cr
ani
alner
ves

muscl
es

t
ongue

West
artwi
thskul
l

skul
lfor
msabonycapsul
ethatencl
osest
hebr
ainandv
iscer
aoft
hehead.
Thebonesoft
heskul
lar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
wopar
ts.

THEVISCEROCRANIUM (
orange)
,thef
aci
alskel
eton,
isf
ormedpr
imar
il
yfr
om
thepharyngeal(branchial
)ar
ches

THENEUROC- UM (
RANI gray
),t
hecr
ani
alv
aul
t,i
sthebonycapsul
eencl
osi
ng
thebr
ain.

I
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wopar
tsbasedonossi
fi
cat
ion.

Theskul
li
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
he

1.
Crani
um orv
isocr
ani
um

[Link]
aci
albones

Anatomical
ly,
thecr
ani
um canbesubdi
vi
dedi
ntoar
oof(
knownast
he
cal
vari
um) ,
andabase:

Cal
var
ium:
Compr
isedoft
hef
ront
al,
occi
pit
alandt
wopar
iet
albones.

BASE: Compr i
sedofsixbones–t hefrontal
,sphenoi
d,et
hmoid,occipit
al,
pari
[Link] eimport
antastheyprovidean
art
icul
ationpoi
ntfort
he1stcer vi
calvert
ebra(atl
as),
aswell
ast hefacial
bonesandt hemandible(j
awbone) .

[Link]
ocr
ani
um akaCr
ani
um

[Link]
scer
ocr
ani
um akaf
aci
albones

Thegr
aypar
tist
hecr
ani
um

Whi
l
etheor
angepar
tist
hef
aci
albones.

Thefaci
alskel
eton(
alsoknownasthevi
scerocr
ani
um)support
st hesof
t
ti
ssuesofthef
ace.I
nessence,t
heydet
ermineourf
aci
alappearance.

Itconsi
stsof14i
ndi v
idualbones,whichfusetohousetheor
bitsoft
he
eyes,nasal
andor
al cavi
ti
es,aswel l
ast hesi
[Link]
ontal
bone,
typi
call
yaboneofthecalvari
a,issometimesincl
udedaspartofthef
aci
al
skel
eton.

THEFACI
ALBONESARE:

Zygomat
ic(2)–Formsthecheekbonesoftheface,
andar
ti
cul
ateswi
th
thefr
ont
al,
sphenoi
d,t
emporalandmaxil
labones.

Lacr
imal(
2)–Thesmal
l
estbonesoft
hef
[Link]
orm par
toft
hemedi
al
wall
oftheor
bit
.

Nasal
(2)–Twosl
enderbones,
locat
edatt
hebr
idgeoft
henose.

I
nferi
ornasalconchae(2)–Locat
edwi t
hinthenasalcav
ity,
thesebones
i
ncreasethesurfacear
eaofthenasalcavi
ty,t
husincr
easingtheamountof
i
nspiredai
rthatcancomeintocontactwi
ththecavit
ywalls.

Pal
atine(
2)–Si
tuat
edatt
her
earofor
alcav
ity
,andf
ormspar
toft
hehar
d
pal
ate.

Maxi
l
la(
2)–Compr
isespar
toft
heupperj
awandhar
dpal
ate.

Vomer– For
mst
hepost
eri
oraspectoft
henasal
sept
um.

Mandi
ble(
jawbone)–Ar
ticul
ateswi
tht
hebaseoft
hecr
ani
um at
t
hetemporomandi
bul
arj
oint(
TMJ).

t
hecr
anium,whi
chl
odgesandprotect
sthebr
ain,consi
stsofeightbones
(
Occi
pit
al,
TwoPari
etal
s,Fr
ont
al,
TwoTempor al
s,Sphenoidal
,Ethmoidal
)

SUTURESOFTHESKULL

Sut
uresar
eat ypeoffi
brousj
ointt
hatar
euniquet
otheskul
l
.Theyar
e
i
mmov abl
e,andfusecomplet
elyar
oundtheageof20.

TheSut
uresar
e:

Cor
onal
sut
urewhi
chf
usest
hef
ront
albonewi
tht
het
wopar
iet
albones.
Sagi
tt
alsut
urewhi
chf
usesbot
hpar
iet
albonest
oeachot
her
.

Lambdoi
dsut
urewhi
chf
usest
heocci
pit
albonet
othet
wopar
iet
albones.

Inneonates,theincompletel
yfusedsuturejoint
sgiveri
setomembr anous
gapsbet weenthebones, knownasf ontanell
[Link] orf
ontanell
es
arethef r
ontalf
ontanell
e(locatedatthejuncti
onofthecoronalandsagittal
sutures)andtheoccipit
alfontanel
le(l
ocatedatthejunct
ionofthesagittal
andlambdoi dsutures)
.

Themandi bl
e, l
ocatedinfer
ior
lyi
nt hefaci
alskel
eton,
ist
hel
argestand
str
ongestboneoft heface.
Itf
ormst helowerjawandact
sasar eceptacl
e
[Link]
soarti
cul
atesonei t
hersidewi
tht
hetempor al
bone,
formingthetempor omandibul
arjoi
nt .

Anat
omi
cal
Str
uct
ure

Themandibl
econsistsofahorizont
albody(
anter
ior
ly)andt
wo
ver
ti
cal
rami(post
eriorl
y).Thebodyandtheramimeetoneachsi
deatt
he
angl
eofthemandible.

Body:
Thebodyoft
hemandi
bleiscur
ved,
andshapedmuchl
i
kea
hor
seshoe.I
thast
wobor
ders:

Alv
eol
arbor
der(super
ior
)–contains16socketstohol
dthel
owerteet
h.
Base(
inf
eri
or)–sit
eofattachmentfort
hedigast
ri
cmusclemedi
all
y.

Thebodyismar kedinthemidl
i
nebythemandi bul
[Link]
sisa
smallr
idgeofbonet hatr
epr
esent
sthefusionofthetwohalvesduri
ng
devel
opment .Thesymphysi
sencl
osesat r
iangul
areminence–t hement
al
prot
uberance,whichfor
mstheshapeofthechin.

Lateralt
ot hement alprot
uberanceisthemental
for
amen( bel
owthe
secondpr emolartoothoneitherside)
.Itact
sasapassagewayfor
neurovascularst
ructures.

Rami
Ther
ear et
womandibul
arr
ami,whichpr
ojectper
pendi
cul
arl
yupwards
fr
om theangl
eoft
hemandibl
[Link]
hefol
l
owingbony
l
andmarks:

Head–si tuatedposteri
orl
y ,
andar t
icul
ateswit
ht hetempor
albonetofor
m
thetempor omandibul
arjoint.
Neck–suppor tstheheadoftheramus,and
sit
eofat t
achmentoft helateralpt
erygoi
dmuscl [Link]
onoi
dprocess–sit
e
ofattachmentofthet emporalismuscle

Theint
ernalsur
faceoft
heramusisalsomarkedbythemandibul
ar
for
amen, whi
chactsasapassagewayforneur
ovascul
arst
ruct
ures.

The12Cr
ani
alNer
ves

I
.Ol
fact
oryner
ve. Forsmel
l Of
u
I
[Link]
icner
ve. Forvi
sion Opi
I
II
.Ocul
omot
orner
ve. Foreyemvt Oku
I
[Link]
ochl
earner
ve. Foreyemvt Tr
oopsi
n
[Link]
igemi
nal
ner
ve. Thel
argest Tr
yingt
o
VI
.Abducensner
ve. Foreyemvt
. Abduct
VI
[Link]
alner
ve. Mot orner
ve4Faci
almuscl
e&gl ands,
Sensor
y
4sensat
ionoft
ast
e &ext
ernalear. Faci
al
VI
II
.Vest
ibul
ocochl
earner
[Link]
ing&bal
ance Vest
,

[Link]
ossopharyngeal
ner
ve. Motor
:formvtofstyl
ophyr
yngeus,Sensory;
4
sensat
ionoftaste. Glosso
[Link]. Formvtoft
hethroat&Softpalat
e,r
egulate
hr
trhyt
hm,
l
ung&GI
T Vagust
o
XI
.Accessor
yner
ve. Neck&Shoul
dermvt Access
XI
[Link]
pogl
ossal
ner
ve. Fort
onguemvt
. Hypogl
ossal
OfuOpiOkuTroopsinTr
yingt
oAbductFaci
alVest
,Gl
ossoVagust
o
AccessHypoglossal
.

MUSCLESOFTHEFACE

Thesemuscl
esi
ncl
udet
he

 or
bicul
ari
socul
i
,

 nasal
i
s,

l
evat
orl
abi
isuper
ior
isal
aequenasi
,

 depr
essorl
abi
ii
nfer
ior
is,

 pr
ocer
us,

 aur
icul
ars,

 zy
gomat
icusmaj
or,

 zy
gomat
icusmi
nor
,

 bucci
nat
or,

 occi
pit
ofr
ont
ali
s,

 cor
rugat
orsuper
cil
i
i,

r
isor
ius,

 depr
essorangul
ior
is,

 andment
ali
s.
MUSCLESOFMASTI
CATI
ON.

Ther
ear
efourmast
icat
orymuscl
es;

Masset
er.

Tempor
ali
s.

Lat
eral
pter
ygoi
d.

Medi
alpt
ery
goi
d.

Masset
er

Or
igi
nandi
nser
ti
ons:

Masset
er:
Ori
ginat
efr
om t
hezy
gomat
icar
chandmaxi
l
lar
ypr
ocessoft
he
zy
gomaticbone

I
nser
ti
on-l
ater
alsur
faceoft
her
amusoft
hemandi
ble

I
nner
vat
ion-masset
eri
cner
ve(
branchoft
hemandi
bul
arner
ve)

Act
ion-el
evat
ionoft
hemandi
ble

Tempor
ali
s:Or
igi
n-t
empor
alf
ossa

I
nsert
ion-coronoi
dpr
ocessoft
hemandi
ble,
ant
eri
ormar
ginoft
her
amus
oft
hemandi ble

I
nner
vat
ion-deept
empor
alner
ves(
branchesoft
hemandi
bul
arner
ve)

Act
ion-el
evat
ionandr
etr
act
ionoft
hemandi
ble

Medi
alpt
ery
goi
d

Or
igi
n-medialsur
faceofl
ater
alpl
ateofpterygoidpr
ocess,py
rami
dal
pr
ocessofpal
ati
nebone(deephead);
tuberosit
yofmaxill
a,py
rami
dal
pr
ocessofpal
ati
nebone(
super
fi
cial
head)

I
nser
ti
on-medi
alsur
faceoft
hemandi
ble

I
nner
vat
ion-ner
vet
omedi
alpt
ery
goi
d(br
anchoft
hemandi
bul
arner
ve)

Act
ion-el
evat
ionandsi
de-
to-
sidemov
ement
soft
hemandi
ble

Lat
eral
pter
ygoi
d

Or
igin-r
oofofinfr
atempor
alfossa(
upperhead)
;lat
eral
sur
faceofl
ater
al
pl
ateofthept
erygoidpr
ocess(l
owerhead)

I
nser
ti
on-capsul
eoft
het
empor
omandi
bul
arj
oint

I
nnervat
ion-ner
vetol
ateral
pter
y goi
d(branchoft
hemandi
bul
arner
ve)
Act
ion-prot
rusi
onandside-
to-
sidemov ementsoft
hemandi
ble

Let
'
stal
kaboutt
het
ongueal
i
ttl
ebef
orepr
oceedi
ngt
osal
i
var
ygl
and.

THETONGUE(
LINGUA)

Thetonguei
samuscularor
gansi
tuat
edi
ntheor
alcav
ity
,andan
accessor
ydi
gest
iveor
gan.

I
tsmai
nfunct
ionsi
ncl
ude

 sensat
ionoft
ast
e,

 mast
icat
ion(
chewi
ng)
,

 degl
uti
ti
on(
swal
l
owi
ng)
,

 speech,
andcl
ear
ingt
heor
alcav
ity
.

Ther
ichmotorandsensor
yinner
vat
ionoft
het
onguei
scar
ri
edbyf
our
cr
ani
alner
ves.

Thel
i
ngual
papi
l
lae

Thet
ast
ebudsont
het
onguesi
tonr
aisedpr
otr
usi
onsoft
het
ongue
sur
facecal
ledpapi
l
[Link]
ear
efourt
ypesofl
i
ngual
papi
l
lae;
all
except
onecontai
ningt
ast
ebuds:

Fungif
orm papil
lae-asthenamesuggests,t
hesearesli
ghtlymushr
oom-
shapediflookedatinl
ongit
udinal
secti
[Link]
yatt
he
dorsalsur
faceofthetongue,aswell
asatthesides.I
nnervatedbyf
aci
al
nerve.

Foli
atepapil
lae-thesear
er i
dgesandgr oovestowar
dstheposter
iorpar
tof
thetonguefoundatt hel
ater
alborders.I
nnervat
edbyfaci
alner
ve(anter
ior
papil
lae)andglossophar
yngealnerve(post
eri
orpapi
ll
ae).

Circumvall
at epapil
lae-thereareonlyabout10t o14oft hesepapil
l
aeon
mostpeopl e, andtheyarepresentatthebackoft heoralpartoft
het ongue.
Theyar earrangedi nacircul
ar-
shapedr owjustinfr
ontoft hesul
cus
terminal
isoft [Link] at
edwi t
hductsofVonEbner '
s
glands,andar einnervat
edbyt heglossopharyngealner
ve.

Fi
l
ifor
m papi
l
lae-t
hemostnumer
oust
ypebutdonotcont
aint
ast
ebuds.

Theyar
echaract
eri
zedbyincreasedker
ati
nisat
ionandar
einv
olv
edi
nthe
mechani
cal
aspectofprov
idingabrasi
on.

Meanwhi
l
ewhati
sli
ngual
papi
l
lae?

Li
ngualpapil
l
ae(singul
arpapil
l
a)aret
hesmall
,ni
pple-
li
kestruct
uresonthe
uppersur
faceofthetonguethatgi
vei
tit
schar
acter
ist
icroughtextur
e.

SALI
VARYGLAND

Thesalivaryglandsi nmammal sareexocrinegl

andsthat
producesalivat hr
oughasy st
em [Link] ethr
eepai
redmaj
or
sali
varyglands( paroti
d,submandibular,andsubl
ingual
)aswel
las
hundredsofmi norsali
[Link]
vacanbecl assi
fi
ed
asserous, mucousorser omucous( mixed).

Par
oti
dgl
and
Thet woparoti
dgl andsaremajor
sali
varygl
andswr appedar ound
themandibularramusi nhumans,
l
argestofthesal i
varygl
ands,
secreti
ngsali
vat o
faci
li
tatemasticati
onandswal l
owing,
andamy
laset
obegi
nthedi
gest
ion
ofstarch.

Pr
oducesser
oussal
i
va,
Itent
erst
heor
alcav
ityv
iat
hepar
oti
dduct
.

Thegl
andsarelocatedpost
eri
ortothemandibul
arr
amusandant
eri
ort
o
themast
oidprocessofthetemporalbone.

Theypr
oduce20%oft
heent
ir
esal
i
vai
nthemout
h

Thesubmandi
bul
argl
ands:

(pr
evi
ousl
yknownassubmaxil
lar
yglands)areapai
rofmajorsal
i
vary
gl
andsl
ocatedbeneat
hthel
owerjaws,super
iort
othedi
gastr
icmuscl
es.

secret
ionpr
oducedisamixt
ureofbot
hserousfl
uidandmucus,
and
ent
erstheor
alcavi
tyvi
athesubmandi
bul
arductorWhart
onduct.

Appr oxi
mately65-
70%ofsal
i
vaintheoral
cav
ityi
spr
oducedbythe
submandibulargl
ands,
event
houghtheyar
emuchsmall
erthant
hepar
oti
d
glands.

Itisl
ocat
edabouttwofi
nger
sabovetheAdam'sappl
e(l
ary
ngeal
promi
nence)andaboutt
woinchesapar
tundert
hechi
n.

THESUBLI
NGUALGLANDi
st [Link]
ssituated
beneatht
hemucousmembr aneofthefl
ooroft hemout h,atthesideofthe
fr
enulum l
inguæ,i
ncontactwiththesublingualdepressi
onont heinner
surf
aceoft hemandi
ble,cl
osetot hesymphy si
s.

majorsubl
ingual
duct(ductofBar
thol
i
n),whi
chopensi
ntothesubmax i
l
lary
duct,
itpr
oducesseri
oussaliv
athi
sisabout5%ofthet
otal
sali
varycontent
ofthemouth.
I
nsummar
y

✓Parot
idproducesserousorwat
erysal
i
vat
hrought
hepar
oti
dductor
st
ensenduct20%i nquanti
ty

✓Submandi
bul
arductproducesmixt
ureofwat
eryandmucoussal
i
va
t
hrought
hesubmandibul
arductorWhart
on'
sduct.

65t
o70%

✓Subli
ngual
producesmusoussal
i
vat
hroughsubl
i
ngual
ductorBat
hol
i
n's
duct

5%

Paroti
ti
sisani nfl
ammat i
onofoneorbothparoti
dgl
ands,themaj
or
sali
var
ygl andsl
ocatedoneit
hersi
deoftheface,i
[Link]
id
glandisthesaliv
aryglandmostcommonlyaffect
edbyinf
lammati
on.
Moderatesy mptomsar epai
n,f
ever
,swell
ing

EVALUATI
ON;

Ev
aluationist
odocumentachiev
ementofdesi
redt
herapeut
icout
come
thati
sf ulfi
l
lmentoft
hecl
ientunmethumanneedsrel
atedtoor
alheal
th
andwel lness.

i
tisacr
it
ical
componentt
othesuccessofdent
alTher
apycar
e.

i
tal
lowst
hecli
niciantomeasur
etheshortter
m achi
evementofcl
i
ent
goal
saswellaspar
ticipat
einl
ongter
m prognosi
sinmaintai
ningt
hegoal
s
achi
eved.

Local
fact
orsi
ncl
ude

Dent
alcal
cul
usanddent
alst
ains
 Tobaccouse

f
oodi
mpact
edandgener
alor
alnegl
ect

Sy
stemi
cfact
ors

Dr
ugact
ion

⚫ Hemat
ologi
cal
disor
der
s

nut
ri
ti
onal
inf
luences

Propertechni
queshoul
dbeempl
oyedt
oav
oidr
epeat
ingt
he
r
adiographi
cexaminati
on

t
heexposur
eshoul
dbeasmi
nimum aspossi
ble

t
hex-
raymachi
neshoul
dbeper
iodi
cal
l
ycheckedf
oranyl
eakage

pat
ient
sshoul
dbeaskedt
owearl
eadapr
ons

goodqual
i
tyf
il
m shoul
dbeused.

Peri
epical
abscessoccur
sasar esul
tofpul
palnecr
osis,whi
leper
iodont
al
abscesshadtodowiththedecayoccur
ingatt
heperiodonti
um.

Fourmaj
orsi
gnsofi
nfl
ammat
ionar
e:

r
edness,
heat
,swel
l
ingandpai
n

Dol
or,
cal
or,
rubor
..
..

AETIOLOGYi nmedi
cinemeansthest
udyofthegenesis,
cause,orr
ootifa
di
[Link]
sthesci
enceofi
nvesti
gat
ionoft
hephysiopathol
ogyofdisease
condit
ions.

Lear
ningt
otakeagoodhi
stor
yiscr
uci
alt
odet
ermi
neadi
agnosi
sand
subsequenttr
eat
[Link]
ytaki
ngalsoenablesy
out obuil
da
rappor
twiththepati
entt
hroughgoodcommuni cati
onskil
[Link]
spostwi
l
l
coverthebasi
careastocoverinyourhi
stor
ytaki
ng.

I
ntr
oduce

Alwaysintroducey ourselft
othepati
ent,t
hisincludesyournameANDy our
posi
[Link]
ly,
t hisi
sthepoi
ntatwhi chtogainconsentfrom t
he
pati
enttocont inueaski ngt
hem quest
ions,e.g.“
Iunderstandyou’r
ehaving
somet rouble,am Iokayt oaskyouaboutthis?”.

Pr
esent
ingCompl
aint(
PC)

Thi
siswhatthepati
entsay
sist
hepr
obl
em,
gener
all
yint
hei
rownwor
ds
e.
g.“Myf
ronttoot
haches”.

Hi
stor
yofPr
esentCompl
aint(
HPC)

Thi
siswher
eweexpandonthepati
ent’
[Link]
all
y,compl
aint
swi
l
lbe
ofpai
nandthecommonacr
onym usedisSOCRATES:

Si
te:
thel
ocat
ionoft
hepai
n

Onset
:whendi
dthepai
nbegi
n?

Char
act
er:
howwoul
dtheydescr
ibet
hepai
n?e.
[Link]
pordul
l

Radi
ati
on:
ist
hepai
nspr
eadi
ngel
sewher
e?

Associ
atedf
eat
ures:
ist
her
eany
thi
ngel
segoi
ngon?e.
[Link]
l
ings,
bad
tast
e

Ti
me:
hast
hepai
nchangedov
ert
imei
nthi
ngsl
i
kesev
eri
tyorchar
act
er?

Exacer
bat
ing/
All
evi
ati
ngf
act
ors:
whatmakest
hepai
nbet
ter
/wor
se?

Sever
it
y:howsev
erei
sthepai
n–of
tengoodt
orecor
dthi
sasanumber
fr
om 1to10.

Thi
sst
ruct
urewi
l
lensur
eyoucov
eral
lthemaj
orf
eat
uresoft
hecompl
aint
andt
her
efor
ehel
ptoal
l
owy
out
oest
abl
i
shadi
agnosi
s.

PastMedi
cal
Hist
ory(
PMH)

It
’salsoi mportantt
oinquireaboutanyothermedicalconditionst hepatient
maysuf ferwit
[Link] uli
nformationtohelptowar dsdi agnosis,
[Link] a,orimport
antforfut
uretreatmentdeci
[Link] tenit’
sgoodt o
got hroughasy stemsov ervi
ewofthebodyi ncasethepatienthasmi ssed
somet hing:cardi
ovascularandhaemat ol
ogi
cal,r
espir
atory
, GI ,
neur ol
ogy ,
[Link]
ke“anyheartprobl
ems?anybr eathing
problems? ”.

Al
way
schecki
fthepat
ienthasanyal
l
ergi
es–t
omedi
cat
ionorot
her
wise.

Dr
ugHi
stor
y(DH)

Checkthepati
ent
’scurrentmedi cat
ions,asaccur
atel
yaspossibl
e,
i
ncludi
[Link] i
ent’
sdon’ tmenti
onover
-t
he-count
er
medicat
ionandnon-prescri
ptionmedi cat
ionssobecaref
ul!I
fyoudon’
t
knowwhatamedi cati
oni sthenCHECKTHEBNF!

PastDent
alHi
stor
y(PDH)

Ift
hecompl ai
ntmaybetoothrel
ated,i
tcanbeuseful
toinquir
eaboutany
dental
treat
mentthepati
entmayhav [Link]
ti
onal
ly,
it’
simport
antto
gaugethepati
ent’
satt
it
udetowardsthedenti
standwhethertheymaybe
anxi
ousorrecepti
vet
ot r
eatment.

Fami
l
yHi
stor
y(FH)

Checkt
hepat
ient
’sf
ami
l
yhi
stor
yofcommoncondi
ti
ons,
incl
udi
ng
di
abetesandcar
diacpr
obl
[Link]
ti
onal
l
y,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
oident
if
yany
genet
icprobl
emsthatr
uni
nthefami
ly.

DENTALTHERAPI
STREGISTRATI
ONBOARDOFNI
GERI
APROFESSI
ONAL
EXAMINATI
ONCLINI
CALS.

Pat
ient
'scl
erki
ngsheet
.

Name:
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Addr
ess:
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Phonenumber
:.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

Age.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Occupat
ion.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

Rel
i
gion.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

NameofNextofki
n..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...

Addr
essofnextofki
n..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Phonenumberofnextofki
n..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Pat
ient
sCompl
aint(
PC)
..
..
.Myf
rontt
eet
hpai
nsme.
--
--
--
--
--

Hist
oryofPati
entsCompl aint(
HPC).
:.
..
..
..
..
.[Link]
entcompl aindof
toot
hacheoftheanteri
orteeth.
Thepainstart
edasar esultofthetrauma
thepati
enthadthr
eemont hsagoi
nav erysli
ghtpai
nintiall
ybutbecome
sharpl
aterasaresultofcalcul
usl
oadbroughtaboutbypooror alhygi
ene.

PastMedi
cal
Hist
ory
:(PMH)
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
. Ni
lofNot
e.

PastDent
alHi
stor
y(PDH)
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.I
sitt
hef
ir
stv
isi
ttot
heDent
al
Cl
ini
c.

Fami
l
yandSoci
alHi
stor
y(FSH)
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
Somei
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
iony
ouwantt
ocol
l
ectatt
hispoi
nti
ncl
udes:

Smokinghi
stor
y–ar
etheyacur
rentorex-
smoker
?howmuchdi
dthey
smoke?

Al
cohol
consumpt
ion–i
deal
l
yinuni
ts

Li
vi
ngar
rangement
s–dot
heyhav
esuppor
tift
heyneedi
t?

Occupat
ion–t
hismayhel
pest
abl
i
shadi
agnosi
soraf
fectt
reat
mentpl
ans

Pat
ientist
hef i
rstsoninthefamil
yofthr
eeboysandtwogi
rl
[Link]
marri
edwithtwoki ds.
Pati
enthasbeenasmokerfort
hepast10year
s,has
nosystem sy
stemi cdi
seaseinthei
rbl
oodli
ne.

I
ntr
aOr
alExami
nat
ion(
IOE)

Teet
hpr
esent
. 8-
--11-
--
--
8

8-
--
11-
--
--
-8

Cal
cul
uspr
esent
.++. St
ainspr
esent
.++

Ext
raOr
alExami
nat
ion(
EOE)
.NoAbnor
mal
i
tyDi
ctat
ed.

Vi
tal
Signs.

Temperature.
:36.
5'
[Link]
se:
70Bpm,
Respi
rat
oryr
ate:
20Bpm,
Blood
pressur
e:.120/
80mmHg

Tr
eat
mentpl
an(
Rx)
.Gr
ossandFi
neScal
i
ngandPol
i
shi
ngof-
--
--
--
-

Tr
eat
mentgi
ven:
(Rxgi
ven)
...
..
..
..
..
..
..

Tocomeagai
n(TCA)-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-

CLI
NICI
ANSNAMEANDREGI
STRATI
ONNO.
Summar
iseHi
stor
y

I
tiscruci
altocheckal l
theinfor
mat i
onyouhavecoll
ect
edf r
om t
hepat
ient.
Thi
sisusefulforTWOr easons:y
oucanchecktheaccuracyoft
he
i
nformati
onANDi tshowst othepati
entt
hatyouhaveli
stenedt
[Link]
youdonothav ethetimet ochecktheenti
rehi
stor
y,t
hemi ni
mum woul
dbe
tocheckthePCandHPC.

Fi
nall
y,al
l
owthepati
enttoexpressanyconcer
nsorquest
ionst
heymay
haveandaddr
essthem asnecessar
y.

HALI
TOSI
S

1Ahalit
osi
smeansoff
ensi
vebr
eat
horunpl
easantsmel
lthatcomesout
f
rom t
hemouthofaper
son.

Causesofhal
i
tosi
s

1;OralCauses;Xerostomia,
Smoking,
Poororal
hy gi
ene,Dent
aldecay,Oral
i
nfect
ions,poororalhygi
ene;uncl
eanmout hwithcalcul
us,st
ains,materi
al
al
ba,hungerbreat
h, et
cleadstohali
tosi
s

2;
Non-
Oral
Causes:
EgSy
stemi
cdi
seasesl
i
keul
cer
s,

ManagementofHal
i
tosi
s

Avoidingdehy
drat
ionandgoodoralhy
giene,
incl
udi
ngbrushingand
fl
ossing,ar
eimportant
.Somemouthwashes,l
ozengesandtoothpast
es
canassistinf
ight
inghali
tosi
s.

Gent
lebutef
fect
ivet
onguecl
eani
ngmayal
sober
equi
[Link]
ari
etyof
t
onguebrushesandscr
aper
s,br
eat
hmi
ntshel
psi
nmanagementof
Hal
it
osi
s

3a,
ANUGmeansAcut
eNecr
oti
zi
ngUl
cer
ati
veGi
ngi
vi
ti
s

Si
gnsofANUG

Bl
eedi
ng,

Gi
ngi
val
sor
eness,

pai
nful
gums.

r
ecedi
nggums

Pai
nful
ulcer
s.

Hal
i
tosi
s

Di
ff
erencebet
weensupr
agi
ngi
val
cal
cul
usandsubgi
ngi
val
cal
cul
us

Supr
a-Gi
ngi
val
Cal
cul
us Sub-
Gingi
val
Cal
cul
us

f
ormsabov
ethegum f
ormsbel
owt
hegum

i
swhi
te-
yel
l
owi
ncol
our i
sbl
acki
ncol
our

i
sCor
onaatgi
ngi
val
mar
gin i
sapi
cal
atgi
ngi
val
mar
gin

i
scl
i
nical
l
yvi
sibl
e i
snotcl
i
nical
l
yvi
sibl
e

easi
l
ydet
achedf
rom t
het
oot
h I
sfi
rml
yat
tachedt
othet
oot
h

sal
i
var
ypr
otei
nispr
esent sal
i
var
ypr
otei
nabsent

i
sderiv
edfr
om sal
i
var
y i
sfr
om gi
ngi
val
exudat
e.
excr
eti
on
STERI
LIZATI
ON

Ster
il
izat
ionist
hecompleter
emovalorki
l
li
ngofmi
croor
gani
sm andt
hei
r
spor
esf r
om anobj
ect
,fl
uidori
nst
rument.
..

1.
heatmet
hodofst
eri
l
izat
ion:

Heatmethodist
hemostcommonmet hodofst
eri
l
izat
iont
hatki
l
lst
he
micr
obesdir
ectl
y.I
tssubdi
vi
dedi
nto

Twomet
hodsofst
eri
l
izat
ion

Dr
yheatst
eri
l
izat
ione.
gov
en

St
eam underpr
essur
ee.
gAut
ocl
ave.

Dryheatst
eri
l
izat
ioni
sthedest
ruct
ionofmi
croor
gani
smst
hrough
oxi
dati
on

St
eam underpr
essur
eist
hedest
ruct
ionofmi
cro-
organi
sm byheat.

[Link]
ati
on:

Ultr
avi
oletli
ghti
seffectiveforcontr
oll
i
ngmi cr
obesinthefoodsubstance.
Ithasahigherwavelengththatli
esbetween100nm [Link]
energyisabout265nm, whichisstrongenoughtodestroymicr
[Link]
whenmi crobesareexposedt oinfr
aredradi
ati
onofhighertemperat
ure,
microbescanbeki l
l
edi ndir
ectl
y.

1a)Inf
ect
ioncont
rolar
epr ocedur
esoracti
onst
akeni
nheal
thcar
e
set
ti
ngstoprev
entthespr
eadofdisease.

1b)Toprot
ectthepat
ientandheal
thcar
eper
sonnel
from i
nfect
ionI
.e
prev
ent
inginf
ecti
ontr
ansmi ssi
on.

l
i
docai
neal
socal
l
edxy
locai
nhasanFDAr
ati
ngofBhasar
api
donseti
s
t
heci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem easi
l
yabsor
bsi
t.

Amoxicil
lini
santi
biot
ic,aspi
ri
nisanonopiodundersali
cyl
atesncat
afl
am
nlbuprofenarenonopoi
dundernonster
iodalanti
fl
amator
ydrugsn
sal
icyl
atesnNsaidscancausemucousalir
ri
tati
onasulcer
.

HEALTH

1)ConceptofHeal
th

2)
ConceptofOr
alHeal
th

3)
Conceptof
Car
eandPr
imar
yCar
e

(WHO)def
inesheal
thasast
ateofcomplet
ephysical
,ment
alandsoci
al
wel
l
bei
ngandnotmerelyt
heabsenceofdi
sease'
sorinf
ir
mit
y.

FACTORSTHATAFFECTHEALTH

Thesef
act
orsaf
fectheal
thandt
hewel
l
bei
ngofpeopl
eandcommuni
ty.

1)
Economi
cfact
or

2)Phy
sical
fact
or

3)
Cul
tur
alf
act
or

4)Soci
al,
per
sonal
andenv
ironment
alf
act
or.

CONCEPTOFORALHEALTH.

ThewordOrali
nLatinmeansmout
hwhi
chi
ncl
udet
eet
h,t
ongue,
oral
sof
t
ti
ssue,
sal
i
varyglande.
t.
c

Or
alheal
thmeansbei
ngf
reef
rom or
alf
aci
alpai
ncondi
ti
ons,
otherdi
sease
anddi
sor
der
sthataf
fectt
heor
alcr
ani
alcompl
ex.

WHOdef inesOralheal
thasther
etenti
onthr
oughoutli
feofafunct
ional
aest
heti
c, nat
ural
denti
ti
onofnotlessthant
wenty
(20)teet
hinthemouth
andnotrequiri
ngprost
heti
cs.

THERELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENORALHEALTHANDGENERALHEALTH.

Themout hi sthegat ewayormi r

rori nt
ot heheal thofthebody .I
tcanshow
signsofnut riti
onal defici
encyori nfectionssuchast henumberoft eeth,
severedent al [Link] heor alcavit
yareheav i
lyvascular
ized
theirbyi nfectionsi nthemout hcanbecar ri
edt oanypar toft hebodyand
vicev ersat hepot ent i
alimpactofor aldiseasesonchr oni csy st
emi c
condit i
[Link] istaf ew,periodontal di
seaseshav ebeenl inkedto
cardiovascul ardi seases,highbloodpr essure, st
roke,diabetes,, dementia,
respiratorydi seases, andmor t
ali
ty,wher eani nflammat orypat hwaywas
depicted

Moret
han90%ofsy
stemi
ccondi
ti
onssuchasAI
DS,
diabet
espr
oduced
or
alsi
gnsandsy
mptoms.

PREVENTI
VESERVI
CESCARRI
EDOUTI
NDENTALCLI
NIC

1)Fl
uor
ideappl
i
cat
ion

2)Fi
ssur
eseal
antappl
i
cat
ion

3)S&Pwi
thOHI

3)CONCEPTofCAREandPRI
MARYCARE
Car
emeans;
tol
ookaf
terandpr
ovi
def
ort
heneedofsomeone.

Thr
eel
evel
sofcar
einNi
ger
ia

1)Pr
imar
ycar
ebyLGA

2)Secondar
ycar
ebySt
ateGov
ernment

3)
Ter
ti
arycar
ebyFeder
alGov
ernment
.

Pri
mar yCar
e:isthefi
rstf
acetofcar
eworkingal
ongsi
deheal
thcare
ser
vicesinmeeti
ngtheneedsoftheover
all
healt
handeconomy .

I
tist
hecar
eprovi
dedi
nt hecommuni
tyf
orpeopl
emaki
ngf
ir
stappr
oach
f
ormedi
caladv
iceort
reatment
.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofPr
imar
yCar
e

1)
cont
inui
ty

2)Col
l
abor
ati
on

3)
Account
abi
l
ity

4)Accessi
bil
i
tySer
vices

5)Coor
dinat
ionser
vices

MAJORI
LLNESSTREATEDI
NPRI
MARYCARE.

1)
Diabet
es

2)
Hyper
tensi
on

3)
Art
hri
ti
s

4)
Backpai
n
5)
Depr
essi
onandAnxi
ety

ConceptofPr
imar
yOr
alHeal
thCar
e

ConceptofPr
imar
yOr
alHeal
thCar
e(POHC)

I
tisanint
egralpar
tofpr
imaryheal
thcar
e.I
tisdel
i
veredthr
oughgr
oups,
t
oddler
s,preschool
schi
ldr
enandprimar
yandsecschs.

POHC canbedef i
nedast hepr
eventi
on,contr
olanddi
agnosi
sofofOral
di
sease,usingacceptabl
eandaf
fordabl
etechnol
ogywi
thful
lcooper
ati
on
andpart
ici
pati
onoft hecommuni
ty.

Reasonsf
ori
ntr
oduct
ionofPOHC

1)Topr
eventor
aldi
seasef
rom t
hepr
imar
ylev
el

2)
tocushi
ont
heef
fectofpoorwor
kfor
ce

3)
oral
promot
ionandeducat
ion

4)t
oinv
olv
edmember
soft
hecommuni
tyi
npr
obl
em sol
vi
ng.

Focusofpr
imar
yOr
alheal
thcar
e

1)pr
event
iveor
alcar
eser
vices

2)
emer
gencyor
alheal
thser
vices

Pr
inci
plesofOr
alheal
thCar
e

Ther
ear
efi
vepr
inci
plesofor
alheal
thcar
e

1)
equi
tabl
edi
str
ibut
ioni
.eequal
oppor
tuni
ti
es
2)
communi
tyi
nvol
vement

3)
focusonpr
event
ionandheal
thpr
omot
ion

4)
Appr
opr
iat
etechnol
ogy

5)
Mul
tisect
oral
appr
oach.

ThePr
imar
yOr
alHeal
thTeam.

ThePOHCTeam

I
tismadeupof

1)Dent
alcar
epr
ofessi
onal
ssuchas

i
)Dent
ist

i
i
)Dent
alTher
api
st

i
i
i)D-Technol
ogi
sts

i
v)Dent
alnur
seandSur
ger
yassi
stanceet
c

2)NonDent
alpr
ofessi
onal
ssuchas

I
)Heal
thwor
ker
s

i
i
)communi
tyheal
thwor
ker
s

i
i
i)Heal
tht
echni
cians

i
v)Pr
imar
yCar
eTr
ust
.

Pr
imar
yOr
alHeal
thSt
andi
ngOr
der
s

-
Def
ini
ti
onofOr
alHeal
thSt
andi
ngOr
der
s

-
Funct
ionsofSt
andi
ngOr
der
s
-
Char
act
eri
sti
csofef
fect
ivest
andi
ngor
der

Or
alHeal
thst
andi
ngor
der

canbedef
inedasawr it
teni
nstr
ucti
onsordocumentst
hatoutl
i
nethe
rul
esandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesofor
alheal
thprof
essional
wor
kingatthepr
imar
y
l
evel.

Funct
ionsofSt
andi
ngOr
der
s

1)
Enabl
esal
lmember
soft
het
eam t
ofunct
iont
othei
rful
l
estcapaci
ty

2)Empowersheal
tht
eam t
owor
konot
herar
easorf
iel
dswi
thcl
ear
guidel
i
nes

3)
Est
abl
i
shedt
hel
i
mit
stot
hef
iel
dsofoper
ati
ons

Char
act
eri
sti
csofSt
andi
ngOr
der
s

1)Appr
oval

2)
Staf
ftr
aini
ng

3}
Super
visi
on

4]
Suppor
tfr
om ot
herst
aff

ORALPHYSI
OLOGY

ORALDEPOSI
TSANDCOMPOSI
TION

Ty
pesofOr
alDeposi
ts

1)Har
dOr
alDeposi
tse.
gDent
alcal
cul
us

2)SoftOr
alDeposi
tse.
gI)
Dent
alst
ains2)
Dent
alpl
aque3)
Acqui
red
pell
icl
e4)Materi
alal
ba

Acqui
redpel
l
icl
e

I
sat
hindeposi
twhi
chf
ormsshor
tl
yaf
terer
upt
ionont
heexposedsur
face
i
fthet
eet
h.

Iti
sacel
lul
arandf
reeofbact
eri
a,usual
l
yofsal
i
vaor
igi
[Link]
mal
l
y
r
eformedshor
tl
yaft
erS&P.

Composi
ti
oni
fAcqui
redPel
l
icl
e

1)
Gly
copr
otei
n

2)
li
pidsmat
eri
als

3)
Pri
mar
yami
noaci
dgr
oups

DENTALSTAI
NS

Thesearepigment
eddeposi
tsf
oundori
nsi
det
het
eet
h.I
tisal
soknownas
di
scolor
ati
onoftheteet
h.

TYPESOFDENTALSTAI
NS

1)Int
ri
nsi
cstai
ns,ar
eincorpor
atedi
ntot
oot
hst
ruct
ureandcannotbe
removedbyscal
ingI
nstruments.

ExampleofsuchSt
ainst
etr
acy
cli
net
her
apy
,b)
por
phy
ria,
ery
thr
obl
ast
osi
s
foet
ali
s

2}Ext
ri
nsi
cstai
nsar
eeasil
yremov
ed,occurasar
esultofsal
i
var
y
componentsorf
oodsubst
ancest
akenint
othemouth.

Examplesar
eI)t
obaccoi
i
)Br
ownandBl
ackst
ains,
Iv)Or
angeandgr
een
stai
ns

Readpr
oper
lyaboutSt
ains,
theyar
emost
lyCl
i
nical
quest
ions

DENTALPLAQUE

ThisCanbedef
inedassof
toraldeposit
sthatf
ormthebi
ofi
l
m adher
ingto
thetoot
handhardsurf
aceoftheoralcavi
tyi
ncl
udi
ngremovabl
eandfixed
r
est
orat
ion.

I
tisst
ickyandmostt
imesi
nvi
sibl
e.I
tisal
soknownasbact
eri
alpl
aqueor
or
albi
ofil
m.

Dent
alpl
aquei
snonmi
ner
ali
zed

COMPOSI
TIONofDENTALPLAQUE

Iti
scomposedofmi
croor
gani
smsbact
eri
almat
ri
x,or
gani
candi
nor
gani
c
composi
ti
on

DI
STRI
BUTI
ONofDENTALPLAQUE

Dent
alpl
aquecanbedi
str
ibut
edbasedon

1)Locat
ione.
gsupr
aandsubgi
ngi
val
plaque,
gi
ngi
val
plaque

2)
Sur
facee.
gmedi
al,
dist
alpal
atal
labi
alandbuccal
sur
faces.

Mi
croor
gani
smsf
oundi
nDent
alpl
aque

a)
Fusobact
eri
um

b)
Str
ept
ococcusmut
ans

c)
Str
ept
ococcusor
ali
s

d)
Treponema

FORMATI
ONofDENTALPLAQUE

Dent
alpl
aquef
ormat
ionoccur
sindi
sti
nctst
ages

1)
Pel
l
icl
efor
mat
ion

2)
Thel
agphase
3)
Rapi
dgr
owt
hbact
eri
alcol
oni
zat
ionphase

4)
Steadyst
ateanddet
achmentphase

Not
e:

-Dent
alpl
aqueremai
nst
hemai
net
iol
ogyorcauseofDent
alcar
iesand
peri
odent
aldzs

-
leadi
nfor
mat
ionofDent
alcal
cul
us

-
Gener
alor
alcl
eanl
i
nessi
sbasedonr
emov
aldent
alpl
aque

-
Cont
ri
but
est
ohal
i
tosi
s

DETECTI
ONofDENTALPLAQUE

I
tcanbedet
ect
edbydi
scl
osi
ngagent
.

Di
scl
osi
ngt
abl
etsar
echewabl
etabl
etsusedt
omakedent
alpl
aquev
isi
ble.

Exampl
eofdi
scl
osi
ngagenti
s"Er
ythr
osi
ne"

HowCanPlaqueFor
mat
ionBePr
event
edormanagedbyaDent
al
Ther
api
st

1)Br
ushy ourt
eethatleastt
wiceadaywi
that
oot
hbr
ush,
useaf
luor
ide-
cont
aini
ngtoothpast
e.

2)Fl
ossbet
weent
eet
hatl
eastonceadayt
oremov
efoodpar
ti
cl
esand
bact
eri
a.

3)Useanant
ibact
eri
almout
hri
nset
oreducebact
eri
athatcausepl
aque
andgum di
sease.

4)Seey
ourdent
istoror
alhy
gieni
stev
ery6mont
hsf
oracheck-
upand
teet
hcl
eani
ng.

Asky
ourdent
isti
fadent
alseal
anti
sappr
opr
iat
efory
ou.
5)Dent
alseal
antsar
eathin,
plast
iccoati
ngthatar
epaint
edont
hechewi
ng
surf
acesofteet
htoprot
ectthem f
rom cavi
ti
esanddecay.

6)Eatabal
anceddietandl
imitthenumberofbet
ween-mealsnacks.I
fyou
needasnack,choosenutr
it
iousfoodssuchaspl
ainy
ogurtandcleansi
ng
fr
uits.

HARDORALDEPOSI
TS

<Dentalcal
cul
us;Dent
alcal
culusi
sami ner
ali
zeddental
plaquef
il
ledwi
th
cry
stalsofvar
iouscal
cium andphosphat
esaltf
rom sal
iva.

I
tisal
soknownas"
teet
htar
tar
"

CLASSI
FICATI
ONofDENTALCALCULUS

1)Supr
agi
ngi
valCal
cul
usI
.eabov
efr
eegi
ngi
val

2)Subgi
ngi
val
Cal
cul
usI
.ebel
owt
hef
reegi
ngi
val
.

Composi
ti
onofDent
alCal
cul
us

1)Or
gani
ccomposi
ti
on

2)I
nor
gani
ccomposi
ti
on

3)I
nor
gani
csal
t

4)Wat
er

Cal
cul
usFor
mat
ion

Cal
cul
usFor
mat
ionoccuri
n3Basi
cSt
agesorst
eps

1)
Pel
l
icl
efor
mat
ion

2)
plaquef
ormat
ion

3)
Miner
ali
zat
ion.
CAUSESOrETI
OLOGYOfDENTALCALCULUS

1)Dent
alPl
aque(
Bact
eri
aPl
aque)

2)Ref
inedCar
bohy
drat
es

3)Sugar
s

PREVENTI
ONofDENTALCALCULUS

1)br
ushi
ngatl
eastt
wiceaday

2)f
lossi
ngatl
eastonceaday

3)Pr
act
icegoodor
alhy
giene

4)useonant
ical
cul
usagent

5)
Regul
arDent
alcheckup

DETECTI
ON ofDENTALCALCULUS

1)
Dir
ectexami
nat
ion

2)
Useofcompr
essedai
r

3)
Visual
exami
nat
ion

4)
Transi
l
lumi
nat
ion

5)
Useofpr
obe,
expl
orerandr
adi
ogr
aph.

HowCanPlaqueFor
mat
ionBePr
event
edormanagedbyaDent
al
Ther
api
st

1)Br
ushy ourt
eethatleastt
wiceadaywi
that
oot
hbr
ush,
useaf
luor
ide-
cont
aini
ngtoothpast
e.
2)Fl
ossbet
weent
eet
hatl
eastonceadayt
oremov
efoodpar
ti
cl
esand
bact
eri
a.

3)Useanant
ibact
eri
almout
hri
nset
oreducebact
eri
athatcausepl
aque
andgum di
sease.

4)Seey
ourdent
istoror
alhy
gieni
stev
ery6mont
hsf
oracheck-
upand
teet
hcl
eani
ng.

Asky
ourdent
isti
fadent
alseal
anti
sappr
opr
iat
efory
ou.

5)Dent
alseal
antsar
eathin,
plast
iccoati
ngthatar
epaint
edont
hechewi
ng
surf
acesofteet
htoprot
ectthem f
rom cavi
ti
esanddecay.

6)Eatabal
anceddietandl
imitthenumberofbet
ween-mealsnacks.I
fyou
needasnack,choosenutr
it
iousfoodssuchaspl
ainy
ogurtandcleansi
ng
fr
uits.

ORALHEALTHPROBLEMSDISSECTI
NGMOSTLYTHETWOPROMI
NENT
ORALDISEASE,
NAMELY

1)Dent
alCar
iesand

2)Per
iodont
alDi
sease

I
fpossi
bleot
herr
elat
edheal
thpr
obl
ems.

COMMONORALHEALTHPROBLEMS

Themostcommonor
alheal
thpr
obl
emsar
eper
iodont
aldi
seaseand
Dent
alcar
ies

DENTALCARI
ES
Dentalcar
iesal
soknownast oothdecayorcavit
iesi
sdmaj ordi
sease
af
fecti
ngtheteethit
self,
progressi
velydestr
oyi
ngit,
causi
ngseverepai
n,
i
nfecti
onandleadingtotoothlossifunchecked.

Dentalcariesi
saposter upt
ivepat
hologicaldemineral
i
zat
ionoft
ooth
str
ucturescausedasar esul
tofmul t
ifact
orialagent
sli
kebact
eri
a,r
efi
ned
carbohydrate,
suscept
ibl
etoothstr
uctures,andtime.

Thechemi
calparasi
ti
cpr
ocesswhi
char
ethe t
wost
agest
hatl
eadst
o
Dent
alCar
iesare

1)Decal
cif
icat
ionoft
heenamel
[Link]
otal
dest
ruct
ion

2)
Decal
cif
icat
ionoft
hedent
ine

Accor
dingt
oWor
ldHeal
thOr
gani
zat
ion(
WH0)

WHO(1945)definesdent
alcari
esasal
ocali
zedposterupti
vepat
hol
ogi
cal
pr
ocessofexternalor
igi
ninvol
vi
ngsof
teni
ngofhardtoothstr
uct
ure
l
eadi
ngtocavitati
ons.

Et
iol
ogyofDent
alcar
ies

Et
iol
ogyi
tsel
fisder
ivedf
rom t
woGr
eekwor
ds,
StudyandOr
igi
n

I
tist
hestudyofcausesofdi
seasesort
hest
udyofcausat
ionand
or
igi
nat
ionofdi
seases

Et
iol
ogyofDent
alCar
ies

1)Dent
alpl
aque

2)Ref
inedcar
bohy
drat
es

3)Sugar

FORMATI
ONOFDENTALCARI
ES

Threemajorf
act
orsandasubf
act
ort
hatmustcoexi
stf
ordent
alcar
iest
o
takepal
ace
1)Ref
ined/f
erment
edcar
bohy
drat
es

2)
Suscept
ibl
etoot
hsur
face

3)
Dent
alpl
aque

4)Ti
me(
subf
act
or)

Si
gni
fi
cantbact
eri
ali
nCar
iesf
ormat
ionar
e

1)St
rept
ococcusmut
ans

2)
Str
ept
ococcussal
i
var
ies

3)St
rept
ococcussangui
s

4)
Bact
obaci
l
lusaci
dophi
l
us.

Not
e:t
hef
oll
owi
ng

o Lact
icaci
dini
ti
ateorat
tackt
eet
hcausi
ngi
nit
iat
ionofCar
ies

o Thewor
stSugari
ncausi
ngDent
alCar
iesi
sSucr
ose

Demineral
i
zati
onisamajorst
ageindent
alcar
iesprocessi
nwhi ch
miner
alsaredi
ssolv
edoutfr
om t
hetoothbyacidogeni
cbacter
ial

Remi
ner
ali
zati
onIstheprocessofdeposi
ti
onofmi
ner
alsi
nto
demi
ner
ali
zedtoot
hstructur
e.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFDENTALCARI
ES

Canbebasedont
hisf
act
ors

1)Mor
phol
ogyexampl
ea)pi
tsandf
issur
ecar
ies
b)
smoot
hsur
faceCar
ies.

2)
Dynami
csexampl
esa)
Acut
edent
alcar
ies

b)
Chr
oni
cdent
alcar
ies.

3)
Chr
onol
ogy,
exampl
es

a)
Inf
ancyCar
ies

b)
Adol
escentCar
ies

4)Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionbaseoncar
iesat
tackont
oot
hormar
ginsr
est
orat
ion,
e.g

a)
Pri
mar
yCar
ies

b)
/Secondar
yorr
ecur
rentcar
ies.

5)Classi
fi
cat
ionbasedi
nSev
eri
tyandr
ateofpr
ogr
essi
on.
thesear
eTy
pes
ofcari
ese.g

a)
Arr
est
edCar
ies

b)
Inci
pientcar
ies

c)Acut
eCar
ies

d)
Chr
oni
ccar
ies

e)
Recur
rentCar
ies

f
)I
nfantCar
ies

g)
Adol
escentCar
ies

h)
Radi
ati
onCar
ies

Not
e:Thesear
ethet
ypesofCar
iesdon'
tbeconf
useddur
ingexams,

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofDent
alCar
ies1
Haveprov
endodi
ff
icul
ttobecl
assi
fi
edot
her
sli
keG.
VBl
ack6cl
assesof
cl
assi
fi
cati
ons

DI
AGNOSI
SOFDENTALCARI
ES

1)Di
rectexami
nat
ion

2)Useoft
ransi
l
lumi
nat
ion

3)useofr
adi
ogr
aph

4)useofsi
gnsandsy
mpt
oms

ManagementofDent
alCar
ies

1)
Useoff
issur
eseal
ant

2)
Reduct
ionofsugari
ntake

3)Suppr
essi
onofbact
eri
a

4)
Remi
ner
ali
zat
ion

5)
Crown

6)
Fil
l
ing

7)
RootCanal
Ther
apy(
RCT)

8)
Ext
ract
ion

Si
gnsandSy
mpt
omsofDent
alcar
ies

1)Toot
hache

2)Toot
hsensi
ti
vi
ty

3)
badbr
eat
h

4)changeofnor
mal
col
our
5)unpl
easantt
ast
eordi
ff
icul
tyi
neat
ing

6)t
oot
hloss

PREVENTI
VEANDCONTROLMEASURESOFDENTALCARI
ES

1)
Dent
alHeal
thEducat
iont
hisi
nvol
ves

a)
oral
heal
thi
nst
ruct
ions

b)t
oot
hbr
ushi
ngi
nst
ruct
ions

c)UseofDent
alf
loss

d)f
luor
idat
ion

e)
Dietcounsel
l
ing

2)
Useoff
luor
idee.
gfl
uor
idegel

Ty
pesoff
luor
ide

a)
Stannousf
luor
ide

b)Sodi
um f
lour
ideNeut
ral

c)
Aci
dul
atedf
lour
ide

Met
hodsusef
orappl
i
cat
ionsoff
lour
ide

1)
Topi
cal
appl
i
cat
ionofgel

2)
Dir
ectt
echni
quee.
gCot
tonappl
i
cat
or

3)I
ndi
rectt
echni
quee.
gUseoft
ray
4)UseofPr
ophy
laxi
spast
e

5)useofFl
our
idev
ani
she.
gdur
aphat
.

Cont
rol
Measur
esofDent
alCar
ies.

Car
iescont
rol
hav
ebeencl
assi
fi
edi
nto3gener
alt
ypes

1)Chemical
measur
[Link]
cal
ssubst
ancest
hathel
pin
cont
rol
li
ngDent
alCari
es

a)
Flour
ide

b)Chl
ohexi
dineandAl
exi
dine.
Areanant
ipl
aqueagent

V)Si
l
verni
tr
ateandZi
ncChl
ori
de

2)Nutri
ti
onal
measuresofCari
escont
rol
[Link]
rol
ofsugari
ntakel
i
ke
sucroseandref
inedcar
bohy
drat
es.

3)Mechani
calmeasuresofCari
escont
rol.
Thesei
nvol
vespr
ocedur
est
hat
hel
ptocomplet
elyremovalofdent
alpl
aque

Thesei
ncl
ude

1)pr
ophy
laxi
s

2)
Toot
hbr
ushi
ng

3)
Mout
hri
nsi
ng

4)
UseofDent
alf
loss

5)Useoff
ibr
ousandcl
eansi
ngf
oods

N/
B:Fi
brousf
oodar
emai
nlyf
rui
tst
hatcont
ainsf
ibr
eshel
pst
ocl
eanof
f
debr
isof
fthet
eet
he.
gguav
a,or
angeandpi
neappl
e

Cl
eansingfoodar
emainlyf
rui
tst
hatact
ivatet
heflowofsal
i
vahelps
cl
eansefoodpart
icl
[Link]
denegg,pawpawand
waterMelon.

PI
TSANDFI
SSURESEALANTS

Pi
tsandf
issur
escanbedef
inedast
he

thinplast
iccoat
ingoforgani
cpolymerorresi
nplacedonthepi
tsand
f
issur
esoft het
eeth.
I.
etheoclusalsur
facesorthemolar
s.

Theyser
veasaphy si
cal
bar
ri
eragai
nstbact
eri
aandcar
bohy
drat
est
o
prev
entdent
alCar
ies.

Theyar
edonebyt
heact
ionet
chi
ngt
echni
ques.

Seal
ant
sar
emadeupofBi
sGMAbi
pheny
lgl
yci
dyl
met
hacr
ylat
e.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONSOFSEALANTS

1)
Aut
opol
ymer
izedSeal
ant
s

2)
Phot
opol
ymer
ized

3)
Fir
stgener
ati
on-4t
hgener
ati
on

5)Resi
nsy
stem e.
gbi
sGMA

6)
Fil
l
edandUnf
il
ledSeal
ant
s

TYPESOFSEALANTS

Twot
ypesofSeal
ant
s

1)
Aut
ipol
ymer
ized
2)
Lightsour
ce.

Pr
ocedur
eforSeal
antAppl
i
cat
ion

1)
Cleant
het
eet
hsur
faces

2)I
sol
ateanddr
ythet
oot
h

3)et
cht
heenamel

4)
Washanddr
ytheenamel

5)
Appl
yresi
n

6)
All
owt
her
esi
ntopol
ymer
ized

7)
Checkt
heseal
ant

PERI
ODONTALDI
SEASE

Areseri
ouschroni
cinf
ecti
onsorpathologi
cal
processthatinv
olv
esthe
dest
ruct
ionoft
oothsupport
ingapparat
usorperi
odontalti
ssuessuchas
gum,peri
odont
alli
gaments,
alveol
arboneandthecement um.

I
tisref
erstoasi
nfl
ammat
orycondi
ti
onssuchasgi
ngi
vi
ti
sand
per
iodont
it
is.

Anot
hernamef
orPer
iodont
alDi
seasei
sPy
orr
hea

Per
iodont
aldzsi
spr
inci
pal
causeoft
oot
hlossi
nadul
tgl
obal
l
y

I
tinv
olv
est
wo(2)gener
alcat
egor
ieswhi
chdeal
swi
that
tachmentorbone
l
ossnamel
y.
1)Gi
ngi
vi
ti
s-Iti
sarever
siblefor
m ofdiseaset
hati
nvol
vesthei
nfl
ammat
ion
ofgi
ngi
valt
issuewi
thoutlossofconnectiv
eti
ssueat
tachment

2)Peri
odonti
ti
sisanir
reversi
blef
orm ofdi
seasethati
nvol
ves
i
nflammati
onoftheperiodonti
um wit
hlossofconnect
ivet
issue
att
achmentor(det
achmentofcollagenfi
bresf
rom cement
um leadi
ngt
o
boneloss)

Cl
i
nical
Mani
fest
ati
onofPer
iodont
aldi
sease

1)Gum l
oss

2)Toot
hmobi
l
ity

3)
per
iodont
alpocket
s

4)
Abscesses

5)
pus

CLASSI
FICATI
ONSOFPERI
ODONTALDI
SEASE

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionsPer
iodi
ntal
Disease

1)Gi
ngi
val
diseasewhi
chi
scl
assi
fi
edas

a)pl
aguei
nducean

b)nonpl
aquei
nduced

2)
Chr
oni
cPer
iodont
alcl
assi
fi
edas

a)l
ocal
i
zedand

b)Gener
ali
zed

3Aggr
essi
veper
iodont
it
is:
theonseti
schr
oni
candoccurduet
oimmune
def
ici
encyandgenet
icl
i
nka

4)Per
iodont
it
isduet
oSy
stemi
cdzssuchas

a)
Necr
oti
zi
ngper
iodont
aldi
sease

b)
Necr
oti
zi
ngul
cer
ati
vedi
sease(
NUP)

c)Necr
oti
zi
ngul
cer
ati
vegi
ngi
vi
ti
s(NUG)

RI
SKFACTORSOFPERI
ODONTALDI
SEASE

Ri
skFact
orsofPer
iodont
alDi
sease

1)Medi
cat
ion

2)Sy
stemi
cdi
sease

3)
Env
ironment
alf
act
or

4)
Oral
micr
oor
gani
sms

5)
Genet
ics

6)Pr
egnancy

ETI
OLOGYOFPERI
ODONTALDI
SEASE

Et
iol
ogyofPer
iodont
alDi
seasei
sint
otwof
act
ors

1)
Local
fact
or

2)
Syst
emi
cfact
or

l
ocal
fact
orsi
ncl
ude

1)
Iat
rogeni
cfact
or

2)Dent
alpl
aque
3)Dent
alCal
cul
us

4)
Mout
hbr
eat
hing

5)Useofsmokel
esst
obacco

6)Pooror
alhy
giene

7Anat
omi
cfact
or

8)opencav
iti
es

SYSTEMI
CFACTORS

1)
Nut
ri
ti
onal
inf
luence

2)
Endocr
inedi
sor
der

3)Hemat
ologi
cal
disor
der

4)
Immunodef
ici
encydi
sor
der

5)
Psy
chosomat
icdi
sor
der

6)
Her
edi
ty

7)
Drugact
ion

MANAGEMENTOFPERI
ODONTALDI
SEASE

1)compet
eremov
alofDent
alpl
aque

2)Per
iodi
cpr
ophy
laxi
s

3)
Mai
ntenanceofgoodor
alhy
gieneI
.e

a)
toot
hbr
ushi
ng

b)
Flossi
ng
c)Useofwoodpoi
nts.

TREATMENTOFPERI
ODONTALDI
SEASE

1)Thor
oughpr
ophy
laxi
sI.
eS&P

2)Reev
aluat
ionofor
alhy
gienepr
act
ice

3)
Rest
orat
ionofcar
iousl
esi
ons

4)
Ext
ract
ion

5)Per
iodont
alSur
ger
y

6)
Occl
usal
Ther
apy

PREDI
SPOSI
NGFACTORSofDENTALCALCULUS.

1Iat
rogenicfactor
sarwInadequatedentalpr
ocedur
esthatcont
ribut
eto
t
hedet er
ior
ationoftheper
iodontalt
issuesar
erefer
redtoasiat
rogeni
c
f
actors.

2)
Anat
omi
cfact
ors

3)Opencav
iti
es

4)Mal
occl
usi
on

5)
Ort
hodont
icTx

6)Ext
ract
ionofi
mpact
ed3r
dmol
ars

7)Habi
ts&sel
f-
inf
li
ctedi
njur
ies

8)
Smokel
esst
obacco

9)
Radi
ati
on
Fi
vet
umor
sassoci
atedwi
thconnect
ivet
issue

Connecti
veti
ssuearet
issuesthatconnect
s,suppor
tsandsepar
atesal
l
ot
hertypesofti
ssuesi
nt hebody

Thefi
vet
umor
sassoci
atedwi
thconnect
ivet
issueasseenont
hewebsi
te
ooo

Fi
broscar
coma

Ost
eoscar
coma

Ewi
ng'
ssacor
ma

Chondr
osar
coma

Mul
ti
plemy
eloma

Cl
ass2occl
usi
on

Inclass2occl
usi
on,t
hemesiobucal
cuspofupperf
ir
stmol
arexceeds
anteri
ort
othebuccal
groov
eoft hel
owerf
ir
stmolar
.

Class3:t
hemesi
obucalcuspofupperf
ir
stmol
arexceedspost
eri
ort
othe
buccalgr
oov
eofthelowerfi
rstmol
ar

Class1isj
ustli
kethenor
mal cl
assif
icat
ionofoccl
usi
onbutt
hedi
ff
erence
t
hereiscr
owdingandposi
tional
irr
egular
iti
es

Normalcl
ass:t
hemesiobucalcuspofupperf
ir
stmol
aroccl
udeswi
tht
he
buccal
groov
eofthel
owerfirstmolar

FUNCTI
ONSOFSALI
VA

[Link]
psi
ndi
gest
ion
[Link]
fer
ing

[Link]
alt
oil
eti
ng

[Link]
icant

[Link]
eint
ast
e

Si
aladenit
isisani
nfl
ammationofasal
i
varygl
[Link]
i
varyglandsar
ethe
gl
andst hatmakesal
iva,
whichhel
pswit
hswall
owinganddigesti
onand
pr
otectsy ourt
eet
hfr
om bacter
ia.

Ther
ear
ethr
eemai
nsal
i
var
ygl
ands:

Par
oti
dgl
andsi
nfr
ontoft
heeari
nthecheeks

Submandi
bul
argl
andsundert
hechi
n

Subl
i
ngual
glandsundert
het
ongue

Sy
mpt
omsofsi
aladeni
ti
sincl
ude:

Enl
argement
,tender
ness,
Fev
er,
Decr
easedsal
i
va,
Pai
nwhi
l
eeat
ing

Dr
ymout
h(xer
ost
omi
a),
Reddenedski
n,
Swel
l
ingi
nthecheekandneck

N/
Btheyal
mostpr
esentsi
mil
arsy
mpt
oms

6arubbercuppol
i
shi
ngisusedformassagi
ngthegum t
oimpr
ovegingi
val
tone,andcol
our,
mai
ntankerat
ini
zat
ionet
cusedwitht
helowspeed
handpiece

Ai
rpol
i
shi
ngi
samet
hodr
emov
ingext
ri
nsi
cst
ainsusi
ngcompr
essedai
r,
wat
er,
gly
cer
ineorsodi
um bi
car
bonat
e,

I
tcanal
sobeusedt
or emoveoralbi
ofil
m asdent
alpl
aque,
itcanusedon
i
mplant
sandi
tsbet
terthanl
ocalpol
ishing.

Rubbercuppol
i
shingcanal
sor
emov
ebi
olf
il
mispl
aquet
ooapar
tfr
om i
ts
ef
fectongum t
issue.

ORALHYGI
ENE

FUNCTI
ONSOFOROGBOCHEWI
NGSTI
CKARE:

i
thelpsinar
rest
ingv
omi
ti
ngmost
lyi
npr
egnantwomenwi
thmor
ning
si
ckness,

i
tequal
l
ybel
i
evest
hati
tcur
eper
iodont
it
is

CALABARCHEWI CKi
NGSI susedasagi
ftf
orl
ovedones.

Thelocalchewingsticksare:
Fagarazanthoxyl
oides(candl
ewoodor
Senegalpri
cklyash/ori
natainYoruba),
Vernoniaamy gdali
na(bit
terleaf
)
andMassul ar
iaaccumi nat
a(chewingsti
ck(pakoijebuinYoruba/atuuhie
i
nIgbo.

EWUROPAKOi
smedi
ci
nal
andhel
pfi
ghtagai
nstbact
eri
a

Emgbegi
richewingst
ick:
somenat i
vesbeli
evet
hati
tcanbeusedt
otr
eat
margi
nal
gingivi
ti
sandperiodont
aldi
sease.

Pakopupa(
Ayi
n):
iti
soft
enr
egar
dedasst
ainr
emov
al.I
tal
sor
emov
es
coat
ingont
het
ongue.

Pakodudu:
itst
ainst
het
eet
h.I
tactasanappet
izer
.
AkoI
jebu:
somenat
ivesbel
i
evest
hati
twhi
tenst
het
eet
h.

Pr
intAj
a:somebel
i
evesi
thel
pst
oar
restsi
ckl
ecel
lanemi
a

It
hinki
tsusual
l
ymadeart
ist
ical
l
yforat
tr
act
ion,
alt
houghi
thasi
tsown
medici
nal
advantage.

[Link]
ushi
ngwi
tht
her
ightmet
hodoft
oot
hbr
ushi
ng

[Link]
ushi
ngt
wiceaday

[Link]
ingf
rui
tsr
ichi
nfi
ber

[Link]
ngadent
istorgoi
ngf
orS&pt
wicei
nay
ear
..

•RECESSI
ONWI
THTOOTHSENSI
TIVI
TY.

•Demineral
i
zedareasorthi
nenamelasinamelogenesi
simper
fect
a.
Decal
cif
iedordeminer
ali
zedar
easappearchal
kywhite.

•Newl
y-
erupt
edt
eet
hast
hesur
faceshav
enotbeenf
ull
ymi
ner
ali
zedy
et.

•Teet
hwi
thl
argepul
pchamber
s,suchaspr
imar
yteet
h.

•Ar
easofexposedcement
um anddent
in.

Demi
ner
ali
zedspot
s.

•Rootcar
ies.

•Gol
d,composi
te,
acr
yli
cveneer
s,por
cel
ainr
est
orat
ions.

.I
mmediatel
yfoll
owinggum t
herapySRP:abr
asi
vepart
icl
escanbecome
embeddedinthepocketwal
landint
erf
erewit
hheal
ing

Orali
rri
gatorswerefi
rstdevelopedin1962asanal ternati
v etodental
fl
ossi
[Link] soknownasa“ dentalwaterj
et”,“
waterpick”,or“dent
al
i
rri
gator”
,anoralir
ri
gatorusesast ream ofpressur
ized,pulsati
ngwatert
o
cl
eanbet weenteethandbelowt hegum [Link],harmfuldeep
peri
odont
alpocketbact
eri
athatcoul
dnotot
herwi
seber
eachedt
hrough
brushi
ngorfl
ossing,
isf
lushedoutandr
emoved.
Orali
rr
igat
ioni
sof
tenr
ecommendedf
orpeopl
ewhoar
eunabl
etot
oler
ate
fl
ossi
ng.
Sensi
ti
vegums,
or
thodont
icappl
i
ances,
di
abet
es,
dent
ali
mpl
ant
s,
andnon-
compl
i
anceareal
lreasonswhyor
ali
rr
igat
ioni
sanef
fect
ive
al
ter
nati
vet
ofl
ossi
ng.
Amateri
alwhi
chwhenappli
edonnatural
teet
hmakesbiof
il
mv isi
ble,
f
ocusi
ngonareast
hathavebeenmissedoutdur
ingdai
l
ytoothbrushi
ng.

DI
SCLOSSI
NGAGENTS:

Disclosi
ngagentsarepreparati
onscontaini
ngdyeorothercol
ouri
ng
agent swhi
chisusedf ort
hei dent
if
icat
ionofbact
eri
alplaquet
hatcanbe
di
stinctl
yseenprovi
dingav aluabl
ev i
sualai
dandhelpinthemaint
enance
ofgoodor alheal
th.

Operculect
omyisami norsur
gical
procedur
ewher
eaf
lapoft
issueov
era
par
ti
allyerupt
edtoot
hi sremoved.
:

Asof tnon-minerali
zedwhi t
ishdeposi
tfoundonthetoothsurfacearound
thegingiv
al margins,usuall
yassociat
edwithpooror
[Link]
sts
offooddebr i
s,mi cr
o-organi
sms, anddeadti
ssuecel
[Link]
ikedent al
plaque,i
tcanbewashedof fwithwater.

Syst
emicdxcancontr
aindicat
esomedental
ther
apycar
einter
vent
ions,
whereasPT'
smedical
historyi
sdyar
dsti
ckforever
yRxplanni
ng.

Ai
scor
rectbcozdr
ysocketsi
mpl
ymeansi
nfect
edt
oot
hsocketwhi
chcan
beasar
esul
tofpat
ientnonadher
encet
opostext
ract
ioni
nst
ruct
ions.

Toot
hpast
econsi
stsofAbr
asi
ve,
humect
ant
sfl
avour
abl
eandot
her
.

On11March2020,t
he2019Coronavi
rusdisease(
Cov
id19)
recei
vedt
he
st
atusofpandemi
c(anepi
demi
cglobalscal
e)

InNigeri
a,theFederalMi
nist
ryofheal
thconfi
rmedthefi
rstCaseof
Coronav i
rusinLagos,amancomi ngfr
om It
alyhav
ingal
readyexi
sti
ng
condit
ionsofdiabetesmell
it
us

Thefi
rstcasewasconfi
rmed27Febr
uary2020,si
ncet
hem hav
ebeen
rav
agi
ngt hecount
ryt
oaneconomystandsti
ll
.

Not
e,Cor
onameanscr
owni
nLat
in

Thevir
usisnameCor
onabcosi
tlooksl
i
keacr
ownunderel
ect
ron
micr
oscope.

SYMPTOMSofCORONAVI
RUS

1)
Fev
er

2)Sor
ethr
oat

3)
Mal
aise

4)
Cough

5)Di
ff
icul
tyi
nbr
eat
hing

6)
Myal
gia

Di
seasePr
ogr
essi
on

80%ofthisdi
seaseistr
eatable,
itmostlyaf
fecttheel
derl
yandpeopl
ewi
th
preexi
sti
ngconditi
[Link]
hma, hear
tdi
sease,
i
mmunosuppression.
Tr
eat
ment

Ther
eisnospeci
fi
ctreat
mentforCovi
d19,
howev ermanyoft
he
symptomscanbetr
eated,suppor
tcar
eisef
fect
ive.

Nev
erthel
essalotofdrugsareonCl
i
nical
tri
alsandt
hemostusedr
ugs
t
otestrunthet
reatmentofCoVi
d19were

1)Chl
oroqui
ne

2)Vi
tami
ns

3)
Humandexamet
hasome

Rout
esofTr
ansmi
ssi
on

1)
Dir
ect
lyf
rom per
sont
oper
son

2)I
ndi
rect
lyf
rom i
nfect
edmat
eri
alst
ohuman

3)
thr
oughdr
opl
etssuchassal
i
va

GENERALPREVENTI
ONMEASURES

1)
Washy
ourhandswi
thsoapunderr
unni
ngwat
er

Oruseal
cohol
handbasesani
ti
zeri
ntheabsenceofwat
er

2)
Cov
ery
ourmout
handnosewi
tht
issuepaperwhensneezi
ngorcoughi
ng

3)
Avoidclosecontactwit
hanyoneshowingsympt
omsofr
espi
rat
ory
i
ll
ness.Atleast2meters(6f
eets)awayduri
ng

coughi
ngorsneezi
ng

4)Obeynat
ional
andst
atedi
rect
ivesoncancel
l
ingorav
oidi
ngl
arge
gat
her
ings,
stay
ingathomeandl
ockdowndi
rect
iveswher
eappl
i
cabl
e

5)
Donotmi
ngl
ewi
thpeopl
eifuhav
ecoughorCov
id19sy
mpt
oms

6)Cl
eanal
ltouchedsur
faceswi
thwat
er,
soapanddi
si
nfect
ant
s.

7)Wearamask

MYTHSofCORONAVI
RUS

1)Cov
id19doesnotki
l
labl
ackman

2)I
tisabi
gmandi
sease

3)
Cov
id19i
sMal
ari
afev
er

4)
Cov
id19i
scur
edbyheatorhi
ghsuni
ntensi
ty

Not
e:Cor
onav
irusdi
seasei
siszoonot
ici
nfect
ioncausedbyCor
onav
irus.

PHARMACOLOGY

Phar
macol
ogyisabr
anchofmedici
neandpharmaceut
ical
sci
encest
hat
deal
swi
ththest
udyofdr
ugs,pr
operti
es,
sour
ces,andmodesofacti
ons.

Sowhati
sDr
ugs

Drugisisachemi
calsubstance,t
ypi
cal
lyofknownst
ructur
e,whi
ch,
when
administ
eredt
oali
vi
ngor ganism,pr
oducesabiol
ogi
caleff
ect
.

Aphar maceuti
caldr
ug,alsocall
edamedicati
onormedi
cine,
isachemi
cal
substanceusedtotreat
,cure,
prevent
,ordi
agnoseadi
seaseortopr
omote
well
-being.

Rout
esofDr
ugsAdmi
nist
rat
ion
Manydr
ugscanbeadmi
nist
ered

a)
ORALLYasl
i
qui
ds,
capsul
es,
tabl
ets,
orchewabl
etabl
ets..
..

b)I
[Link]
nistr
ati
onbyi
nject
ion(
par
ent
eral
admini
str
ati
on)i
ncl
udest
hef
ol l
owingr
out
es:..
.

Subl
i
ngual
andbuccal
rout
es..
..

C)
RECTALROUTE.

D)
VAGI
NALROUTE.

E)
OCULARROUTE.

F)
OTI
CROUTE.

G)
NASALROUTE.

GROUPI
NG

Dr
ugscanbegr
oupedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ng

1)Anal
gesi
cs

Anal
gesi
ccanbedefinedasanydr
ugthatr
eli
evespainselect
ivel
ywit
hout
bl
ocki
ngtheconduct
ionofner
veimpul
sesoraffect
ingconsci
ousness

Anal
gesi
csar
eal
soknownasPai
nki
l
ler
s

Anal
gesi
csagentcanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
womaj
orgr
oups

1)Nonopioidor(Nonnarcot
ic)anal
gesics:
Theyareknownasanti
-
i
nf l
ammatorydrugs,
whichal
levi
atepainbyreduci
nglocal
inf
lammator
y
response.

theant
i-
inf
lammatorycompoundsareusedf orshor
t-
ter
m painr
eli
efand
formodestpai
n,suchasthatofheadache,
muscl est
rai
n,br
uisi
ng,or
art
hri
ti
s.

TheNonnar
cot
icanal
gesi
csagent
scancont
rol
mostDent
alpai
n,butv
ery
i
nef
fect
ivei
nsev
eredi
scomf
ort
.

Theyal
sor
educedt
emper
atur
einf
everandar
ever
ycheapt
oget

Theyar
epr
escr
ipt
iondr
ugsorov
ert
hecount
erdr
ugs

Ty
pesofNonnar
cot
icdr
ugs

Ty
pesofNonnar
cot
icdr
ugs

1)
Par
acet
amol
(Acet
ami
nophen)

I
tisnotgoodf
orusef
orpeopl
ewi
thl
i
verdi
seasee.
ghepat
it
is

2)Non-
Ster
oidalant
i-i
nfl
ammat
orydr
ugs(NSAI
D)suchas

i
)Aspi
ri
nist
hemostuseandi
mpor
tantNSAI
D

i
i
)Ibupr
ofen

i
i
i)Napr
oxen

Phar
macol
ogi
cal
Eff
ectofAspi
ri
n.I
tcanbeposi
ti
veornegat
ive

1)
Anal
gesi
csef
fect
sI.
eitr
eli
evesmi
ndandmoder
atepai
n

2)
Itcanst
opbl
oodcl
ott
ing

3)
Ant
iinf
lammat
oryef
fectI
.eI
tst
opsi
nfl
ammat
ion

4)
Ant
ipy
ret
icef
fectI
.ei
treducesf
everorshi
ver
ing

5)I
tincr
easet
her
ateofUr
icaci
dinur
ine

Aspir
ini
sgi
vendur
ingpr
egnancyt
opr ev
entpre-
ecl
ampsi
a;I
.ewhena
babyseemst
oappearsmal
lert
hanexpected.

Aspi
ri
nisappr
ovedf
ort
het
reat
mentoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons
1)Fev
er

2)
pai
n

3)Ar
thr
it
is

:
Aspiri
nisoneoft hemorecommoncausesoful
cers,
andanyone
wi
thpepti
culcerdiseaseshoul
dnotbet
aki
ngaspi
ri
nexceptundercar
eful
medi
calsupervi
sion.

Aspi
ri
nisdanger
ousf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
ons

1)Ast
hma

2)
Stomachul
cer
s

3)
Stomachbl
eedi
ng.

Si
deEf
fectofAspi
ri
n

Theanti
thromboti
ceff
ectI
.edecr
easebl
oodcl
ott
ingasar
esul
tofov
er
doseofAspir
inorbl
eedi
ng

SI
DEEFFECTSofNONNARCOTI
CDRUGS

i
)Ki
dneypr
obl
ems

i
i
)li
verpr
obl
ems

i
i
i)Nausea

i
V)Numbnessoft
hel
i
ps

V)
Bleedi
ng
Vi
)Abnor
mal
hear
trat
e

Anal
gesi
csagentcanbegr
oupedi
ntot
womaj
orgr
oups

2)Opi
oidorNar
cot
icsAnal
gesi
c

Thesear
est
rongandef
fect
iveagent
'swhi
char
epr
escr
ibedf
orPai
ns.

Theyar epsychoact
ivecompoundswi t
hsleepi
nduci
ngandeuphor i
c
properti
[Link]
veyoujoy
, hi
ghspir
it
,
l
aught [Link]
standwhenpersontakeIgboor
mar i
j
uanaba?

Alt
houghinter
estinthesedr
ugshadal waysbeenhi
ghbecauseoftheir
val
ueinpainrel
iefandbecauseofproblemsofabuseandaddi
cti
on,ithas
beenbannedinmostcount r
iesort
aggedi l
l
egaldr
ugsjustl
i
keinour
count
ryNigeri
a.

Theyar epsychoact
ivecompoundswi t
hsleepi
nduci
ngandeuphor i
c
properti
[Link]
veyoujoy
, hi
ghspir
it
,
l
aught [Link]
standwhenpersontakeIgboor
mar i
j
uanaba?

Alt
houghinter
estinthesedr
ugshadal waysbeenhi
ghbecauseoftheir
val
ueinpainrel
iefandbecauseofproblemsofabuseandaddi
cti
on,ithas
beenbannedinmostcount r
iesort
aggedi l
l
egaldr
ugsjustl
i
keinour
count
ryNigeri
a.
Not
e! t
heNarcot
ics,act
sont
hebr
ainorCNSwhi
l
eNonNar
cot
icact
s
Per
ipheral
.

Theopioi
danal
gesi
cscanbeusedf
orei
thershor
t-
ter
m orl
ong-
ter
mrel
i
ef
ofsev
erepai
n.

Ty
pesofNar
cot
icsDr
ugs

1)Codei
ne

2)Mor
phi
ne

3)
Papav
eri
ne

4)
Met
hodone

5)
Her
oin

6)Thebai
ne

Phar
macol
ogi
cal
Eff
ectofNar
cot
icsAnal
gesi
c

1)
Managementofpai
n

2)
Inducesedat
ionand

euphor
ia

3)Exer
tcoughsuppr
essi
on

4)
Reducedsy
stem r
nxofdi
arr
hoea

Si
deEf
fect
sofNar
cot
ics(
Opi
oiddr
ugs)

1)
Theycausedr
owsi
ness
2)Theycauseconst
ipat
ion

3)
theycausest
upor

4)Conv
ulsi
onsand

5)Coma

6) y
ougoj
ustt
hesmi
l
eandl
aughl
i
kemumu

I
nsummar
yDr
ugsar
egr
oupedi
nto

1)
Anal
gesi
c

Underanal
gesi
cwehav
e

1)
Opi
oidornar
cot
icse.
gher
oin,
mor
phi
neet
cand

2)
nonopi
oidornon nar
cot
icse.
gpar
acet
amol
andNSAI
D

2)
Tranqui
l
izer

Dr
ugscanbegr
oupedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ng

2)
Tranqui
l
izer
s;

ref
erstoadrugthati
susedint
hetr
eatmentofanxiet
y,f
ear
,tensi
on,
agi
tati
on,
andrel
atedstat
esofment
aldi
stur
bance.

Not
eTr
anqui
l
li
zer
sar
eal
soknownassedat
ives

Tr
anqui
l
izer
sfal
li
ntot
womai
ncl
asses,

I
)Maj
ort
ranqui
l
izer
s,whi
char
eal
soknownasant
ipsy
chot
icagent
s,or
neur
olept
ics,
aresocal
l
edbecausetheyar
eusedt otreatmaj
orstat
esof
mentaldi
stur
bancei
nschi
zophr
enicsandotherpsychoti
cpat
ient
s.

Thebasictypesarethea)phenothi
azi
nes,b)t
hioxanthi
nes,
c)but
yrophenones,d)
clozapi
[Link]
azinesarethemostwi
del
y
usedoftheseandincludethedrugchlorpr
omazi ne

2)
Minort
ranqui
l
izer
s.j

Schizophr
eni
aandpsychoti
corphy
sosi
sar
ejustment
aldi
stur
bances
rel
atingemot
ionsandthought
s

Theagent
sar
ejustmedi
cat
ionst
hatar
eusedt
ocur
eit
.

Theminortranqui
li
zer
swhi char
ealsoknownasant i
anxietyagent
s,or
anxi
oly
tics,
areusedtotr
eatmi l
derst
atesofanxi
etyandt ensi
oninheal
thy
i
ndiv
idualsorpeopl
ewithlessseri
ousmentaldi
[Link]

Thebasi
cty
pesofmi nortr
anqui
l
izer
sar
ethebenzodi
azepi
nes,
among
whichar
ea)di
azepam (Val
i
um),

b)chl
ordi
azepoxi
de(
Libr
ium)
,and

c)al
prazol
am (
Xanax)
.

Besi
desthet
reatmentofanxi
etydisorders,t
heyarewidelyusedtorel
ieve
thest
rai
nandwor r
yari
singfr
om stressfulci
rcumstancesindai
lyl
if
e.e.g
nomoneyforthehusbandtocaterforhisfamily

Becauseoft
his,
benzodi
azepi
nesar
eamongt
hemostwi
del
ypr
escr
ibed
drugsint
heworld.

Benzodi
azepinesworkbyenhanci
ngtheacti
onoftheneurot
ransmit
ter
gamma- aminobut
yri
caci
d(GABA),whichi
nhibi
tsanxi
etybyreduci
ng
cer
tainnerv
e-impul
setr
ansmissi
onswithi
nthebrai
n.
Ot
herOr
alSedat
ivei
ndent
ist
ryort
ranqui
l
izerdr
ugsar
e

1Ni
tr
ousoxi
de

2)
Tri
azol
am

3)
Midazol
am

4)
Propof
ol

5)
Ket
ami
ne

6)
Dexmedet
omi
dine

SI
DEEFFECTOfTRANSQUI
LIZERS

1)Hal
l
uci
nat
ions

2)
Isol
ati
onandsecl
usi
onf
rom l
ovedones

3)
Car
diacar
rest

4)
Rest
lessness

5)I
ncr
easedsl
eepi
ness

6)
Conf
usi
on

Dr
ugscanbeGr
oupedi
ntot
heFol
l
owi
ng

3)Ant
ibi
oti
cs

Ant
ibi
oti
csar
eagroupofmedi
cinest
hatareusedtotr
eatinf
ecti
ons.
Ant
ibi
oti
csar
esometi
mescall
edanti
bact
eri
alsorant
imicr
obial
s.
Anti
biot
icscanbetakenbymouthasliqui
ds,
tabl
ets,
orcapsul
es,
by
i
nject
[Link]
ealsoavai
l
abl
eincreamsandointment
.

Not
e:Onl
ybact
eri
ali
nfect
ionscanbeki
l
ledwi
thant
ibi
oti
cs.

Thecommoncold,f
lu,
mostcoughs,somebronchi
ti
sinf
ecti
ons,andt
he
st
omachfl
uareall
causedbyvi
[Link]
ibi
oti
cswon'tki
ll
av i
rus.

Thesear
esomet
ypesofi
nfect
ionst
hatcanbet
reat
edwi
thant
ibi
oti
cs:

1)
Dent
ali
nfect
ions

2)
Ski
ninf
ect
ions

3)
Bladderandki
dneyi
nfect
ions

4)
Vagi
nai
nfect
ions

5)Si
nusI
nfect
ions

6)Bot
uli
sm

7)
Tet
anus

8)
Ant
hraxet
c

Ant
ibi
oti
csUsei
ntheTr
eat
mentofi
nfect
ionsi
nDent
alpr
act
ice.

1)
Peni
cil
l
in

2)
Amoxi
cil
l
in

3)
Cli
ndamy
cin

4)
Cephal
exi
n
5)
Azi
thr
omy
cin

6)
Tet
racy
cli
nes

7)
Gent
ami
cin

8)
Met
roni
dazol
e

9)
Cephal
opsor
ins.

Penicil
li
nandamoxi cil
li
narethemostcommonant i
bioti
csusedin
denti
[Link]
entswhoareal l
ergi
ctoeit
her,adenti
stmayprescr
ibe
cl
indamy cinorcephalexi
n,whicharestr
ongerandtreatabr
oaderspect
rum
ofinfecti
ons.

Tet
racy
cli
neasanant
ibi
oti
csi
scont
rai
ndi
cat
edi
npr
egnancy

becausethismedi
cineduri
ngpregnancymayaf
fectt
oot
h(st
aini
ng)
and
bonedevelopmenti
nt heunbor
nbaby .

Tet
racy
cli
necausesenamel
hypopl
asi
a

SI
DEEFFECTSOFANTI
BIOTI
CS

SI
deEf
fect
sofAnt
ibi
oti
cs

1)
Vomi
ti
ng

2)
Nausea

3)
Diar
rhea

4)
Bloat
ingori
ndi
gest
ion

5)
Abdomi
nal
pai
n

6)
Lossofappet
it
e

N/BTer
atogensaredrugs,
chemi
cal
s,orev
eni
nfect
ionst
hatcancause
abnor
mal f
etaldev
elopment.
 Theeff
ectofabnor
mal
fet
aldev
elopmenti
sknownasTet
rat
ogeni
c
ef
fect.

Agai
nTet
racy
cli
nei
scont
rai
ndi
cat
edi
npr
egnantpar
ent
s

t
hef
oll
owi
ngdr
ugsar
econt
rai
ndi
cat
edi
npat
ient
swi
thpept
icul
cer

1)
Aspi
ri
n

2)I
bupr
ofen

3)
Cat
afl
am

4)Di
clof
enacsodi
um

5)Kacham

6)Zonagi
n

7)Sur
edr
ex

Amoxi
cil
l
ini
sahi
ghl
yef
fect
iveandwel
ltol
erat
edr
egi
menordr
ugsf
or
ul
cer
s.

5)
Ant
ivi
ral
andAnt
if
ungal
drugs

Whatdr
ugscany
oupr
escr
ibef
orsomeonet
hathast
oot
hachewi
thcav
ity
.

CapsAmoxy
l500mgt
ds5/
7

Tabsf
lagy
l200mgt
ds5/
7

TabsPcm t
ds3/
7

Tabsv
itct
ds5/
7

Youhavet
oexaminet
hepat i
entt
oknowwhet
herthepainismil
dorsever
,
i
fmil
dhe/shehastofi
ll
itandbeonmedi
cati
on,
ifseverthati
tdi
stur
bs
sl
eepyouhav
etoextr
actit
HowTowr
it
eaResear
chpr
oposal
:

Whatshoul
dbei
ncl
udedi
nmyr
esear
chpr
oposal
?

Yourpr
oposal
shoul
dincl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

[Link]
TLE

Yourt
it
leshoul
dgiveacl
eari
ndi
cat
ionofy
ourpr
oposedr
esear
ch
appr
oachorkeyquest
ion

[Link]
ONALE

Youshoul
dincl
ude:

t
hebackgr
oundandi
ssuesofy
ourpr
oposedr
esear
ch

i
dent
if
yyourdi
sci
pli
ne

ashor
tli
ter
atur
erev
iew

asummar
yofkeydebat
esanddev
elopment
sint
hef
iel
d

[Link]
ON(
S)

Youshoul
dfor
mulat
etheseclear
ly,gi
vinganexpl
anat
ionast
owhat
probl
emsandi
ssuesar
et obeexploredandwhytheyarewor
thexpl
ori
ng

[Link]

Youshoul
dpr
ovi
deanout
li
neof
:

t
het
heor
eti
cal
resour
cest
obedr
awnon

t
her
esear
chappr
oach(
theor
eti
cal
framewor
k)

t
her
esear
chmet
hodsappr
opr
iat
efort
hepr
oposedr
esear
ch

adi
scussi
onofadv
ant
agesaswel
lasl
i
mit
sofpar
ti
cul
arappr
oachesand
met
hods

[Link]&TI
MESCHEDULE
Youshouldincl
udeanoutl
ineoft
hev ar
iousst
agesandcor
respondi
ngti
me
l
inesfordevel
opingandi
mplementi
ngtheresear
ch,i
ncl
udi
ngwr i
ti
ngup
yourt
hesis.

Forful
l
-ti
mestudyy
ourresear
chshouldbecompletedwithi
nthr
eey
ear
s,
wit
hwr i
ti
ngupcomplet
edinthef
ourthyearofr
egistr
ati
on.

Forpar
t-
timest
udyyourresearchshoul
dbecompl
etedwi
thi
nsi
xyear
s,
wit
hwrit
ingupcomplet
edbyt heeight
hyear
.

[Link]
BLI
OGRAPHY

Youshoul
dincl
ude:

al
istofr
efer
encestokeyar
ti
clesandtext
sdiscussedwithi
ny ourr
esear
ch
pr
oposalasel
ecti
onofsour
cesappropri
atet
ot heproposedresear
ch

ORALPATHOLOGY.
..

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