Vehicle Characteristics
T R A F F IC E N GI NEER ING CE 3 8 1
( FA L L S E M ESTER, 2 0 2 4)
DR . AHME D ALZAHR ANI
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3.0- Roadway Elements
What are the four elements interacting on the roadway?
1. Road user (or the human element)
2. Vehicle
3. Roadway
4. Control devices
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3.1 Vehicle characteristics
Vehicle Characteristics can be categorized as:
1. Static characteristics
◦ Include the weight and size of the vehicle.
2. Kinematic characteristics
◦ Involve the acceleration capability of the vehicle,.
3. Dynamic characteristics
◦ Involve the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle.
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3.1 Vehicle characteristics
A thorough knowledge of these characteristics will aid the highway and/or traffic engineer in
designing highways and traffic control systems that allow the safe and smooth operation of a
moving vehicle, particularly during the basic maneuvers of passing, stopping, and turning.
Since nearly all highways carry both passenger automobile and truck traffic, it is essential that
design criteria take into account the characteristics of different types of vehicles.
Designing a highway involves the selection of a design vehicle, whose characteristics will
encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected to use the highway.
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3.2 Static
The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the determination of design
standards for several physical components of the highway.
These include lane width, shoulder width, length and width of parking bays, and lengths of
vertical curves. The axle weights of the vehicles expected on the highway are important when
pavement depths and maximum grades are being determined.
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3.2 Static
AASHTO has selected three general classes of vehicles:
passenger cars,
trucks, and
buses/recreational vehicles.
A total of 21 different design vehicles have been selected to represent the different categories
of vehicles within all three classes.
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AASHTO Design vehicles and their Dimensions
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3.3 Kinematic
The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the acceleration capability of the
vehicle.
Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations, such as passing maneuvers and
gap acceptance.
Weight-to-power ratio has crucial impact on vehicle acceleration capability.
The dimensioning of highway features such as freeway ramps and passing lanes is often
governed by acceleration rates.
Acceleration is also important in determining the forces that cause motion.
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3.3 Kinematic
Uniform (constant) Acceleration:
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Distance as a function of time is: 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 −𝑣0 2
Distance as a function of speed is :𝑥 = 2𝑎
Where,
o a = acceleration (deceleration), ft/sec2
o v = speed, ft/sec
o 𝑣0 = initial speed, ft/sec
o x = distance, ft
o t = time, sec
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3.3 Kinematic
Non-uniform Acceleration:
In a real world situation, it is often necessary to consider varying acceleration. Accelerating
capability of a vehicle at any time t is related to the speed of the vehicle at that time (𝑣𝑡 ). The lower
the speed the higher the acceleration rate that can be obtained.
𝑑𝑣
=∝ −𝛽𝑣𝑡
𝑑𝑡
◦ Where α and β are constants. Inspection of this equation indicates that α is the maximum
acceleration attainable, and α / β is the maximum possible speed.
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3.3 Kinematic
Non-uniform Acceleration:
If we integrate the above equation between v and𝑣𝑜 , then speed at time t is:
∝
𝑣𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡
𝛽
The distance (x) traveled in time t can be obtained as follows:
𝑡
∝𝑡 ∝ 𝑣𝑜
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 2 1 − 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 + 1 − 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡
0 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
The acceleration-time relationship can now be written as:
𝑑𝑣
= ∝ −𝛽𝑣𝑜 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡
𝑑𝑡
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
Stopping distance of a vehicle is the summation of the distance traveled during the perception-reaction
time and the distance traveled during braking.
During the perception reaction time, it is assumed that the speed of the vehicle is constant.
Therefore, the distance traveled during perception-reaction time can be calculated by multiplying the
speed with the perception-reaction time.
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
The braking distance can be calculated using the distance-speed-acceleration relationship:
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜 2
𝑥=
2𝑎
Putting v = 0 (stopping condition) and considering deceleration, the braking distance, 𝐷𝑏 is as
follows:
𝑣𝑜 2
𝐷𝑏 =
2𝑎
The coefficient of friction (f) between tires and the pavement and the
acceleration/deceleration of the vehicle are related as follows (where g is the acceleration due
to gravity):
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑔
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
𝑣𝑜 2
Then, the braking distance 𝐷𝑏 becomes: 𝐷𝑏 = 2𝑓𝑔
Now, if we keep 𝐷𝑏 in ft, 𝑣𝑜 in mph, and put 𝑔 = 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 , then the braking distance becomes:
𝑣𝑜 2
𝐷𝑏 =
30𝑓
When the effect of grade (G), i.e. the slope of the roadway in the longitudinal direction is incorporated
𝑜𝑣 2
into this equation, then: 𝐷𝑏 = 30(𝑓±𝐺)
“+” for upgrade and “-” for downgrade.
Remember: “G” is in decimal (if 3% upgrade, then G = 0.03 in the above equation)
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
Therefore, the stopping distance, 𝐷𝑠 , can be determined using the following equation:
𝑣2
𝐷𝑠 = 1.47𝑣𝑜 𝑡 +
30(𝑓 ± 𝐺)
Remember: stopping distance, 𝐷𝑠 is in ft and speed is in mph.
In SI units, the relationship becomes:
𝑣2
𝐷𝑠 = 0.278𝑣𝑜 𝑡 +
254(𝑓 ± 𝐺)
Remember: stopping distance, 𝐷𝑠 is in meter and speed is in km/h.
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
Remember: When the vehicle does not stop (i.e., driver applies brake to reduce its speed from 𝑣𝑜 to v), hen
the braking distance must be calculated using the following equation:
𝑣𝑜 2 − 𝑣 2 𝑣𝑜 2
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑜𝑟𝐷𝑏 = 𝑎
30(𝑓 ± 𝐺) 30( ± 𝐺)
32.2
Remember: stopping distance, 𝐷𝑠 is in ft and speed is in mph.
In SI units, the relationship becomes:
𝑣𝑜 2 − 𝑣 2 𝑣𝑜 2
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑜𝑟𝐷𝑏 = 𝑎
254(𝑓 ± 𝐺) 254(9.81 ± 𝐺)
Remember: stopping distance, 𝐷𝑠 is in meter and speed is in km/h.
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
Example: Drivers with an average 20/40 vision travel at 55 mph in the outer lane of a freeway, where the
exit ramps are designed for 25 mph. What should be the minimum distance of signs with 6-in letters placed
ahead of the exit?
The following information are provided: perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec; deceleration rate = 5 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ;
the pavement is on a 1% downgrade; drivers with normal vision (20/20) can read signs at 60 ft per inch
of letter height.
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3.3 Kinematic
Stopping Distance:
Solution:
Distance needed for braking from 55 mph to 25 mph:
vo 2 − v 2 552 − 252
Ds = a = = 551 ft
30 32.2 − G 5
30 32.2 − 0.01
Drivers with 20/20 vision can read the sign at 60 x 6 = 360 ft; therefore, drivers with20/40 vision can read
the sign at 360 x20/40 = 180 ft.
Also, the perception-reaction time is 2.5 sec and distance covered = (55 x 5280 x 2.5)/60 x 60 = 202 ft.
Therefore the signs should be located at 551 + 202 – 180 = 573 ft (minimum) ahead of the exit.
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3.4 Dynamic
Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion:
air resistance,
grade resistance,
rolling resistance,
curve resistance, and
friction resistance.
All of these forces more or less affect the
operation of a vehicle.
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3.4 Dynamic
1- Air resistance:
A vehicle in motion has to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it as well as the force due to the
frictional action of the air around it.
The force required to overcome these is known as the air
resistance.
The air resistance is related to the cross-sectional area of the
vehicle in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion
and, to the square of the speed of the vehicle.
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3.4 Dynamic
1- Air resistance:
This force can be estimated from the following equation:
2.15 × 𝑝 × 𝐶𝐷 × 𝐴 × 𝑢2
𝑅𝑎 = 0.5
𝑔
Where,
Ra = air resistance force (lb)
p = density of air (lb/ft3)
CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient
A = frontal cross-sectional area (ft2)
u = vehicle speed (mph), and
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2)
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3.4 Dynamic
C-Dynamic:
2- Grade Resistance:
When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of
the vehicle acts downward, along the plane of the highway.
This creates a force (W sin𝜃, in the previous diagram) acting in a
direction opposite that of the motion.
This force is the grade resistance. , and when a vehicle traveling
upgrade, it will therefore tend to lose speed unless an acceleration
force is applied.
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3.4 Dynamic
3- Rolling Resistance:
There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to
motion.
These forces are due mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of
the vehicle, but they also include the frictional slip between the
pavement surface and the tires.
The sum effect of these forces on motion is known as rolling
resistance, which depends on the speed of the vehicle and the type
of the pavement.
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3.4 Dynamic
3- Rolling Resistance:
The rolling resistance force for passenger cars on a smooth pavement can be determined from the following
equation:
𝑅𝑟 = 𝐶𝑟𝑠 + 2.15𝐶𝑟𝑣 𝑢2 𝑊
For trucks, the rolling resistance can be obtained from the following equation:
𝑅𝑟 = 𝐶𝑎 + 1.47𝐶𝑏 𝑢 𝑊
Where, 𝑅𝑟 is the rolling resistance, 𝐶𝑟𝑠 , 𝐶𝑟𝑣 , 𝐶𝑎 , and 𝐶𝑏 are constants, u is the vehicle speed and W is the
gross vehicle weight.
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3.4 Dynamic
4- Curve Resistance:
When a vehicle is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the front wheels of the vehicle.
These forces have components that have a retarding effect on the forward motion of the vehicle.
The sum effect of these components is the curve resistance.
This curve resistance depends on :
the radius of the curve,
the gross vehicle weight, and
the speed of the vehicle.
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3.4 Dynamic
4- Curve Resistance:
Curve resistance can be determined using the following equation:
2.15𝑢2 𝑊
𝑅𝑐 = 0.5
𝑔𝑅
Where, 𝑅𝑐 is the curve resistance, u is the speed of the vehicle, W is the gross vehicle weight, R is the
radius of curvature, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
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3.4 Dynamic
5- Vehicle Power Requirement:
Power is the rate at which work is done, and is usually expressed in horsepower (ℎ𝑝 ).
The performance capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of the horsepower the engine can produce
to overcome air, grade, curve, and friction resistance forces and put the vehicle in motion.
The power delivered by the engine is;
1.47𝑅. 𝑢
𝑝=
550
Where, P is the power (hp), R is the sum of resistance forces (lb), and u is the speed of the vehicle (mph).
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