Temperature Scales and Their Conversion

Temperature scales are systems for measuring temperature, each with a unique unit and zero
point. There are several temperature scales, with the most common ones being Celsius (°C),
Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin (K). Let's dive into each scale and learn how to convert between
them.

1. Celsius (°C)
The Celsius scale is commonly used worldwide, especially in scientific contexts. Its defining
points are:
 0°C as the freezing point of water.
 100°C as the boiling point of water at sea level.
2. Fahrenheit (°F)
The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used in the United States. It defines:
 32°F as the freezing point of water.
 212°F as the boiling point of water at sea level.
3. Kelvin (K)
The Kelvin scale is used extensively in scientific research and physics, especially in
thermodynamics. It is an absolute scale with:
 0 K as absolute zero, the theoretical point where all molecular motion stops.
 273.15 K as the freezing point of water.
Unlike Celsius and Fahrenheit, Kelvin does not have degrees but simply uses "Kelvin" as the
unit.

Conversion Formulas
To convert between these scales, we use the following formulas:
a) Celsius to Fahrenheit
𝐹 = (𝐶 × 1.8) + 32
b) Fahrenheit to Celsius
5
𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32) ×
9
c) Celsius to Kelvin
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15
d) Kelvin to Celsius
𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273.15
e) Fahrenheit to Kelvin
5
𝐾 = (𝐹 − 32) × + 273.15
9
f) Kelvin to Fahrenheit
𝐹 = (𝐾 − 273.15) × 1.8 + 32

Numerical Problems and Solutions

1. Convert 25°C to Fahrenheit.
Using the formula 𝐹 = (𝐶 × 1.8) + 32:
𝐹 = (25 × 1.8) + 32 = 45 + 32 = 77∘ F
Answer: 25°C is 77°F.
2. Convert 77°F to Celsius.
5
Using the formula 𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32) × :
9

5 5
𝐶 = (77 − 32) × = 45 × = 25∘ C
9 9
Answer: 77°F is 25°C.
3. Convert 300 K to Celsius.
Using the formula 𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273.15:
𝐶 = 300 − 273.15 = 26.85∘ C
Answer: 300 K is approximately 26.85°C.
4. Convert -10°C to Kelvin.
Using the formula 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15:

𝐾 = −10 + 273.15 = 263.15 K

Answer: -10°C is 263.15 K.
5. Convert 68°F to Kelvin.
5
Using the formula 𝐾 = (𝐹 − 32) × 9 + 273.15:
 5 5
𝐾 = (68 − 32) × + 273.15 = 36 × + 273.15 = 20 + 273.15 = 293.15 K
9 9
Answer: 68°F is 293.15 K.
6. Convert 310 K to Fahrenheit.
Using the formula 𝐹 = (𝐾 − 273.15) × 1.8 + 32:
𝐹 = (310 − 273.15) × 1.8 + 32 = 36.85 × 1.8 + 32 = 66.33 + 32 = 98.33∘ F
Answer: 310 K is approximately 98.33°F.
7. Convert 100°C to Kelvin.
Using the formula 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15:

𝐾 = 100 + 273.15 = 373.15 K

Answer: 100°C is 373.15 K.
8. Convert -40°C to Fahrenheit.
Using the formula 𝐹 = (𝐶 × 1.8) + 32:
𝐹 = (−40 × 1.8) + 32 = −72 + 32 = −40∘ F
Answer: -40°C is -40°F. (Interesting fact: -40°C and -40°F are the same.)
These problems cover a range of conversions that demonstrate how to move between Celsius,
Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales.
 The Nature of Heat Energy
Heat energy, often simply called "heat," is a form of energy that transfers between objects or
systems due to a temperature difference. It is a type of kinetic energy resulting from the random
motion of particles within a substance. Heat energy is fundamental in physical processes,
influencing everything from the behavior of atoms to large-scale weather patterns and industrial
applications.
1. What is Heat Energy?
Heat is the energy that flows from a warmer body to a cooler one until thermal equilibrium is
reached, meaning both objects are at the same temperature. It is not the same as temperature,
which measures how hot or cold an object is; rather, heat is the total energy transferred between
systems. Heat is measured in joules (J), calories, or British Thermal Units (BTUs).
2. Sources of Heat Energy
Heat can be generated through various processes, including:
 Chemical Reactions: Combustion and exothermic reactions release heat energy.
 Nuclear Reactions: Fission and fusion in atomic nuclei release significant amounts of
heat.
 Electrical Energy: Electrical resistance in a conductor (e.g., in a toaster) converts
electrical energy to heat.
 Mechanical Processes: Friction between surfaces or compression of gases generates
heat.

Specific Heat, Modes of Heat Transfer, and Effects of

Impurities on Melting and Boiling Points
1. Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin). It is represented by the symbol 𝑐 and is
measured in units of joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg°C). Specific heat is unique to
each substance; for example, water has a high specific heat, meaning it requires more energy to
increase its temperature compared to metals. This property is essential in understanding how
different materials respond to heat and plays a critical role in applications like thermal regulation
and engineering.
The formula to calculate heat energy using specific heat is:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇
where:
 𝑄 is the heat energy absorbed or released (in joules),
  𝑚 is the mass of the substance (in kilograms),
 𝑐 is the specific heat of the substance (in J/kg°C),
 𝛥𝑇 is the change in temperature (in °C or K).
2. Three Modes of Heat Energy Transfer
Heat energy can be transferred from one place to another through three modes: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
 Conduction: This is the transfer of heat through direct contact between molecules in a
solid. In conduction, heat moves from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. Metals, with free-moving electrons, are good conductors of heat, while
materials like wood and rubber are poor conductors (insulators).

 Convection: This is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and gases) by the movement of
heated particles. When part of a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while
cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a circulation known as a convection current.
Convection is responsible for heat transfer in phenomena like ocean currents and weather
patterns.

 Radiation: This is the transfer of heat energy through electromagnetic waves, such as
infrared waves, without requiring any medium. Radiation can occur even in a vacuum,
which is how heat from the Sun reaches Earth. Dark, rough surfaces are good absorbers
of radiation, while light, shiny surfaces reflect radiant heat.
3. Effect of Impurities on Melting and Boiling Points
The presence of impurities in a substance alters its melting and boiling points.
 Melting Point: Impurities generally lower the melting point of a substance. For instance,
adding salt to ice lowers the freezing point, which is why salt is often used to melt ice on
roads during winter.

 Boiling Point: Impurities can either raise or lower the boiling point depending on the
type of impurity. Commonly, impurities like salt in water increase the boiling point, a
phenomenon known as boiling point elevation. This effect is useful in cooking, where
adding salt to water can slightly increase the boiling temperature.

Numericals with Solutions

1. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 2 kg of water from 20°C to 80°C.
(Specific heat of water, 𝑐 = 4200 J/kg°C)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇 = 2 × 4200 × (80 − 20) = 2 × 4200 × 60 = 504,000 J
Answer: 504,000 J.
2. How much energy is required to increase the temperature of 5 kg of iron by 15°C? (Specific
heat of iron, 𝑐 = 450 J/kg°C)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇 = 5 × 450 × 15 = 5 × 6750 = 33,750 J
Answer: 33,750 J.
3. Convert 80°C to Fahrenheit.
𝐹 = (𝐶 × 1.8) + 32 = (80 × 1.8) + 32 = 144 + 32 = 176∘ F
Answer: 176°F.
4. Convert 300 K to Celsius.
𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273.15 = 300 − 273.15 = 26.85∘ C
Answer: 26.85°C.
5. A copper block has a mass of 0.5 kg and is heated from 25°C to 75°C. Calculate the heat
absorbed by the copper. (Specific heat of copper, 𝑐 = 385 J/kg°C)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇 = 0.5 × 385 × (75 − 25) = 0.5 × 385 × 50 = 9,625 J
Answer: 9,625 J.
6. If 250 J of heat is added to 0.2 kg of water, what is the temperature rise? (Specific heat of
water, 𝑐 = 4200 J/kg°C)
𝑄 250 250
𝛥𝑇 = = = = 0.2976∘ C
𝑚𝑐 0.2 × 4200 840
Answer: 0.3°C (approx).
7. Convert 100°C to Kelvin.
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15 = 100 + 273.15 = 373.15 K
Answer: 373.15 K.
8. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of aluminum from 20°C to 60°C?
(Specific heat of aluminum, 𝑐 = 900 J/kg°C)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇 = 1 × 900 × (60 − 20) = 1 × 900 × 40 = 36,000 J
Answer: 36,000 J.
9. If the boiling point of pure water is 100°C, what would be its boiling point approximately if
salt is added?
Adding salt raises the boiling point by a small amount, generally around 1-2°C for moderate
amounts of salt. Answer: Around 101-102°C.
10. Calculate the energy required to change the temperature of 0.3 kg of glass from 10°C to
40°C. (Specific heat of glass, 𝑐 = 840 J/kg°C)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇 = 0.3 × 840 × (40 − 10) = 0.3 × 840 × 30 = 7,560 J
Answer: 7,560 J.