GENETIC TECHNOLOGIES | FINAL TERM | CYTOGENETICS 24-25
What is Genetic Technology?
Definition
Genetic technology focuses on understanding, modifying, and
utilizing genetic material for various applications.
Biotechnology
Biotechnology incorporates genetic technology to: Human-directed genetic modification usually gives
organisms traits they would not have naturally
● Alter cellular functions or create products (e.g., safer
vaccines). ● Goats that produce spider silk
● Combine DNA from different species for practical use ● Fish that can tolerate very cold water
(e.g., GMOs). ● Tomatoes that grow in saltwater
● Bacteria that synthesize human insulin
Techniques:
1. Genetic engineering.
2. Genetic modification.
Patenting DNA and Organisms
What is a Patent?
Transgenic Organisms
● A legal right to exclusively produce or sell an
invention for 20 years.
Patent Criteria
1. Novelty: Must be new.
2. Utility: Must have practical applications.
3. Non-Obviousness: Should not be an obvious step
from existing knowledge.
Examples
● Corn engineered to contain higher protein content.
● DNA-based diagnostic tools like PCR tests.
Definition
Organisms with DNA from another species (recombinant TECHNOLOGY TIMELINE: PATENTING
DNA). LIFE AND GENES
Multicellular organisms that harbor DNA from other species
and their DNA is called recombinant.
Examples
1. Enviropig: Reduced phosphorus in manure for
eco-friendly farming.
2. Atlantic Salmon: Grows faster using genes from
other fish.
3. Green Mice: Fluoresce with jellyfish GFP genes.
Why is it Possible?
1. Universal Genetic Code: All organisms share the
same DNA structure.
2. Nature of DNA: DNA naturally moves across species
(e.g., bacteria synthesizing human insulin).
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KEY BIOTECHNOLOGY INVENTIONS
INVENTION FUNCTION IN NATURE FUNCTION AS
TECHNOLOGY
CAR-T Combines T-cell receptor Directs antibody to cancer
binding with antibody
anti-cancer response
cells
TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS
CRISPR-Cas9 Cuts across 2 DNA Molecular scissors to remove, Organisms having the foreign genes inserted into their
strands in bacteria to halt replace, or add genes in genetic material
viral infection selected sites
Example: Human antibodies produced in rabbit & cow
Green fluorescent Jellyfish gene provides Attached to selected genes milk are used to treat cancers
protein bioluminescence, repelling causes encoded proteins to
predator glow, serving as “reporter”
Monoclonal A natural antibody An antibody response DRUGS MADE IN TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
antibodies response is polyclonal directed against a specific
(several antibody types) antigen ANIMAL PRODUCT USED TO TREAT
Recombinant DNA Technology Chicken Recombinant enzyme Lysosomal acid lipase
(GENE CLONING) made with egg white
protein (albumin)
deficiency
Definition
Combines DNA from different organisms to create useful traits. Cow Antibodies in plasma Infectious disease
treatment
Components
Goat Antithrombin (clotting Prevent blood clots
1. Restriction Enzymes: Cut DNA at specific sites.
factor) in milk
2. Cloning Vectors: Carry DNA into recipient cells (e.g.,
plasmids). Rabbit Recombinant C1 Hereditary angioedema
3. Recipient Cells: Replicate the inserted DNA. esterase inhibitor in milk
Applications
● First drug: Insulin, produced by bacteria.
● Vaccines: Safer alternatives for diseases like flu and
COVID-19.
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PROCESS OF CREATING ● Tools used to measure the abundance of mRNA and
identify gene activity.
TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS
Applications
1. GENE ISOLATION: The gene (transgene) responsible for
the desired trait is identified and isolated from the DNA of the ● Analyze gene activity during specific conditions (e.g.,
donor organism. injury or disease).
2. GENE CLONING: The isolated gene is then replicated
many times using the PCR or other cloning techniques. Color Indicators
3. GENE INSERTION: The replicated gene is inserted into the
genome of the target organism using various methods. ● Red: Gene active during injury.
● Green: Gene active under normal conditions.
● Yellow: Active in both.
GENE INSERTION TECHNIQUES ● Black: No activity detected.
a. Chemicals and brief jolts of electricity
b. Gunlike device (gene gun)
c. Liposomes
d. Viruses
e. Bacteria
4. SELECTION & BREEDING: The transgenic organism is
identified through markers or other selection methods and is
then bred to maintain and pass on the introduced gene to
subsequent generations
Genetically Modified Organisms
Manipulate 1 or a few specific genes at a time
Organisms altered to have genes from other species or to over
or under express their own genes are termed “genetically
modified” organisms (GMOs)
POTENTIAL RISKS OF GM FOODS:
1. There are inadequate studies on their effects on
humans and the environment.
2. The technology promotes mutation in organisms
whose long-term effect is still unknown.
3. Human consumption might have the following effects:
allergic reactions, gene mutation, antibiotic resistance,
nutritional value
4. Genetic uniformity
BIOREMEDIATION
Use of plants/microorganisms to detoxify environmental
pollutants
Gene Silencing Techniques
Examples:
1. Genes from trees that accumulate so much nickel
from soil slashing
2. Transgenic poplar trees can thrive in
mercury-tainted soil
3. Deploying transgenic bacteria that normally break
down trinitrotoluene (TNT)
4. Oil-eating microbes
Gene Expression Monitoring
DNA Microarrays
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Definition Definition
Methods to block or degrade mRNA, reducing or stopping the Precisely modify DNA sequences to add, remove, or change
production of proteins. genes.
Methods Key Tools
1. Antisense Technology: RNA binds to mRNA to 1. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs): Protein-based
block gene expression. targeting of DNA.
2. Ribozymes: RNA molecules cleave target mRNA. 2. TALENs: Enzymes guided by transcription activators.
3. RNA Interference (RNAi): Double-stranded RNA 3. CRISPR-Cas9: RNA-guided DNA editing.
prevents mRNA translation.
Applications
Applications
● Somatic editing: Treat diseases in specific tissues.
● Medical: Cancer treatment and antiviral therapies. ● Germline editing: Introduce heritable changes.
● Agricultural: Improving crop traits.
Applications of Genetic Technologies
Medical
● Vaccines: Engineered for SARS-CoV2 and malaria.
● Drug Testing: Transgenic animals reduce human trial
risks.
Agriculture
● GMOs: Enhanced nutrition and pest resistance.
● Bioremediation: Cleansing pollutants with genetically
modified microbes.
Challenges of Germline Editing
1. Ethical Concerns: Risk of misuse for "designer
babies."
2. Safety Risks: Unintended genetic effects or
mutations.
3. Irreversibility: Heritable changes are permanent.
Debate
● Benefits: Disease prevention, improved quality of life.
Genome Editing Techniques ● Risks: Ethical dilemmas, societal inequality.
REFERENCES:
Gersen, S. L., & Keagle, M. B. (2013). The principles of clinical
cytogenetics (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. (616.042/P323)
Klug, W. S., & Cummings, M. R. (2016). Essentials of genetics
(9th ed.). Edinburgh Gale: Pearson. (567.5/K713)
Lewis, R. (2021). Human genetics: concepts and applications
(13th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. (519.935/L585)
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