NATIONAL BOARD FOR

TECHNICAL EDUCATION
(NBTE)

COURSE MATERIAL
FOR

Course Title: ELEMENTS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

COURSE CODE: BAM 223

1
 PROGRAMME: NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS
ADMINISTRATION

COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2023 National Board for Technical Education. Kaduna, Nigeria

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the Executive Secretary National Board for
Technical Education, Kaduna, Nigeria.

First published 2022 in Nigeria.

ISBN: XXXXXXXXXX

Published and printed in Nigeria by:

Gamji Press & Publishers Ltd,
Kaduna, Nigeria.

Tel: +234 XXXXXXXXXXXXX

2
E-mail: XXXXXXXXXXXXXX

COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Subject Matter Expert Sintiki Magaji Akpojiyovwi

Subject Matter Reviewer Dr Maryam Abdu
Language Reviewer Hauwa Muazu Hayat
Instructional Designer Dr Fatima Shehu Kabir
Graphics Designers Jibril Jabir Abdulkadir
Mohammed Usman
Ridwan Salmanu
Editors Dr. Fatima Shehu Kabir
Dr Nasir Sanni Ajoge

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Table of Contents
COPYRIGHT PAGE..............................................................................................ii
COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM...................................................iii
STUDY GUIDE......................................................................................................xii
1. COURSE INFORMATION........................................................................xii
2. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION.................................xii
3. COURSE PREREQUISITES....................................................................xiii
4. COURSE RESOURCES..............................................................................xiii
5. COURSE OBJECTIVES.............................................................................xvi
6. Activities To Meet Course Objectives........................................................xvii
7. Time (To Complete Syllabus/Course)........................................................xvii
COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE......................................................xxi
STUDY MODULE 1.................................................................................................1
THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT.............1
STUDY SESSION 1.1...........................................................................................1
Introduction.........................................................................................................2
1.0 Learning Outcomes.......................................................................................2
2.0 Main Content.............................................................................................2
2.1 Definition of Production:...........................................................................2
2.1.1 Definition of Production Management:...................................................2
2.2 Types of Production.................................................................................3

4
 2.3 Functions of Production Management:.......................................................4
3.0 Summary and Conclusion.............................................................................7
4.0 Self-Assessment Question.............................................................................8
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities).........8
6.0 References/Further Reading..........................................................................8
1.0 Learning outcomes........................................................................................9
2.0 Main contents................................................................................................9
2.1 Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries..............9
2.2 The Organization of Production Function...................................................10
2.3 Production Function and its types...............................................................10
3.0 Summary and Conclusion...........................................................................13
4.0 Self-Assessment Question...........................................................................14
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities).......14
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................14
STUDY SESSION 1.3.........................................................................................15
Difference between Strategic and Operational Functions of Production
Management......................................................................................................15
Introduction.......................................................................................................15
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................15
2.0 Main Contents.............................................................................................16
2.1 Definition of Strategic Management.........................................................16
2.2 Operations Management..........................................................................16
2.3 Differences between Strategic and Operational Functions of Production
Management......................................................................................................17
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................18
Self-Assessment Questions...............................................................................19
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities).......19
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 6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................19
STUDY MODULE 2...............................................................................................20
The Use of Simple Mathematical Models in Production Management............20
Study Session 2.1:................................................................................................20
Different between Qualitative and Quantitative Models..................................20
Introduction.......................................................................................................20
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................20
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................21
2.1 Modelling....................................................................................................21
2.2 Quantitative Model......................................................................................21
2.2.1 Qualitative Model.....................................................................................21
2.3 The Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Model.................21
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................23
4.0 Self-Assessment Question...........................................................................23
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)......23
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................23
STUDY SESSION 2.2.........................................................................................24
Mathematical Models and its Types.................................................................24
Introduction.......................................................................................................24
1.0 Learning Outcomes..................................................................................24
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................24
2.1 Mathematical Model.................................................................................24
2.2 Classifications of Models............................................................................25
2.3 Mathematical Model Description............................................................26
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................27
STUDY MODULE 3:..............................................................................................28
Study Session 3.1.................................................................................................28
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 Factory Design /Factory Layout........................................................................28
Introduction.......................................................................................................28
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................28
2.0 Main Contents:............................................................................................29
2.1 Product Design............................................................................................29
2. 1.1 Product Design.....................................................................................29
2.1.2 Types of Product Design..........................................................................29
2.1.3 Steps in Product Design.......................................................................30
2.2 Factors Affecting Product Design.............................................................30
2.3 Plant Design:.............................................................................................31
2.3.1 Objectives of Plant Design:....................................................................32
2.3.2 Factory Layout:......................................................................................32
2.3.3 Types of Layouts:....................................................................................32
2.3.4 A good plant layout strives to attain the following objectives:...............32
2.3.5 Factors Affecting Plant Layout:.............................................................33
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................33
4.0 Self-Assessment Question...........................................................................33
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)......34
STUDY SESSION 3.2.........................................................................................35
Introduction.......................................................................................................35
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................35
2.0 Main Contents:............................................................................................35
2.1 Materials Handling....................................................................................35
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................46
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................46
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)......46
6.0 References/Further Reading.....................................................................46
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STUDY MODULE 4...............................................................................................47
The Broad Functions of Production Planning and Control..................................47
Study Session 4.1.................................................................................................47
Production planning and control and its activities............................................47
Introduction.......................................................................................................48
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................48
2.0 Main Content........................................................................................48
2.1 Production Planning....................................................................................48
2.2 Production Control....................................................................................49
2.2.1 Objectives of Production Control...........................................................49
2.1.1 Characteristics of Production Planning and Control..............................49
2.3 Functions Involved in Production Control...............................................50
2.4 Advantages/Benefits of Production Control...............................................51
2.5 Scheduling.................................................................................................52
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion................................................52
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................52
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)........52
6.0 References/Further Reading.....................................................................53
STUDY SESSION 4.2.............................................................................................54
The Importance/Need of Production Planning........................................................54
Introduction.......................................................................................................54
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................54
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................54
2.1 What is Production Planning?...................................................................54
2.2 The Need /Importance for Production Planning.......................................55
2.3. Some of the Important Functions of Production Planning and Control: -
...........................................................................................................................55
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 3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................57
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................57
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities).......58
Introduction.......................................................................................................59
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................59
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................59
2.1 Problems /Challenges of Production Planning and Control......................59
2.2 Delay in Raw Material Sourcing and Approval..........................................60
2.3 Delay in Sample Approval..........................................................................60
2.3.1 Production Delays....................................................................................60
3.0 Study session Summary and Conclusion....................................................61
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................61
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)........62
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................62
STUDY MODULE 5...............................................................................................63
Study session 5.1..................................................................................................63
Introduction.......................................................................................................63
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................64
2.0 Main Content............................................................................................64
2.1 What is Quality Control?............................................................................64
2.1.1 Definition of Quality Control...................................................................64
2.2 Objectives of Quality Control.....................................................................65
2.2.1 Benefits of Quality Control......................................................................65
2.3 Methods of Quality Control in an Organisation..........................................65
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................67
4.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS.........................................................67
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities).......67
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 6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................67
STUDY SESSION 5.2.........................................................................................68
Introduction.......................................................................................................68
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................68
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................68
2.1 Definition....................................................................................................68
2.2 Sampling Plan, OC curve..........................................................................69
2.3 Operating Characteristic Curve...................................................................69
2.4 An overview of F-Chart...........................................................................70
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................71
4.0 Self-assessment Questions........................................................................71
5.0 Additional Activities................................................................................71
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................71
STUDY MODULE 6...............................................................................................72
Linear Programming in Production Scheduling...................................................72
STUDY SESSION 6.1.........................................................................................72
Linear Programming Techniques......................................................................72
Introduction.......................................................................................................72
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................72
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................73
2.1 Definition/Meaning of Linear Programming..............................................73
2.2 Linear Programming...................................................................................73
2.3 Linear Programming Techniques................................................................73
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................74
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................74
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)........75
STUDY SESSION 6.2......................................................................................76
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 The Implication of Quality Control in Production Process...............................76
Introduction.......................................................................................................76
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................76
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................76
2.1 Quality.........................................................................................................76
2.2 Implication of quality Control.....................................................................77
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................77
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)........78
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................78
STUDY MODULE 7...............................................................................................79
The Need for Proper Maintenance of Facilities in Production Management.......79
Study Session 7.1.................................................................................................79
Definition of Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance and Corrective
Maintenance......................................................................................................79
Introduction.......................................................................................................79
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................79
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................80
2.1 Meaning of Maintenance.............................................................................80
2.1.1..Types of Maintenance.............................................................................80
2.2 Corrective Maintenance..............................................................................80
2.2.1. Planned or Scheduled Corrective Maintenance......................................81
2.2.2 Unplanned or Unscheduled corrective maintenance................................81
2.2.3 Advantages of Corrective Maintenance.................................................82
2.2.4 The Disadvantages of Corrective Maintenance are:..............................82
2.3 Preventive Maintenance............................................................................82
2.3.1. Types of Preventive Maintenance...........................................................83
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................85
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 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................85
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)........85
6.0 References/Further Reading........................................................................85
Study Session 7.2.................................................................................................86
Introduction.......................................................................................................86
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................86
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................87
2.1 Definition of Maintenance..........................................................................87
2.2 Maintenance Culture...................................................................................87
2.2.1. The Purpose /Objectives of Maintenance...............................................87
2.3 Maintenance Culture in Manufacturing Industry......................................88
2.3.1 Non-Maintenance Culture in Nigeria/ Poor Maintenance Culture in
Nigeria...............................................................................................................89
2.3.2 Benefits of a Good Maintenance Culture............................................92
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion....................................................93
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.........................................................................93
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities).......93
6.0 References and Further Reading.................................................................93
STUDY MODULE 8...............................................................................................95
Social Responsibility of the Production System..................................................95
STUDY SESSION 8.1.........................................................................................95
Impact of Industrial Pollution on the Environment...........................................95
Introduction.......................................................................................................95
1.0 Learning Outcomes.....................................................................................96
2.0 Main Content...............................................................................................96
2.1 What is Pollution?.......................................................................................96
2.1 .1 Major Industrial Pollutants:.....................................................................96
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 2.2 Role of Industry in Pollution.......................................................................97
2.3 Environmental Impact of Industrial Operations:.........................................98
2.3.1 Industrial Waste Disposal and Waste Management...............................99
2.3.2 Classification of Wastes:.......................................................................99
3.0 Summary and Conclusion.........................................................................101
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.......................................................................101
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of class Activities)......102
6,0 References and Further Reading...............................................................102
Study Session 8.2:..............................................................................................103
Accidents in Production / Pollution Control and Methods of Industrial Safety
.........................................................................................................................103
Introduction.....................................................................................................103
1.0 Learning Outcomes...................................................................................103
2.0 Main Content.............................................................................................104
2.1 Accident in Production and Manufacturing Industry................................104
2.1.1 Emergency Response System................................................................104
2.2 The Objective of Emergency Plan............................................................104
2.2.3 Control Approaches and Strategies........................................................104
2.3 Industrial Safety........................................................................................106
2.3.1 Methods of Industry Safety....................................................................106
2.3.2 Need for Safety:..................................................................................106
3.0 Summary and Conclusion.........................................................................107
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions.......................................................................107
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)....108
6.0 References and Further Reading...............................................................108

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 STUDY GUIDE

1. COURSE INFORMATION
Course Information Course Code: BAM 223
Course Title: Elements of Production Management
Credit Units: 3 Credit Units
Year of Study: 2
Semester: Fourth

2. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

Elements of Production Management is a one – semester course for students
offering a course in Business Administration at 200 level. It is a 3 units course
consisting of 13 study sessions. Each session is supposed to be covered in two
hours. It is a core course. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is
about, what course materials you will be using and how these materials would be
used. It also highlights issues of timing for going through these study sessions, and
explains the activities. There are supposed to be tutorials attached to this course
and taking advantage of this will bring you into contact with your tutorial
facilitator which will enhance your understanding of the course.
The overall aim of this course on Elements of Production Management is designed
to enable you understand the importance of production functions in business.
Understand the role and functions of production management as well as know the
use of simple mathematical models in production management, the basic strategic
functions of production management as well as broad functions of production

14
planning and control. The course is also aimed at the need for quality control
measures in production management, linear programming in production
scheduling, the need for proper maintenance of facilities in production
management and the social responsibility of the production system.
3. COURSE PREREQUISITES
You are required to have the following to be qualified for this course.
1. 5 credits in “O” level certificate
2. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
3. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
4. Online interaction proficiency
4. COURSE RESOURCES
Naqib Daneshjo, PhD. Čapajevova (2013) Production Management Systems .
Zain ul abideen (2015) Inspection and Quality control in Production Management
Objectives of Inspection in Production Management

Annie , Kenne & Victor (2011) Conference: Dependable Control of Discrete

Systems (DCDS), 2011 3rd International Workshop Production, preventive
and corrective maintenance planning in manufacturing systems under
imperfect repairs

Ville & Pekka (2016) Int. J. Modelling in Operations Management, Vol. 6, Nos.
1/2, 2016 Production planning optimization and challenges in steel
production: SSAB process review
Vinay, Panicker (2011) Production Management Systems Volume 4Number 2
December 2011
Miroslav, Martina, & radovan, (2016), Quality Control in Production Processes pp.
77–83 University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak republic
Vipan Bansal Production and Operation Management Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Guilherme et al (2011) Materials Handling Management. Milan de Oliveira Borsa
UFRGS - UCS Alberto Pandolfo Volume 4• Number 2 • July - December
2011
Vinay, Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology
Calicut Calicut – 673 601, Kerala, India.

15
Sujono & Lashkari, (2006). Material Handling System Selection
Ruzena et al Man-Machine-Environment System Analyses and Impact of
Environment Factors to Productivity and Health of Employees
Guilherme et al (2011) Materials Handling Management. Milan de Oliveira Borsa
UFRGS - UCS Alberto Pandolfo Volume 4• Number 2 • July - December
2011
Dn. Paulo, Dr. Fernando & Dr. Fernando (2012) The Influence of a Mathematical
Model in Production Strategy: Conceptual Development
Xuefeng et al (May 2013) Qualitative and Quantitative Integrated Modeling for
Stochastic Simulation and Optimization
Sadok et at (June 2020) Mathematical Model for Production Plan Optimization—
A Case Study of Discrete Event Systems
Zijm W.H.M. (1988) The use of Mathematical Methods in Production
Management
Mark ( 2019) Quality Systems Compliance LLC An Introduction to Sampling
Plans October 21,( 2019)
Leoni (2014) A Simple Procedure to Calculate the Control Limit of Z Chart
International Journal of Statistics and Applications 2014, 4(6): 276-282
DOI: 10.5923/j.statistics.20140406.
National Open University of Nigeria (FMS 317)
(Dr Pooja Mishra Production planning and control Production and Operation
Management Vipan Bansal Department of Mechanical Engineering
([email protected])
Dr. Sarojrani Pattnaik Dr. Swagatika Mishra Production and Operation
Management Department of Mechanical Engineering VSSUT Burl
Beata, & Edwin (2015) Quality Control Methods for Product Reliability and
Safety 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and
Ergonomics (AHFE 2015) and the Affiliated Conferences, AHFE 2015
Prasanta Sarkar- (2015) Challenges in Production Planning and Control in Apparel
Manufacturing

5. COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims set out above for the overall course objective, each study
session has specific objectives as follows:
1. State the role and functions of production management
2. Discuss the use of simple mathematical models in production management
3. Discuss the basic strategic functions of production management

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 4. State the broad functions of production planning and control
5. Discuss the need for quality control measures in production management
6. Solve Linear programming in production scheduling
7. State the need for proper maintenance of facilities in production
management
8. Discuss Social responsibility of the production system

6. Activities To Meet Course Objectives

The Course Material is written in simple, clear and concise manner that will assist
and enable you to understand this course very well. Relevant sites and standard
references have been provided for you. There is a standard Learning Management
System (LMS) for the delivery of this course, which involves live lectures,
assignments, tests, class discussions, and courseware upload. There is also going to
be a lot of chatting and online interactions in this class through WhatsApp,
Facebook and Telegram. There will be individual assignments and group
assignments. All assignments are due at the times slated. Late assignments will not
be entertained or accepted hence, you need to be very serious with your studies.
Completion and timely submission of assignments will serve as part of your
assessment. You are expected to read this course material thoroughly and
understand it very well. You will also be exposed to practical classes within a
specific time during the semester. You are also expected to have software
applications on your mobile phones like WhatsApp, Facebook and Telegram, a
working email address and a phone number so that you can chat, interact and share
ideas with each other. Please do not hesitate to contact your teacher through email,
phone numbers and social media platforms. We would like you to succeed in this
class and also in your future Endeavours. Thank you and God bless.

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 7. Time (To Complete Syllabus/Course)
Duration of tutoring is 13 weeks and you shall be expected to put in a minimum of
4-hour study time weekly.
8. Grading Criteria and scale
Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 10
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 20
Virtual class participation/discussions 10
B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)
CBT based 60
Essay based
-
TOTAL 100%

C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69 Pass
C = 50 - 59
D = 45 -49
E = 40 – 44
F= 0- 39 Fail

C. Feedback

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Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers
2. Self-assessment questions and answers

Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments

Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).
ix. Links To Open Education Resources
Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open
software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for
children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched
the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of
"openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines exist.
Some examples include:
• OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of
colleges and rankings of college degree programmes
19
 • Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
• OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary
school through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high
school resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
• Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a
friendly search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and
other universities with subject and description listings
• Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
• JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!
Other sources for open education resources Universities
• The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for
Teacher Education (ORBIT)
• OpenLearn from Open University in the UK Global
• UNESCO’s searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and
research initiatives
• African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on
subjects in English, French, and Portuguese
• https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/is Google's open source software
that is designed to let anyone create online education courses
• Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community
of bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world,
including on open source and open educational resources Individuals(which
include OERs)
20
• Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and
• videos here, includes directories on open source and open educational
resources
• K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
• Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
• Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source
software
• Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age,
grade, or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)

21
 COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE

WEEK STUDY STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY

MODULES

STUDY Study session 1.1 1. Read courseware for the

MODULE: 1 corresponding study
Week 1 The functions of
session.
production
management. 2. Listen to the audio on this
The Roles and
study session
Functions of
Production 3. Visit YouTube for more
Study session 1.2
Management insight:
The role of production
https://youtu.be/r-f3IbUwLp8
management in
manufacturing and
service organizations.
Week 2 1. Read courseware for the
corresponding study
Study session 1.3
session.
Differences between
strategic and 2. Listen to the audio on this
operational functions study session
of production
3. Visit YouTube for more
management.
insight:
https://youtu.be/r-f3IbUwLp8

22
 STUDY Study session 2.1 1. Read Courseware for the
MODULE: 2 Different between corresponding study
Week 3
Qualitative and session.
Quantitative Models.
The Use of
Simple 2. Listen to the audio on this
Mathematical Study session 2.2 Study Session
Models In
Mathematical Models 3. Visit YouTube for more
Production
and its types. insight:
Management
https://y boutu.be/uZEDdq-Nh7U

STUDY Study session 3.1:

MODULE: 3 Factory design /Factory
Week 4
layout

The Strategic
Functions of Study session 3.2: 1. Read Courseware for the
Production Materials handling corresponding study
Management techniques and man- session
Machine
2. Listen to the audio on this
study session
3. Visit YouTube for more
insight:

https://youtu.be/XP_zi6GbU_Q

23
 STUDY
MODULE: 4
Week 5 Study session 4.1:
Production planning
and control and its
The Broad
activities 1. Read Courseware for the
Functions of
corresponding study
Production
session.
Planning and
Study session 4.2:
Control 2. Listen to the Audio on this
The need/importance Study Session
for production planning
3. Visit YouTube for more
and Control.
insight:

https://youtu.be/vA_8VqpNgb8

Study session 4.3:

Problems of Production
Week 6
Planning and Control
in Nigeria

1. Read Courseware for the

corresponding study
session.
2. Listen to the Audio on this
Study Session
STUDY
MODULE: 5 3. Visit YouTube for more
Week 7 Study session 5.1:
insight:
Quality Control and its
The Need For methods
Quality Control
Measures in https://youtu.be/vA_8Vqp
Production Ngb8
24
 Management
Study session 5.2:
Sampling plan, OC
chart, Z chart, F chart

STUDY Study session 6.1:

MODULE: 6 Linear programming
Week
techniques 1. Read Courseware for the
8 -9 corresponding study
Linear session.
Programming in
2. Listen to the Audio on this
Production
Study Session
Scheduling
3. Visit YouTube for more
insight:

Study session 6. 2:
The implication of
quality control in https://youtu.be/vA_8Vqp
production process Ngb8

1. Read Courseware for the

corresponding study
session.
2. Listen to the Audio on this
Study Session
3. Visit YouTube for more
insight:

25
 https://youtu.be/vA_8Vqp
Ngb8

-
STUDY Study session 7.1 1. Read Courseware for the
MODULE: 7 Definition of corresponding study
Week 10
maintenance. session.
-11
Preventive 2. Listen to the Audio on this
The Need for
maintenance and Study Session
Maintenance of
corrective maintenance
Facilities in 3. Visit YouTube for more
Production insight:
Management
Study session 7.2:
Maintenance culture in
relation to any https://youtu.be/vA_8Vqp
manufacturing or Ngb8
service
organization in
Nigeria

STUDY Study session 8.1: 1. Read courseware for the

MODULE: 8 Impact of industrial corresponding study
pollution on the session.
Social
Week 12 environment
Responsibility 2. Listen to the audio on this
-13
of the study session

26
 Production Study session 8.2: 3. Visit YouTube for more
System insight:
Accidents in
production/pollution https://youtu.be/3VReVbsmjKI
control and various
methods of industrial
safety

COURSE OUTLINE
STUDY MODULE 1: The Role and Functions of Production Management
Study Session 1.1: The Functions of Production Management.
Study Session 1.2: The Role of Production Management in Manufacturing and
Service Organizations.
Study Session 1.3: Difference between Strategic and Operational Functions of
Production Management.

STUDY MODULE 2: The Use of Simple Mathematical Models in Production

Management
Study Session 2.1: Different between Qualitative and Quantitative Models.
Study Session 2.2: Mathematical Models and its types.

STUDY MODULE 3: The Basic Strategic Functions of Production

Management
Study session 3.1: Factory Design/Factory Layout.
Study session 3.2: Materials Handling Techniques and Man-Machine.

STUDY MODULE 4: The Broad Functions of Production Planning and

Control
Study session 4.1: Production Planning and Control and Its Activities.
27
Study session 4.2: The Need/Importance for Production Planning and Control.
Study session 4.3: Problems of Production Planning and Control in Nigeria.

STDY MODULE 5: The Need for Quality Control Measures in Production

Management
Study session 5.1: Quality Control and its Methods.
Study session 5.2: Sampling Plan, OC curve, F Chart Z Chart.

STUDY MODULE 6: Linear Programming in Production Scheduling

Study Session 6.1: Linear Programming Techniques.
Study Session 6.2: The Implication of Quality Control in Production Process.

STUDY MODULE 7: The Need for Proper Maintenance of Facilities in

Production Management
Study Session 7.1: Definition of Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance and
Corrective Maintenance.
Study Session 7.2: Maintenance Culture In Relation To Any Manufacturing or
Service Organization in Nigeria.

STUDY MODUL 8: Social Responsibility of the Production System

Study Session 8.1: Impact of Industrial Pollution on the Environment.
Study Session 8.2: Accidents in Production / Pollution Control and Methods of
Industrial Safety

28
 STUDY MODULE 1
THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Study Session 1.1: The Functions of Production Management.
Study Session 1.2: The Role of Production Management in Manufacturing and
Service Organization.
Study Session 1.3: Difference between Strategic and Operational Functions of
Production Management

STUDY SESSION 1.1

THE FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
1.0Learning outcomes
2.0Main contents
2.1 Definition of Production
2.2 Types of Production
2.3 Functions of Production Management
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/Further readings

1
 Introduction
In this course study you shall be given an understanding of the definitions of
production and production management. In broad terms, production embraces so
many meanings. It is an all-embracing process which is embedded in the
operations of every organization, profit, non-profit, manufacturing and non-
manufacturing alike
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this study session, you should be able to: -
1. Define Production
2. Define Production Management
3. Explain the functions of Production Management.
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Definition of Production:
Production is the method of turning raw materials or inputs into finished goods or
products in a manufacturing process. In other words, it means the creation of
something from basic inputs.
Production may also refer to the goods being produced, for instance, some business calls a
set of products being produced at the same time a production run. Both of these definitions
are interchangeable. Basically, it just means a manufacturing process or the end result of a
manufacturing process.
Production is concerned with the creation of goods and services for marketing and to meet
the needs of consumers. According to Pitfield (1984), production in its strictest term,
means the making of things by the conversion of materials and/or assembly of component
into marketable objects.
Every organization must have a guideline/policy on what to produce, the quality and
quantities as well as the method of production.
2
 2.1.1 Definition of Production Management:
Production management is defined as management function which plans, organizes,
coordinates, directs and controls the material supply and processing activities of an
enterprise, so that specified products are produced by specified methods to meet an
approved sales program. These activities are being carried out in such a manner that
Labour, Plant and Capital available are used to the best advantage of the organization.
According to Naqib-Daneshjo (2013) Production management means planning, organizing,
directing and controlling of production activities. It is the processes of effectively planning,
coordinating and controlling the production that is the operations of that part of an
enterprise, it means to say that production and operations Management are responsible for
the actual transformation of raw materials into finished products.
1. Production management deals with converting raw materials into finished goods or
products. It brings together the money, machines, materials, methods and markets to
satisfy the wants of the people.
2. Production management also deals with decision-making regarding the quantity,
quality, cost, etc. of production. It applies management principles of production.
3. Accordingly, these are related to production processes so that the resulting good or
service is produced according to specification, within the amount and by the
schedule demanded and at minimum cost.

2.2 Types of Production

Production is about creating goods and services. For examples: managers have to decide on
the most efficient way of organizing production for their particular product.
1. Job Production: This relates to the production of one or small number of identical
products to the specification of the buyer. It may mean the supply of one component to

3
 larger manufacturers, the provision of one area of production to a larger one or the
making of special equipment of material
This is also where items are made individually and each item is finished before the next
one is started. Designer dresses are made using the job production methods. Jobbing is
largely carried out by small firms in the form of sub-contracting. It is an arrangement
that suits a particular situation at a time.
2. Batch Production: This is where groups of items are made together. Each batch is
finished before starting the next block of goods. It is a non-continuous and repetitive
production. It is used in the production of goods, the quantity of which is known in
advance. It is in response to a specific order or for stock-pilling. Batch production is
mostly used where trade is seasonal, either as regard supply or demand. Batches of
products are sometimes produced in lots that will minimize both carrying and set-up
costs of machines. Batch production has the tendency to lead to a higher in-process
inventory for example: a baker first produces a batch of (50) white loaves, only after
they are completed will he or she start baking (50) loaves of brown bread.
3. Flow Production: Flow production is commonly referred to as line or continuous
production. It is production on large scale to provide continuous supply. It is where
identical, standardized items are produced in large factories using conveyor belts and
expensive machinery such as robot arms. Workers have specialized jobs, for instance,
fitting wheels. Flow production may also be referred to as product layout system since it
lays more emphasis on products. It is used for single product or batch of products that
follow the same sequence of operations e.g., a vehicle assembly plant. Flow production
is characterized by the “flow” of units from one operation point to another throughout
the whole process. A single- purpose machine or series of machines may be used. The
prime objective is to have a regular, continuously moving flow
2.3 Functions of Production Management:
1. Selection of product and design.
4
 2. Selection of production process.
3. Selecting the right production capacity.
4. Production planning.
5. Production control.
6. Quality and cost control.
7. Inventory control.
8. Maintenance and replacement of machines.

1. Selection 2. Selection of
8. of product production
Maintenance and design process
and
replacement of
machines

3. Selection
of the right
production
7. Inventory capacity
FUNCTIONS OF
control PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT

5
 4. Production
planning
6. Quality and
cost control 5. Production
control

1. Selection of Product and Design:

Production management’s first step is to select the right products for production.
Then it selects the right design for the product. Care must be taken while selecting
the product and design because the survival and success of the company depends on
it. The product must be selected only after a detailed evaluation of all the other
alternative products. After selecting the right product, the right design must be
selected. The design must be according to the customers’ requirements. It must give
the customers’ maximum value at the lowest cost. So, production management must
use techniques such as value engineering and value analysis.

2. Selection of Production Process:

Production management must select the right production process. They must decide
about the type of technology, machines, materials handling system, etc.
3. Selecting Right Production Capacity:

6
 Production management must select the right production capacity to match the
demand for the product. This is because more or less capacity will create problems.
The production manager must plan the capacity for both short and long term’s
production. He must use break-even analysis for capacity planning.
4. Production Planning:
Production management includes production planning. Here, the production
manager must decide about routing and scheduling.
Routing: means deciding the path of work and the sequence of operations. The main
objective of routing is to find out the best and most economical sequence of
operations to be followed in the manufacturing process. Routing ensures a smooth
flow of work
Scheduling: means to decide when to start and when to complete a particular
production activity.
5. Production Control:
Production management also includes production control. The manager has to
monitor and control the production. He has to find out whether the actual production
is done as per plans and finds out the deviations. He then takes necessary steps to
correct these deviations.
6. Quality and Cost Control: Production management also includes quality and cost
control. Quality and cost control are given a lot of importance in today’s competitive
world. Customer’s all over the world want good quality products at cheapest prices.
To satisfy this demand of customers, the production manager must continuously
improve the quality of his products. Along with this, he must also take essential
steps to reduce the cost of his products.
7. Inventory Control:
Production management also includes inventory control. The production manager
must monitor the level of inventories. There must not be over stocking of
7
 inventories. If there is an over-stocking, then production will not take place as per
scheduled, and deliveries will be affected.
8. Maintenance and Replacement of Machines:
Production management ensures proper maintenance and replacement of machines
and equipment. The production manager must have an efficient system of
continuous inspection (routine checks), cleaning, oiling, maintenance and
replacement of machines equipment, spare parts, etc. This prevents breakdown of
machines and avoids production halts.

IN-TEXT QUESTION 1 What are the different types of production?

JOB PRODUCTION: Where items are made individually and each item is finished before the next one is completed.
BATCH PRODUCTION: Where groups of items are made together. Each batch is finished before starting the next
block of goods.
FLOW PRODUCTION: Where identical, standardized items are produced in large factories using conveyor
belts and expensive machinery such as robot arms. Workers have specialized jobs, for instance, fitting wheel sets.

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

In this study session you have learnt about the relationship between
Production/operations management process, which combines and transforms
various resources used in the production/operations subsystem of the organization
into value added product/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the
organization.

4.0 Self-Assessment Question

1 Discuss the importance of Production Management in an organization.
8
2. Explain the functions of Production Management in an organization.
3. Identify the different functions of Production Management.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities)

Visit Coca-Cola Company and narrate the stages in the production processes.
Visit any Manufacturing Company and ascertain their method of Cost and Quality
Control

6.0 References/Further Reading

Naqib Daneshjo, PhD. Čapajevova (2013) Production Management Systems .
Zain ul abideen (2015) Inspection and Quality control in Production Management
Objectives of Inspection in Production Management
Annie , Kenne & Victor (2011) Conference: Dependable Control of Discrete
Systems (DCDS), 2011 3rd International Workshop Production, preventive and
corrective maintenance planning in manufacturing systems under
imperfect repairs
Ville & Pekka (2016) Int. J. Modelling in Operations Management, Vol. 6, Nos.
1/2, 2016 Production planning optimization and challenges in steel
production: SSAB process review

9
 STUDY SESSION 1.2
THE ROLE OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT IN
MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS.

Section and subsection headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcomes
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
2.2 The Organization of Production Function
2.3 Production Function and its types
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings
Introduction
In this session, you will learn about the job of operations management (OM), and the
activities involved in transforming a product idea into a finished product, as well as those
involved in planning and controlling the systems that produce goods and services
1.0 Learning outcomes
10
At the end of this study session, you should be able to:-
1. Discuss Operations Management in Manufacturng and Service Industries
2. Discuss Production Function including Cobb-Douglas Production Function:

2.0 Main contents

2.1 Operations Management in Manufacturing and Service Industries
In every organization (whether it produces goods or provides services), it sees Job
1 as furnishing customers with quality products. Thus, to compete with other
organizations, a company must convert resources (materials, labour, money,
information) into goods or services as efficiently as possible. The upper-level
manager who directs this transformation process is called an operations manager.
The job of operations management (OM), then, consists of all the activities
involved in transforming a product idea into a finished product, as well as those
involved in planning and controlling the systems that produce goods and services.
The role of operations managers in the manufacturing sector includes production
planning, production control, and quality control.
During production planning, managers determine how goods will be produced
(production process), where production will take place (site selection), and how
manufacturing facilities will be laid out (layout planning).
2.2 The Organization of Production Function
The organization of production is concerned with the achievement of assigned goals as
rapidly as possible with optimal utilization of production resources. At a socialist
enterprise, the organization of production should ensure a steady increase in the volume
of goods of adequate quality needed by the national economy.
2.3 Production Function and its types

11
 Production function is the mathematical representation of relationship between physics
inputs and outputs of an organization.
There are different types of production functions that can be classified according to the
degree of substitution of one input by the other.

Types of production
Function

Cobb-Douglas Leontief CES

production
Production Production function
Function Function

COBB-Douglas production function:

1. Cobb-Douglas Production Functions
Cobb-Douglas production function refers to the production function in which one
input can be subher but to a limited extent. For example, capital and labour can be
used as a substitute of each other, but to a limited extent only.
Cobb-Douglas production function can be expressed as follows:
Q = AKaLb
Where,

12
A = positive constant
a and b = positive function
B =1-a
Therefore, Cobb- Douglas production function can also be expressed as
follows:
Q = akaL1-a

The characteristics of Cobb- Douglas production function are as follows:

1. Makes it possible to change the algebraic form in log linear form,
represented as follows:
log Q = log A + a log K + b log L
This production function has been estimated with the help of linear regression
analysis.
2. Makes it possible to change the algebraic form in log linear form,
represented as follows:
log Q = log A + a log K + b log L
This production function has been estimated with the help of linear regression
analysis.
3. Acts as a homogeneous production function, whose degree can be calculated
by the value obtained after adding values of a and b. If the resultant value of a
+ b is 1, it implies that the degree of homogeneity is 1 and indicates the
constant returns to scale.
iv. Makes use of parameters a and b, which signifies the elasticity’ coefficients
of output for inputs, labour and capital, respectively. Output elasticity coefficient
refers to the change produced in output due to change in capital while keeping
labour at constant.
v. Represents that there would be no production at zero cost.
13
2. Leontief Production Function:
Leontief production function uses fixed proportion of inputs having no
substitutability between them. It is regarded as the limiting case for constant
elasticity of substitution.
The production function can be expressed as follows:
q= min (z1/a, Z2/b)
Where, q = quantity of output produced
Z1 = utilized quantity of input 1
Z2 = utilized quantity of input 2
a and b = constants
For example, tyres and steering wheels are used for producing cars. In such case,
the production function can be as follows:
Q = min (z1/a, Z2/b)
Q = min (number of types used, number of steering used).
3. CES Production Function:
CES stands for Constant Elasticity Substitution. CES production function shows a
constant change produced in the output due to change in input of production.
It can be represented as follows:
Q = A [ a Kβ + (1-a) L-β]-1/β
Or,
Q = A [ a L-β + (1-a) K-β]-1/β
CES has the homogeneity degree of 1 that implies that output would be increased
with the increase in inputs. For example, labour and capital has increased by
constant factor m.
In such a case, production function can be represented as follows:
Q’ = A [a (mK)-β + (1-a) (mL)-β]-1/β

14
Q’ = A [m-β {aK-β + (1-a) L-β}]-1/β
Q’ = (m-β)-1/β .A [aK-β + (1-a) L-β)-1/β
Because, Q = A [aK-β + (1-a) L-β]-1/β
Therefore, Q’ = mQ
This implies that CES production function is homogeneous with degree one.

IN-TEXT QUESTION: What is Production function?

The organization of production is concerned with the achievement of assigned goals as rapidly as
possible with optimal utilization of production resources. At a socialist enterprise, the organization
of production should ensure a steady increase in the volume of good of adequate quality needed by
the national economy.

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

In this study session you have learnt about the different functions of productions
process, which transforms various resources in both Manufacturing and Service
industry in production/service organization into value added product/services as
per the policies of the organization.

4.0 Self-Assessment Question

1. Identify the different functions of production management.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities)

Visit Coca-Cola Company and narrate the stages in the production processes.
Visit any Manufacturing Company and ascertain their method of Cost and Quality
Control

6.0 References/Further Reading

Naqib Daneshjo, PhD. Čapajevova (2013) Production Management Systems .
15
zain ul abideen (2015) Inspection and Quality control in Production Management
Objectives of Inspection in Production Management

Annie , Kenne & Victor (2011) Conference: Dependable Control of Discrete

Systems (DCDS), 2011 3rd International Workshop Production, preventive and
corrective maintenance planning in manufacturing systems under
imperfect repairs
Ville & Pekka (2016) Int. J. Modelling in Operations Management, Vol. 6, Nos.
1/2, 2016 Production planning optimization and challenges in steel
production: SSAB process review

16
 STUDY SESSION 1.3
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL
FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Contents
2.1 Definition of Strategic Management
2.2 Operations Management
2.3 Differences between Strategic and Operational Functions of Production
Management
3.0 Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
Whether a firm produces goods or provides services, providing customers with
quality products or services is its main priority. Thus, to compete with other
organizations, a company must convert resources (materials, labour, money,
information) into goods or services as efficiently as possible. The upper-level
manager who directs this transformation process which consists of all the activities
involved in transforming a product idea into a finished product, as well as those
involved in planning and controlling the systems that produce goods and services.
This study session shall introduce you to the different functions of production
management.

17
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this study session, you should be able to: -
1. Explain the differences between strategic and operational functions of
production management.
2. Differentiate between strategic and operational functions of production
management.
3. Explain organization of production function.

2.0 Main Contents

2.1 Definition of Strategic Management
Strategic management is the identification, assessment and implementation of business
strategies that improves the performance and increase the profitability of organizations.
In addition to developing strategies that enable organizations to carry out their mission
and meet their business objectives, strategic managers create and execute action plans
that eliminate inefficiencies and streamline internal processes.
Operational management is concerned with the day-to-day activities required to produce
goods and services, while strategic management focuses on activities necessary to ensure
competitive positioning. In addition, Operational management and strategic management
skills are relevant to both the public and private sectors, including manufacturing, service
industries, schools, government agencies and non-profit institutions.
2.2 Operations Management
Operations management means facilitating and controlling the processes required to
produce and distribute goods and services, including such as supply chain management,
material handling, production planning, and manufacturing, quality control and inventory
management. Effective operational management also requires an ongoing search for ways
to improve efficiency, quality and customer satisfaction. Operational managers

18
collaborate with marketing, finance, information technology, human resources and other
support departments to coordinate necessary planning, resources and infrastructure.

Lower level
(Operational)
Top management Middle level (Tactical)
(Strategic)

Plant location Effective

Defining goals

Making policies New product Efficient

establishment

Monitoring of budgets Utilization of resources

2.3 Differences between Strategic and Operational Functions of Production

Management
1. Strategic management is the process of understanding the business environment,
developing the desired state of performance and implementing strategies to achieve
it. Operations management involves executing the strategy on the day-to-day basis
to achieve the desired performance in the long run.

2. Strategic management is an organizational wide activity where the

operations, sales and finance are concerned from the top level to the bottom
level of the organization. In other words, strategic management is concerned

19
 about all the activities in the organization as a whole. The operations
management is concerned with operations as in production function of the
organization at the operations/manufacturing floor level of the organization.

3. Strategic management is a long-term process where it identifies the long-

term desired level of performance and tries to achieve it. Operations
management is short term focused and handles day to day operations of an
entity.

4. The strategic management process involves a non-routinized tasks where

there is a very ambiguous and dynamic nature. The operations management
involves day to day routinized activities of a business organization at the
operations.

5. Strategic management is a complex process which requires heavy

management skills to handle. Operations management is a fairly simple
process and a manager with average skills can handle the daily operations of
the organization.

6. If operational management is the “Which” a company does, strategic management

is the “How” it does things. Strategic management is a process that works to create
a path for where the company should be going in the future or helps the
organization find new ways to be competitive.

7. In an operational job, you are given structure. You can either follow what worked
before in your organization or what the others in your industry are doing today. In
a strategic role, you take a leadership position, you need to create your own future.
20
 8. Survival of an organization is directly linked to strategic management
process as it manages critical success factors of an organization. Operations
management is not directly related to the survival of the organization rather
it indirectly influences the survival through cumulative performance on a
day-to-day basis.

IN-TEXT QUESTION 2 Identify the two Differences of Strategic and Operations Management

Strategic management is the process of understanding the business environment while Operation
management involves executing the strategy on the day-to-day basis to achieve the desired performance in th
long run.

Strategic management is the identification, assessment and implementation of business strategies

Operational management means facilitating and controlling the processes required to produce and
distribute goods and services.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session you have learnt about the differences between Strategic,
tactical and operations management which is the different process of managing
various subsystems of the organization executives at different levels in order to
track several management decisions. Strategic management functions determine
direction; operational management functions make the strategic plan happen at
ground level. Operational managers still need a grasp of strategic considerations,
while strategic managers must understand what is going on at the operational level.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Identify the differences between strategic and operational management
2. In your words what is strategic management?
21
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities)
Visit YouTube for more insight:https://youtu.be/r-f3IbUwLp8

6.0 References/Further Reading

Naqib Daneshjo, PhD. Čapajevova (2013) Production Management Systems .
Zain ul abideen (2015) Inspection and Quality control in Production Management
Objectives of Inspection in Production Management
Annie , Kenne & Victor (2011) Conference: Dependable Control of Discrete
Systems (DCDS), 2011 3rd International Workshop Production, preventive and
corrective maintenance planning in manufacturing systems under
imperfect repairs
Ville & Pekka (2016) Int. J. Modelling in Operations Management, Vol. 6, Nos.
1/2, 2016 Production planning optimization and challenges in steel
production: SSAB process review
Vinay, Panicker (2011) Production Management Systems Volume 4Number 2
December 2011

22
 STUDY MODULE 2
THE USE OF SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT
Study Session 2.1: Different between Qualitative and Quantitative Models.
Study Session 2.2: Mathematical Models and its types
STUDY SESSION 2.1:
DIFFERENT BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
MODELS.

Section and subsection headings:

Introduction
1.0. Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Modelling
2.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Modelling
2.3 The difference between qualitative and quantitative model
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

23
Introduction
In this study session, you will learn that qualitative model brings an unprecedented
opportunity to improve traditional stochastic simulation. There are a large number
of different types of qualitative models in different application fields

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: -
1. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative model.
2. Identify the difference between qualitative and quantitative model.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Modelling
Modelling is abstracted in order to imply the problem itself. Modelling allows the
users to better understand the problem and present a means for manipulating the
situation in order to analyse the result of various input (“what if” analysis) by
subjecting it to a changing set of assumption.
2.2 Quantitative Model
Quantitative models are compact representations where a single differential or
differences equation may describe the performance of the system for a large set of
input function and initial states (Lunze, 1998).
2.2.1 Qualitative Model
Qualitative models do not require mathematical formulism, but are used too “draw,
diagram or represent visual idea, hunches, perceived patterns or relationship
between parts or their project, discoveries in their data and so on” (Richards 1999)
2.3 The Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Model
Qualitative models are suitable for system with limited knowledge of quantitative
information. On the other hand, when practical, using quantitative models can
24
provide detailed information about additional real valued attractors not present in
the qualitative models.
In the field of stochastic simulation, whenever we mention “qualitative model,” the
phrase “quantitative model” will naturally come to mind. In fact, “simulation
model” generally refers to a quantitative model if not particularly described, and
most research is based on the mathematical model .
1. Precise mathematical models are built to describe the system structure and
behaviour, especially the logic and functionality on the timeline. The
simulation is carried out by solving the equations in a numerically calculated
fashion. The simulation results rely on the accuracy of the models.
2. Qualitative modelling is effective for some fields where most of the
knowledge is expressed by symbols, language, or graphics directly.
3. When we are just interested in the macroevolution or the essential qualitative
phenomenon, it is not necessary to occupy a large number of computing time
and resources for quantitative simulation.
4. The static structure of the simulation can be organized based on qualitative
models and at run-time, qualitative models can intelligently choose the
better execution branch or data based on the schedule engine. Different
Detail of Level (DOL) resolution can be constructed for a system at different
abstraction levels.
5. The traditional evaluation and optimization can be innovated because the
qualitative mode is a part of the simulation and online assessment could be
made.
Qualitative model brings an unprecedented opportunity to improve traditional
stochastic simulation. Qualitative model is faced with the following challenges:
i. There are a large number of different types of qualitative models in different
application fields, and the requirements, interfaces, and forms are varied.
25
 ii. The qualitative modelling methods and symbolic languages are also diverse
in different applications fields. These heterogeneous models are
incompatible with each other and it is difficult to simulate together.
iii. The loose and redundancy qualitative models should be integrated with the
rigorous quantitative models to form the stochastic simulation with a precise
logical structure. Many effects are needed in qualitative and quantitative
hybrid simulation engines.

IN-TEXT QUESTION 3 Identify the Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative

modelling
Quantitative models are compact representations where a single differential or differences
equation may describe the performance of the system for a large set of input function and initial
states.
Qualitative models do not require mathematical formulism, but are used too “draw, diagram or
represent visual idea, hunches, perceived patterns or relationship between parts or their project,
discoveries in their data and so on”

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion.

In summary, we discussed that in quantitative models, the association is reflected
as a mapping relationship between quantitative data on the meta ports. In
qualitative models, it is the connecting relationship.
4.0 Self-Assessment Question
1. In your own words define qualitative and quantitative model.
2. What are the benefits of qualitative and quantitative model?
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
https://youtube/uZEDdq-Nh7U
6.0 References/Further Reading
Miroslav, Martina, & radovan, (2016), Quality Control in Production Processes pp.
77–83 University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak republic

26
Zain ul abideen (2015) Inspection and Quality control in Production Management
Objectives of Inspection in Production Management

STUDY SESSION 2.2

MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND ITS TYPES
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning outcomes
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Mathematical Model
2.2 Classifications of Models
2.3 Mathematical Model Description
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction

27
In this Study Session, you will understand that the development of new industrial
products and of advanced technologies requires an ever-increasing application of,
often complex, mathematical techniques.
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: -
1. Explain Mathematical Models and its types.
2. Solve Management Mathematical models.
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Mathematical Model
What is Mathematical Modelling? Models describe beliefs about how the world
functions. In mathematical modelling, it translates those beliefs into the language
of mathematics. This has many advantages
1) Mathematics is a very precise language. This helps to formulate ideas and
identify underlying assumptions.
2) Mathematics is a concise language, with well-defined rules for
manipulations.
3) All the results that mathematicians have proved over hundreds of years are
at disposal.
4) Computers can be used to perform numerical calculations.
There is a large element of compromise in mathematical modelling. The majority
of interacting systems in the real world are far too complicated to model in their
entirety. Therefore, the first level of compromise is to identify the most important
parts of the system. The second level of compromise concerns the amount of
mathematical manipulation which is worthwhile. Although mathematics has the
potential to prove general results, these results depend critically on the form of
equations used. Small changes in the structure of equations may require enormous
changes in the mathematical methods. Using computers to handle the model
28
equations may never lead to elegant results, but it is much more robust against
alterations.
2.2 Classifications of Models
When studying models, it is helpful to identify broad categories of models.
Classification of individual models into these categories tells us immediately some
of the essentials of their structure. One division between models is based on the
type of outcome they predict. Deterministic models ignore random variation, and
so always predict the same outcome from a given starting point. On the other hand,
the model may be more statistical in nature and so may predict the distribution of
possible outcomes. Such models are said to be stochastic.
A second method of distinguishing between types of models is to consider the
level of understanding on which the model is based. The simplest explanation is to
consider the hierarchy of organizational structures within the system being
modelled. For animals, one such hierarchy is:
Empirical Mechanistic

Predicting cattle growth Planetary motion, based

Planetary motion, from on Newtonian
Deterministic
a regression mechanics with feed
relationship. intake (differential
equations)

Stochastic Genetics of small

populations based on
Analysis of variance of
Mendelian inheritance
variety yields over sites
(probabilistic equations)
and years

29
2.3 Mathematical Model Description
In this part, a planning for manufacturing systems production is presented. Our
proposition was to develop a production plan under production constraints. The
mathematical model was based on proposal.
The proposed model was based on the following assumptions:
1) The production duration was considered as known in advance.
2) Batches could not be operated on more than one manufacturing system.
3) Each batch was associated to two dates: Earliest manufacturing date and
latest manufacturing date. Real manufacturing date must be included
between these two dates.
4) Two type of workshops: Workshops with two manufacturing systems and
ones with only one manufacturing system.
5) Manufacturing of different types of batches in the same workshop at the
same time was forbidden. Hence, the essential objective consisted of
assigning the maximum number of batches. Assignment must have respected
constraints and did not disturb current planning. Availability

IN-TEXT QUESTION Describe the classification of model.

Deterministic models ignore random variation, and so always predict the same outcome
from a given starting point.
A second method of distinguishing between types of models is to consider the level of
understanding on which the model is based.

30
 3. Study Session Summary and Conclusion
You have learnt that although mathematics has the potential to prove general
results, these results depend critically on the form of equations used. Small
changes in the structure of equations may require enormous changes in the
mathematical methods.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

What do you understand by the word Mathematical Model?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)

https://y boutu.be/uZEDdq-Nh7U

6.0 References/Further Reading

Vinay, P Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology
Calicut Calicut – 673 601, Kerala, India
Dn. Paulo, Dr. Fernando & Dr. Fernando (2012) The Influence of a Mathematical
Model in Production Strategy: Conceptual Development
Xuefeng et al (May 2013) Qualitative and Quantitative Integrated Modeling for
Stochastic Simulation and Optimization
Sadok et at (June 2020) Mathematical Model for Production Plan Optimization—
A Case Study of Discrete Event Systems
Zijm W.H.M. (1988) The use of Mathematical Methods in Production
Management

31
 STUDY MODULE 3:
THE BASIC STRATEGIC FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT
Study Session 3.1: Factory Design /Factory Layout
Study Session 3.2: Materials Handling techniques and Man-Machine

STUDY SESSION 3.1

FACTORY DESIGN /FACTORY LAYOUT
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Product Design
2.2 Factors Affecting Product Design
2.3 Plant Design
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
In this study session, you will learn about why every new day the market
encounters a whole lot of products for diverse targets, however the scope for
improvement keeps increasing in every aspect as trends keeps changing. As long as

32
the newer versions of products keep coming in ovation of new design keep
increasing.
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: -
1. Explain product design.
2. Explain the factors affecting product design.
3. Explain plant design and its types
4. Identify factors affecting plant design.

2.0 Main Contents:

2.1 Product Design
Product design describes the process of imagining, creating and iterating products
that solve user’s problems or address specific needs in a given market. The key to
successful product design is an understanding of the end-user customer, the person
for whom the product is being created.
Product design is the process of deciding on the unique characteristics and features
of the company’s product. Process selection is the development of the process
necessary to produce the designed product. Product design and process selection
are typically made together. Product design must support product
manufacturability (the ease with which a product can be made). Product design
defines a product’s characteristics of:
1) Appearance
2) Materials
3) Dimensions
4) Tolerances
5) Performance standards
2. 1.1 Product Design
33
Product design is commonly defined as the holistic approach of building a new
product from start to finish. This encompasses everything from doing market
research, identifying problems, product development, designing informed solutions
and everything in between.
2.1.2 Types of Product Design
There are 3 core types of products design when it comes to product
1. System design.
2. Process design.
3. Interface design.
2.1.3 Steps in Product Design
The first step to design a product is brainstorming, which appeared in 1953 in the
United States.
1. Defining the product.
2. Conducting the user research.
3. Sketching.
4. Proto-typing.
5. Compiling specifications.
6. Sample testing.
2.2 Factors Affecting Product Design.
1. Customers’ requirements.
2. Facilities for the operators.
3. Functionality.
4. Cost.
5. Materials.
6. Durability.
7. Shapes.
8. Culture.
34
This column narrates the detailed descriptions on the factors affecting product
design.
1. Customers’ Requirements - One of the important aspects is to meet and
satisfy customer requirements. Since the end-users are the ones who
leverage the product and so it is the designer’s duty to get the requirements
from the client before formulating the proto-type and conceptualizing the
ideology.
2. Facilities for the Operators.
3. Functionality - Meeting the purpose for which the product is designed gives
away great customers satisfaction. The designed product should be
functionally commanding and should extensively be meeting the end goals.
Functionality is one such factors influencing product design, and again it is
the designer’s responsibility to maintain the coordination between the look
and the way it needs to work.
4. Cost - A product designer must balance the top-notch appeal and the cost-
effectiveness together. Saying so, the cost comes next in the list of factors
affecting product design. Acquiring all the required essentials in the
allocated budget marks the designers name everywhere. This one big
pressure that a designer holds before crafting the creative outlet. Thus, the
cost stays as valid factors in determining the high quality in a great
functional product.
5. Materials - Having adequate knowledge of the materials before designing a
product is essential. The designer must be updated and well renewed with all
the new materials and technologies existing in the market. The quality
materials preferred while producing a product gives major impact on the
design part. In order to impress the audience and to create the desired
35
 products, the designer must be aware of the availability of new and better
materials.
6. Durability - In addition to effective product design, product protection is
also very essential and that should be as environment specific protection. If
your product is going to be used in an industrial setup. Then, it must follow
the IP (Ingress Protection) that is considered to prevent from falling quickly
due to water and dust. Therefore, power tools must be restricted to dust and
particles, some may even need to be water-resistant. And, if the products are
intended to be used outdoors for a longer time, then it should ensure that
they are well sealed and have a quality finished to prevent degradation. This
also marks as important factors affecting product design and determining its
durability.
7. Shapes - Acquiring the desired shape and size end up in determining the
technology that the product ends to build. Also, customers welcome a
product, if it follows the current trend and fashion. So, all these factors need
to be considered while designing the product.
8. Culture - If a product is targeted only to a particular culture and state then
this needs to be kept in mind while designing that a certain culture may
affect your design while others may find it offensive. For the long-lasting
capabilities, it is important to consider the environmental factors as well.
2.3 Plant Design:
Plant design includes items related directly to the complete plant, such as plant
layout, general service facilities and plant location.
2.3.1 Objectives of Plant Design:
The primary objective of plant design is to maximize production at minimum cost.
The layout should be designed in such a way that it is flexible to change according
to new process and protection techniques.
36
2.3.2 Factory Layout:
Factory layout refers to the arrangement of physical facilities. Such as machinery
equipment’s, furniture etc. within the factory building in such a manner so as to
have free flow of operations.
2.3.3 Types of Layouts:
There are four (4) basic types of layouts: process, product hybrid and fixed
position. In this section, we look at the basic characteristics of each of these types.
Then we examine the detail of designing some of the main types. Layout that
group’s resources based on similar processes or functions.
1. Process- Group similar resources together.
2. Product- Designed to produce a specific product efficiently.
3. Hybrid- Combines aspects of both processes and products layout.
4. Fixed position- Product is two large to move e.g. a building.
2.3.4 A good plant layout strives to attain the following objectives:
1. Minimization of material handling.
2. Elimination of bottlenecks through the balancing of plant capacities.
3. High material turnover through a shorter operating cycle.
4. Effective utilization of installed capacity so that the returns on the
investments may be maximized.
5. Effective utilization of man power resources through the elimination of idle
time.
6. Effective utilization of cubic space in the factory area.
7. Elimination, improvement or confinement of objectionable operations e.g.
operations with bad odour, vibrating operations.
8. Elimination of physical efforts required by operative workers.
9. Avoidance of industrial accidents.

37
 10.Better working conditions for the employees like lighting, ventilation,
control of noise and vibrations etc.
11.Decency and orderliness inside the plant area.
12.Better customer services through cheaper and better product supplies
according to the delivery promises.

2.3.5 Factors Affecting Plant Layout:

Some of the major factors which affect plant design are:
1. Policies of management.
2. Plant location.
3. Nature of the product.
4. Volume of production.
5. Availability of floor space.
6. Nature of manufacturing process.
7. Repairs and maintenance of equipment and machines.

IN-TEXT QUESTION Identify the difference between Products design and Plant design
Product design is commonly defined as the holistic approach of building a new product
from start to finish and Plant design includes items related directly to the complete plant,
such as plant layout, general service facilities and plant location.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session, we have discussed that the field of product design will
never lay down. It would be a field where one would always have the
opportunity to experiment and innovate in production and handling processes.
Moreover, in the new product development process, the product development

38
 team has to overcome every challenge affecting factories and should strive to
excel all its challenges to meet the requirements as expected.

4.0 Self-Assessment Question

1. Identify the importance of a good plant layout
2. Discuss factor affecting products design
3. What are the objectives of plant design?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)

1. Design a typical factory layout.
2. Identify features of a good “man-machine” system in any company near you.
6.0 References/Further Reading
Vipan Bansal Production and Operation Management Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Guilherme et al (2011) Materials Handling Management. Milan de Oliveira Borsa
UFRGS - UCS Alberto Pandolfo Volume 4• Number 2 • July - December 2011
Vinay, Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology
Calicut Calicut – 673 601, Kerala, India.
Sujono & Lashkari, (2006). Material Handling System Selection
Ruzena et al Man-Machine-Environment System Analyses and Impact of
Environment Factors to Productivity and Health of Employees

39
 STUDY SESSION 3.2
MATERIALS HANDLING TECHNIQUES AND MAN-MACHINE

Section and subsection headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Materials Handling
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
In this study session, you will learn about different types of materials and how it’s
being used in an organization. However, the scope for improvement keeps
increasing in every aspect as trends keeps changing.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: -.
1. Explain materials handling.

40
 2. Explain the various methods of materials handling.
3. Explain Man-machine system.
.
2.0 Main Contents:
2.1 Materials Handling
“Material Handling is the movement, storage, control and protection of material,
goods, and products throughout the process of manufacturing, distribution,
consumption and disposal. The focus is on the methods, mechanical equipment,
systems and related controls used to achieve these functions” The determination of
a material handling system involves both the selection of suitable material handling
equipment and the assignment of material handling operations to each individual
piece of equipment (Sujono & Lashkari, 2006). Hence, according to Sujono &
Lashkari (2006) material handling system selection can be defined as the selection
of material handling equipment to perform material handling operations within a
working area considering all aspects of the products to be handled.
Material handling ranges from movement of raw material, work in progress,
finished goods, rejected, scraps, packing material, etc. These materials are of
different shape and sizes as well as weight. Material handling is a systematic and
scientific method of moving, packing and storing of material in appropriate and
suitable location. The main objectives of material handling are as follows:
1. It should be able to determine appropriate distance to be covered.
2. Facilitate the reduction in material damage as to improve quality.
3. Reducing overall manufacturing time by designing efficient material
movement
4. Improve material flow control
5. Improve inventory control
6. Reducing idle time of workers and machines.
41
 7. Clean shop floor enables smooth and efficient functioning.
8. Less wastage, spoilage and damage
9. Creation and encouragement of safe and hazard-free work condition
10.Improve productivity and efficiency
11.Help the maintenance of quality standards
12.Better utilization of time and equipment
It is critical for manufacturing organization to identify importance of material
handling principle as the critical step in promoting the job improvement process.
Manual material handling significantly increases health hazard for the workers in
from lower back injuries. In the current competitive and globalized environment, it
is important to control cost and reduce time in material handling. An efficient
material handling process promotes:
1. Design of proper facility layout
2. Promotes development of method which improves and simplifies the work
process
3. It improves overall production activity.
4. Efficient material handling reduces total cost of production.
Categories of Material Handling Equipment's
1. Conveyors
2. Cranes
3. Hoists
4. Trucks and Vehicles
5. Auxiliary Equipment’s
Conveyors: - These are used where the path for the flow of material is fixed. Used
for horizontal as well as transportation along a slope. They are also used for Mass
Production. Properly designed and installed conveyors are very reliable in
operation, requiring a minimum amount of downtime for routine maintenance.
42
https//www.google.com/seumaqwoco/conveyor

43
https//www.google.com/seumaqwoco/conveyor

Belt Conveyors
The belt can be made from a variety of materials it may be rubber covered canvas,
plain fabric etc. 1. Troughed Belt Conveyors
1. Metal Belt Conveyors. Troughed belt used extensively for hauling coal, gravel,
sand and similar material which are not too wet or sticky. The materials include
carbon steel, galvanized steel, chromium stainless steel or other metal or alloys
that are required for specific application and environment. Typical uses of metal
belt conveyors include operation such as spray washing glass containers and
moving hot forging from automatic die casting equipment

Chain Conveyors: - Consists of one or more endless chains that travel the entire
conveyor path.
1. Apron and Pan Conveyor
2. Slat Conveyor
3. Cross Conveyor

44
 4. Car type Conveyor

Cranes: - Cranes are amongst the oldest type of fixed path equipment. They are
best used where consideration of space makes other equipment practicable. It lifts;
swings and transports wide range i.e., light to heavy loads of awkward shape.

https//www.google.com/seumaqwoco/crane

45
https//www.google.com/search/crane

Types of Cranes:
1. Portable Hand powered crane
2. Jib and Goose Neck Crane
3. Revolving Jib crane
4. Overhead Travelling Crane
5. Top running crane
6. Under Hung crane

46
 7. Derrick Crane
8. Gantry Crane
9. Stacker Crane
10.Industrial Mobile Crane
Hoists
Hoists are used for lifting the loads vertically and horizontally. It operates between
fixed guide rails. A hoist consists of a hook, a lifting medium, which is usually a
rope, chain and container for storing the rope or chain. The power use can be
electric motor or of compressed air pneumatic. Some hand retched hoists are also
available. The electric or pneumatic hoists are for heavy loads and hand retched
are for small roads.

https//www.google.com/search=hoists

47
https//www.google.com/search=hoists

Types of Hoists
1. Block and Tackle
2. Winches

48
 3. Power Hoists (Electrical)
4. Elevators

Trucks or Vehicles
These are simple in construction, widely used in industries. These can be broadly
classified in two main categories:

https//www.google.com/search=Truck

https//www.google.com/search=Truck
1. Floor Trucks
2. Fork lift Truck
Floor Trucks: - These are available in a wide variety and are recommended only
for short hands and auxiliary service. The important types of floor trucks are:
Hand Wheel Trucks Dollies: - These are smaller wheel platforms upon which a
load is placed for short distances and intermittent moves.

49
https//www.google.com/search=forklift

IN-TEXT QUESTION. What do you understand by the word material handling?

Material handling ranges from movement of raw material, work in progress, finished goods,
rejected, scraps, packing material, etc. These materials are of different shape and sizes as
well as weight. Material handling is a systematic and scientific method of moving, packing
and storing of material in appropriate and suitable location.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

50
 In this study session, we have seen that it is critical for manufacturing
organization to identify importance of material handling principle as the critical
step in promoting the job improvement process. Manual material handling
significantly increases health hazard for the workers in from lower back
injuries.
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
In your own words define materials handling.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)

Visit any company of your choice for more insight on material handling.
6.0 References/Further Reading
Vipan Bansal Production and Operation Management Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Guilherme et al (2011) Materials Handling Management. Milan de Oliveira Borsa
UFRGS - UCS Alberto Pandolfo Volume 4• Number 2 • July - December 2011
Vinay, Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology
Calicut Calicut – 673 601, Kerala, India.
Sujono & Lashkari, (2006). Material Handling System Selection
Ruzena et al Man-Machine-Environment System Analyses and Impact of
Environment Factors to Productivity and Health of Employees.

51
 STUDY MODULE 4
THE BROAD FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

Study session 4.1: Production Planning and Control and its activities
Study session 4.2: The Need/Importance for Production Planning and Control
Study session 4.3: Problems of Production Planning and Control in Nigeria

STUDY SESSION 4.1

PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL AND ITS ACTIVITIES

Section and subsection headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Contents
2.1 Production Planning
2.2 Production Control
2.3 Functions Involved in Production Planning
2.4 Advantages/Benefits of Production Control
2.5 Scheduling

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

4.0 Self-assessment Question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/Further Readings

Introduction

52
In this study session, we shall attempt to look at Production planning as
predetermined process which includes the use of human resource, raw materials,
machines etc. It is the technique to plan each and every step in a long series of
separate operation. It helps to take the right decision at the right time and at the
right place to achieve maximum efficiency.
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: -
1. Explain production planning and control
2. Discuss the problem of production planning and control in Nigeria.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Production Planning
Production planning is the process of forecasting ahead every step in the long
process of production, taking them at right time, in the right degree and completing
the operations at maximum efficiency.
Production planning incorporates a multiplicity of production elements, ranging
from the everyday activities of staff to the ability to realize accurate delivery times
for the customers with an effective production planning operation at its nucleus,
any form of manufacturing process has the capability to exploit its full potential.
Let us see what famous management gurus have to say about its function of
planning and production planning in particular.
Production planning is that determination, acquisition and arrangement of all
facilities and materials necessary for the production of the products.
Production control is the process that keeps a watchful eye on the production flow,
size of resources along with any deviation from the planned action. It also includes
arrangement for the prompt remedy or adjustment in case of any deviation so that
the production may run according to the original or revised schedule. “Production
53
control refers to ensuring that all which occurs is in accordance with the rules
established and instructions issued.” (Henry Fayol)
2.2 Production Control
Production control is the function of management which plans, directs and controls
the materials supply and processing activities of an enterprise so that specified
products are produced by specified methods to meet an approved sales program. It
ensures that activities are carried out in such a way that the available labour and
capital are used in the best possible way.
It is also the process of keeping watchful eye on the production flow by utilizing
different types of control techniques to achieve optimum performance out of the
production system as to achieve overall production planning targets
2.2.1 Objectives of Production Control
1. Issuing the necessary orders to the proper personnel through the prescribed
channels for effecting the plan.
2. To ensure availability of the means of carrying out, the orders, the materials,
tools, equipment and manpower in the required quality at the required time.
3. To ensure carrying out of the orders by the personnel so that goods are
produced in the required quantities of the specified quality at the pre-
determined time. Thus, the underlying principles of production control is
that the highest efficiency in production is obtained by producing the
required in time and in the best and cheapest method possible.
4. To prepare production schedule in compliance with forecasted demand.
5. Optimum utilization of resources to minimize production costs and timely delivery.
6. To reduce setup costs by determining economic production runs.
7. Establishment of better coordination among various departments.
8. To ensure supply of raw materials and when required to eliminate waiting time.
9. To examine work in progress regularly to ensure quality of product
54
2.1.1 Characteristics of Production Planning and Control
1. Inputs like materials, men and machines are efficiently used
2. Factors of productions are integrated to use them economically
3. Division of work is undertaken carefully so that every available element is
properly utilized
4. Work is regulated from the first stage of procuring raw material to the stage
of finished goods.
5. Questions like what, when and how to be manufactured are decided
6. Inputs like materials, men and machines are efficiently used
7. Factors of productions are integrated to use them economically
8. Division of work is undertaken carefully so that every available element is
properly utilized
9. Work is regulated from the first stage of procuring raw material to the stage
of finished goods.
10.Questions like what, when and how to be manufactured are decided.
2.3 Functions Involved in Production Control
The following factors are involved in the practice of production control:
1. Control Activities
This is done by releasing manufacturing orders through dispatching. Thus,
plans are set in motion at the assigned time.
2. Control of Material Movement:
The time at which material is received from the suppliers and issued to the
plant is observed and issued to the plant is observed and a close watch is
kept on its movement from one plant to another to ensure that this
movement is in accordance with the production cost.
3. Availability of Tools is Controlled:

55
 Steps are to be taken to ensure that tools specified in the production plan are
available as and when required.
4. Quantity Produced is Controlled:
Work-in-process at pre-determined stages of production is observed to
determine that right quantity of specified quality work is processed.
5. Control of Replacement:
Quality of raw material and work in process which fails to pass each stage of
inspection is observed. Provision is made to issue replacement orders for
each material for work.
6. Control of Labour Efficiency:
Time taken on each unit of work in process is observed and recorded.
Comparison of time taken is made with time allowed in scheduling.

2.4 Advantages/Benefits of Production Control

A good production control system means more production on the same investment
without unduly speeding up workers. The advantages of production planning and
controlling are given bellow:
1. Better service to customers:
Promised delivery dates are kept, production flows, as per scheduled
time. This injects confidence in the traveling salesmen of the firm to
set delivery date, timely delivery and customer’s confidence as well as
improve customer-relations and sales.
2. Less over time work:
As production takes place as per schedule, there will be few rush
orders. Therefore, there will be less overtime work in the
organization, compared to other firms in the same industry.
3. Savings in the cost:
56
 A proper designed and introduced system of production planning and
control results in major cost- savings.
4. Less work stoppages:
Work stoppages are avoided or minimized in terms of time duration.
Therefore, delay occurring in the dispatch of goods to customers is
very rare.
5. Less loss of time:
Because of phased flow of material, workers need not to wait for the
material for long. Hence, there will be less of work (men) hours.
1. Effective utilization of resources
2. Minimizing the wastage
3. Proper coordination
4. Quality products produced
5. Provide better environment
6. Estimation of resources
7. Smooth flow of production
8. Increases labour productivity

2.5 Scheduling
Scheduling can be seen as the determining of time and date when each operation is
to be commenced or completed. The time and date of manufacturing each
component is fixed in such a way that assembling for final product is not delayed
in any way. “The determination of the time that should be required to perform
each operation and also the time necessary to perform the entire series, as routed,
making allowances for all factors concerned”.

57
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
This session has introduced you to the concept of production planning and
control. Failure to plan is planning to fail. Management must take advantage
in checking and taking necessary actions to ensure that production
performance is in accordance with the time schedules. Management should
also note that the concept of deciding the method of production to be
adopted should be done appropriately. The pre-planning stage where the
type of product has been decided upon and designed output agreed in
conjunction with the scale unit and all matters of cost, price and delivery
times should be settled.

IN-TEST QUESTION Identify the definition of production planning

Production Planning is the process of forecasting ahead every step in the long process of production.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is the advantage of Production Planning and Control?
2. Identify the importance of Production planning and Control?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)

1. Select any products of your choice and ascertain its quality
2. Visit any company of your choice and study which of these important
functions above affect its Production Planning and Control.

6.0 References/Further Reading

National Open University of Nigeria (FMS 317)

58
(Dr Pooja Mishra Production planning and control Production and Operation
Management Vipan Bansal Department of Mechanical Engineering
([email protected])
Dr. Sarojrani Pattnaik Dr. Swagatika Mishra Production and Operation
Management Department of Mechanical Engineering VSSUT Burl

STUDY SESSION 4.2

THE IMPORTANCE/NEED OF PRODUCTION PLANNING

Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 What is Production Planning?
2.2 The Need /Importance for Production Planning
2.3 Some of the Important Functions of Production Planning and Control
3.0 Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment Question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
In this study session, we shall look at the need and importance for production
planning in an organization which includes the use of human resource, raw
materials, machines etc. We shall also see how it helps to take the right decision at
the right time and at the right place to achieve maximum efficiency.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

59
At the end of this study session, you should be able to: -
1. State the need and importance for Production Planning
2.0 Main Content
2.1 What is Production Planning?
Production planning is that determination, acquisition and arrangement of all
facilities and materials necessary for the production of the products. It is the
process of forecasting ahead every step-in production process ahead, at right time
for maximum efficiency in achieving the organizational goals and objectives.
2.2 The Need /Importance for Production Planning
Production planning is a pre-production activity. It is the pre-determination of
manufacturing requirements such as manpower, materials, machines and
manufacturing process. It represents the design of production system. Apart from
planning the resources, it is good to organize the production process. Based on the
estimated demand for company’s products, it is to establish the production
program to meet the targets set using the various resources.
2.3. Some of the Important Functions of Production Planning and Control: -
1. Materials function:
Raw materials finished parts and bought out of components should be made
available in required quantities and at required time to ensure the correct
start and end for each operation resulting in uninterrupted production. The
function includes the specification of materials (quality and quantity)
delivery date, variety reduction (standardization) procurement and make or
buy decisions.
2. Methods:
This function is concerned with the analysis of alternatives and selection of
the best method with due consideration to constraints imposed, developing

60
 specifications for processes is an important aspect of PPC and determination
of sequence of operations.
3. Machines and Equipment:
This function is related with the detailed analysis of available production
facilities, equipment down time, maintenance policy procedure and
schedules. Concerned with economy of jigs and fixtures equipment available
with minimum down time because of breakdowns.
4. Process Planning (Routing):
It is concerned with the selection of path or route which the raw should
follow to get transformed into finished product.
The duties include: -
1. Fixation of path of travel giving due consideration to layout.
2. Breaking down of operations to define each operation in detail.
3. Deciding the set-up time and process time for each operation.

5. Estimating:
Once the overall method and sequence of operations is fixed and process
sheet for each operation is available, then the operations times are estimated.
This function is carried out using extensive analysis of operations along with
methods and routing and standard times for operation are established using
work measurement techniques.
6. Loading and scheduling:
Scheduling is concerned with preparation of machine loads and fixation of
starting and completion dates for each of the operation. Machines have to be
loaded according to their capacity of performing the given tasks and
according to their capacity.
Thus, the duties include:
61
 1. Loading the machines as per their capability and capacity
2. Determining the start and completion times for each operation.
3. To co-ordinate with sales department regarding delivery schedule.
7. Dispatching:
This is the execution phase of planning; it is the process of setting
production activities in motion through release of orders and instructions. It
authorizes the start of production activities by releasing materials,
components, tools, fixtures and instruction sheets to the operators.
The activities involved are:
1. To assign definite work to definite machines, work centres and men.
2. To issued required materials from stores.
3. To issue Jigs fixtures and make them available at correct point of use.
4. Release necessary work orders, time tickets, etc., to authorize timely start
of operations.
5. To record start and finish time of each Job on each machine or by each
man.
8. Expenditure:
This is the control tool that keeps a close observation on the progress of the
work. It is a logical step after dispatching which is called “follow-up” or
“progress”. It coordinates extensively to execute the production plan.
Progressing function can be divided into three parts. I.e. follow up of work
in process and follow up of assembly.

The duties include: Advertisements: -

1. Identification of bottlenecks and delays and interruptions because of
which the production schedule may be disrupted.
2. To devise action plans (remedies) for correction of errors.
62
 3. To see that production rate is in line with schedule.
9. Inspection:
It is a measure control tool. Though the aspects of quality control are the
separate function, this is very much important to PPC both for the execution
of the current plans and in scope for future planning. This forms the basis for
knowing the limitation with respect to methods, processes etc. which is very
much useful for evaluation phase.
10 Evaluation
This stage though neglected is crucial to the improvement of production
efficiency. A thorough analysis of all the factors influencing the production
planning and control helps to identify the weak spots and the corrective
action with respects to preplanning and planning will be affected by a feed-
back. The success of this step depends on the communication, data and
information gathering and analysis.
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
We have seen that Production control is the Quality of raw material and work in
process which fails to pass each stage of inspection is observed. Provision is made
to issue replacement orders for each material for work.

IN-TEST QUESTION What is production control?

Production control is the function of management which plans, directs and controls the
materials supply and processing activities of an enterprise.

63
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Identify the Objectives of Production and Control.
2. What is the advantage of Production Control?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)

1. Visit any company of your choice and study which of these important functions
above affect its Production Planning and Control.
https://youtu.be/vA_8VqpNgb8
https://youtu.be/vA_8VqpNgb8

6.0 References/Further Reading

National Open University of Nigeria (FMS 317)
(Dr Pooja Mishra Production planning and control Production and Operation
Management Vipan Bansal Department of Mechanical Engineering
([email protected])
Dr. Sarojrani Pattnaik Dr. Swagatika Mishra Production and Operation
Management Department of Mechanical Engineering VSSUT Burl

STUDY SESSION 4.3:

PROBLEMS OF PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL IN
NIGERIA
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction

64
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Problems/Challenges of Production Planning and Control
2.2 Delays in Raw Material Sourcing and Approval
2.3 Delay in Sample Approval
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
In this study session, you will learn how the process of production planning is
focused on management of production flow in an optimal way. The target for the
production planning process is to optimize different variables in the production
flow and drive towards effectiveness in resources usage. This means to minimize
the total time and costs, within the context of the constraints in the system. The
production system is always subject to dynamic disturbances

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:-
1. Explain Problems involving Production Planning and
Control.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Problems /Challenges of Production Planning and Control
1. Delay in Raw Material Sourcing and approval

65
 2. Delay in Sample Approval
3. Production Delay
4. Recording and communication wrong data
5. Failing in Final QA inspection

2.2 Delay in Raw Material Sourcing and Approval

Raw materials are expected to be procured by the factory well in advance to
accommodate the time in inspection and testing as directed by the buyer. A plan
should consider the worst-case scenario when the procured raw material fails the
test and the buyer is not willing to accept the flaws.

In such cases, there should be enough time to replace the raw material without
effecting the subsequent operations.

2.3 Delay in Sample Approval

Issues of sample cannot be undermined as buyers strongly follow the important
process. Buyer would not accept the product if the sample may at any stage failed.
Manufacturer starts the production after the approval of agreed sample.

If the sample approval is delayed it will lead to the delay in production.

Factories/companies set up a separate sampling department to effectively handle
the sampling. Merchandiser is responsible for the timely approval of the sample. A
production planner should keep a keen eye on the sample approval.
2.3.1 Production Delays
Production can be delayed due to some unforeseen circumstances beyond the
control of the factory such as: -

66
 1. Labour Strike
2. Lack of electricity
3. Machine Breakdown
4. Critical operation slowing down the efficiency
5. Absenteeism
6. Natural calamity
7. Production being held due to quality problems

Production planner should keep some buffer to adjust the delay. In case the delay is
very critical the planner should take swift action and make the necessary
amendments to ensure that the production plan remains viable.

Recording and Communicating Wrong Data

Disaster can be averted when proper planning is carried out. Problem can play
havoc if it comes out of the blue. Recording wrong production data for the sake of
inflating the production figures to avoid the ire of management can lead to an even
bigger disaster.

A factory should have a production reporting system which is robust and can’t be
tinkered with as all the decisions will be based on the data only.
3.0 Study session Summary and Conclusion
The objectives of production planning, which we have seen in this session can be
summarized as to provide the capacity and production to meet agreed or projected
demand, ensure timely and positional availability of materials and components,
provision of a steady flow of work through all departments.

IN-TEXT QUESTION – 7 what are the challenges of Production Planning and Control?
67
Delay in Raw Material Sourcing and approval
Delay in Sample Approval
Production Delay
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. What approach is best in ensuring quality /quantity control?
2. Discuss the benefit of production planning

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)

1. With sufficient evidence, visit any company of your choice and ascertain the
method of quality control maintained in that company.

6.0 References/Further Reading

Vinay V, Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology
Calicut Calicut – 673 601, Kerala,
Prasanta Sarkar- (2015) Challenges in Production Planning and Control in Apparel
Manufacturing

STUDY MODULE 5
THE NEED FOR QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES IN PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT

Study session 5.1: Quality Control and its methods

Study session 5.2: Sampling plan, z chart, f chart

68
 Study session 5.1
QUALITY CONTROL AND ITS METHODS

Section and subsection headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 What is Quality Control?
2.2 Objectives of Quality Control
2.3 Methods of Quality Control in an Organisation
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings
Introduction
This study session attempts to introduce you to the ultimate aim of any
manufacturing organization which is the production of quality goods and services
and the satisfaction of its consumer and the maximization profit and lowest cost.
The quality of any product must be given adequate concern. Therefore, for any
product to service the competitive nature of the market depends on the value
attached to the products by the consumers. Such values may include quality,
durability, utility etc. It is in the cognition of these, that most manufacturing,
industries have a control department to take up full responsibility of quality control

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to: -

69
 1. Define quality control
2. Explain methods of quality control.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 What is Quality Control?
Quality Control (QC) is a system that is used to maintain a desired level of quality
in a product or service. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the
quality of the product. It depends on materials, tools, machines, types of labour,
working conditions etc.
According to Juran “Quality control is the regulatory process through which we
measure actual quality performance, compare it with standards, and act on the
difference”.
Another definition of quality control is from ANSI/ASQC standard (1978), where
quality control is defined as “the operational techniques and the activities which
sustain a quality of product or service that will satisfy given needs; also the use of
such techniques and activities.”
Alford and Beatty define QC as “In the broad sense as, quality control is the
mechanism by which products are made to measure up to specifications
determined from customers, demands and transformed into sales engineering and
manufacturing requirements, it is concerned with making things right rather than
discovering and rejecting those made wrong.”
2.1.1 Definition of Quality Control
Quality Control may be defined as a system used to maintain a desired level of
quality of a product or service. It is a systematic control of various factors that
affect the quality of the product. It depends on materials, tools, machines, types of
labour, working conditions etc.

70
According to Alford and Beatty control is the mechanism by which products are
made to measure up to specifications determined from customers, demands and
transformed into sales engineering and manufacturing requirements, it is concerned
with making things right rather than discovering and rejecting those made wrong”.
In addition, quality control is defined as “The operational techniques and the
activities which sustain a quality of product or service that will satisfy given needs;
also, the use of such techniques and activities”.
2.2 Objectives of Quality Control
Below are the objectives of quality control:
1. To improve the company’s income by making the production more
acceptable to the customers, i.e., by providing long life, greater
usefulness, maintainability etc.
2. To reduce companies’ costs through reduction of losses due to defects.
3. To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale production.
4. To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
5. To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high-
quality level, to build customer goodwill, confidence and reputation of
manufacturer.
6. To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
7. To check the variation during manufacturing
2.2.1 Benefits of Quality Control
1. Improving the quality of products and services.
2. Increasing the productivity of manufacturing processes, commercial
business, and corporations.
3. Reducing manufacturing and corporate costs.
4. Determining and improving the marketability of products and services.
5. Reducing consumer prices of products and services.
71
 6. Improving and/or assuring on time deliveries and availability.
2.3 Methods of Quality Control in an Organisation
Methods allows for the development of the quality control depends on the robust
product design on the basis of the optimization which can be applied during
manufacturing process and product operation stages. These methods could increase
the products reliability through fault detection of the incipient or small faults
before they cause serious damage of the whole product.

The most frequently applied quality control method is based on the comparison of
the nominal parameters with the parameters of the controlled product. It is assumed
that the product is not faulty when the parameters of the controlled product are
similar to the nominal one obtained during robust parameters design stage.

The first step which is the identification of the parameters of the diagnosed product
is accomplished. This task mostly is the measurement of the controlled product
parameters. Moreover, when these measurements are not taken the estimate of their
values can be obtained by the application of appropriate estimation methods.

The knowledge about the values of parameter estimates and nominal parameters
allows to calculate their difference. When the absolute value of such difference is
smaller than threshold value, it is assumed that the product is fault-free.

Furthermore, the described method is not robust against uncertainty following from
the measurements noise. In order to overcome the last-mentioned problem, the so-
called robust parameter estimation methods can be applied e.g. Bounded-Error
Approach or Outer Bounding Ellipsoid algorithm. The concept of such methods
rely on the calculation of the parameter estimate and its uncertainty

72
 In order to solve such a challenging problem, the development of a new robust
product quality control method independent on the measurement or estimation of
parameters has to be performed. Such an approach rely on the
identification/modelling of the controlled product on the basis of the nominal
product inputs and outputs. It should be underlined that the certain model of the
product obtained during identification procedure is crucial for appropriate
workings of the proposed quality control method. It results from the application of
the nominal model to the generation of the nominal product response estimate and
it is a comparison with response of the controlled product.
Finally, the calculated difference of such outputs, which is called as a residual
signal, contains the symptoms of the faults. The most often applied fault detection
method based on the residual generation assumes that the controlled product is
faulty when the absolute value of the residual signal is larger than an arbitrarily.

TEXT QUESTION
3.0 Study 8 What
Session is quality Control
Summary in production process?
and Conclusion
Quality Controlof
The process may be defined as
continuous a system
quality used to maintain
improvement a desired level of
in organizations quality of
requires thea active
product or service.
use of management tools by organization managers in order to improve the quality
of production. Nowadays, there are many qualities of production management
tools, so selecting the appropriate tool is not always easy.

3.0SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

We have discussed quality controls and the different methods in this session.

4.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss different definitions of quality Control
2. Identify the objectives of quality control
3. What are the methods of quality control in your own organization?
73
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class Activities)
1. Visit any organization near you and identify the method used for control
quality.
6.0 References/Further Reading
Beata, & Edwin (2015) Quality Control Methods for Product Reliability and
Safety 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics
(AHFE 2015) and the Affiliated Conferences, AHFE 2015

74
 STUDY SESSION 5.2
SAMPLING PLAN, OC CURVE, F CHART Z CHART
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning outcomes
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Definition
2.2 Sampling Plan OC Curve
2.3 Operating Characteristic Curve
2.4 An overview of F-Chart
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings
Introduction
The lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD) is the level of quality routinely rejected
by the sampling plan. It is generally defined as the percent defective that the
sampling plan will reject 90 percent of the time. In other words, this is also the
percent defective that will be accepted by the sampling plan at most 10 percent of
the time. We will discuss

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Study Session, you should be able to:
1. Explain: sampling plan, OC curve, F chart and Z chart.

2.0 Main Content

75
2.1 Definition
A sampling plan is a statistical method of determining whether to accept or reject a
lot of material that is being produced.
A Sampling plan gives management information on the production process after
the process is completed and allows some regulation of the process.

Each plan contains a specific degree of certainty about the sampling results, as
well as an average outgoing quality level (AOQL)
2.2 Sampling Plan, OC curve
An ‘operating characteristics’ (OC) curve is a simple tool that has been in use in
quality control for many years but does not seem to be widely applied in the
particulate sampling field. The OC curve provides the probability that a lot of
materials will be deemed to meet a specification and will be found to have an assay
that falls above (or below) a specified level, given the true assay of the lot. In the
application considered herein, it provides the probability that a grain shipment will
be accepted, given the true value of the assay for the lot. It directly measures the
probability of a type II error. It involves inspection at a particular stage but mere
inspection does not mean it’s an operating characteristics. As opposed to
inspection, in quality control activity emphasis is placed on the quality future
production.
Sampling plans are used extensively throughout organizations regulated by the
FDA. Most organizations have a statistical procedure that specifies a certain
acceptable quality level (AQL) based on risk (If not, they should!). However, most
individuals just follow the requirements of the procedure without fully
comprehending how sampling plans actually work.
Probability sampling is based on the fact that every member of a population has an
equal chance of being selected. Basically, statistical sampling plans are used to
76
make decisions on whether to accept or reject products. Statistical sampling plans
are a commonly used quality control techniques for incoming, in-process, and final
inspection.
Sampling plans can be used for both variable and attribute data. Recall that
variable data can be measured on a continuous scale and attribute data measures
discrete data points, such as pass/fail, go/no-go, and things that can be counted.
2.3 Operating Characteristic Curve
The behaviour of a sampling plan is described graphically by the sampling Plan’s
Operating Characteristic Curve (OCC). Operating characteristic curves are
generated using the binomial distribution or Poisson distribution, with the
exception of C=0 sampling plans. The hypergeometric distribution is used to
generate the operating characteristic curve for C=0 sampling plans. The curves can
be easily constructed using reference tables, calculators, or spreadsheets.
The operating characteristic curve shows the probability of accepting lots of
different quality levels for a specific sampling plan and helps discriminate between
good and bad lots. The exact shape and location of the curve is defined by the
sample size (n) and acceptance number (c) for the sampling plan.
The Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) is a measure of the level of quality routinely
accepted by that sampling plan. It is defined as the percent defective that the
sampling plan will accept 95 percent of the time.
2.4 An overview of F-Chart
An F-Chart is a control chart that is utilized to monitor the number of defective
units in each sample, provided the sample size remains the same. The F in F-chart
stands for “faulty.” It is also known as an NP-chart. With an F-Chart, items are
broken down into two basic categories, an equivalent of “pass” or “fail.”
A Z chart can be used to monitor process quality characteristics. When there is
correlation between observations of two measurable quality characteristics, X and
77
Y, and there is dependence on the time among observations of X and also Y and
this structure of correlation and autocorrelation is of a VAR (1) model, it is
possible, for a certain false alarm rate, to relate the control limit of the Z chart with
the variances and covariance of the cross-covariance matrix.

IN-TEXT QUESTION Define Sampling Plan.

A Sampling plan is a statistical method of determining whether to accept or reject a lot of

material that is being produced.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session, we have examined the importance that sampling plans should
be linked to risk. It should be obvious that more inspection is required and should
be performed for higher-risk items and less sampling should be required and
performed for lower-risk items. Ensure your training program provides some
background on how and why sampling plans work for those performing sampling
activities.
4.0 Self-assessment Questions
In your own word, discuss the following:
1. Z chart
2. Sampling plan
3. OC Curve
5.0 Additional Activities
Visit YouTube for more insight.
6.0 References/Further Reading
Mark (2019) Quality Systems Compliance LLC An Introduction to Sampling Plans
October 21,( 2019)
78
Leoni (2014). A Simple Procedure to Calculate the Control Limit of Z Chart
International Journal of Statistics and Applications 2014, 4(6): 276-282 DOI:
10.5923/j.statistics.20140406.0

79
 STUDY MODULE 6
LINEAR PROGRAMMING IN PRODUCTION SCHEDULING

Study Session 6.1: Linear Programming Techniques

Study Session 6.2: The Implication of Quality Control in Production Process

STUDY SESSION 6.1

LINEAR PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Definition/Meaning of Linear Programming
2.2 Linear Programming
2.3 Linear Programming Techniques
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
In this study session, we shall discuss Linear programming which is used in
business and industry in production planning transporting and routing. It is one of
the most widely used optimization techniques for allocating limited resources in
production planning.

80
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. Explain linear programming technique.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition/Meaning of Linear Programming
Linear programming is a mathematical technique that is used to determine the best
allocation of a company's limited resources to achieve optimal goals. It is one of
the most widely used optimization techniques and perhaps the most effective
method, it is an optimization technique for allocating limited resources (covering
all production factors, such as machinery, labour, raw materials, capital, available
technology), to optimize the objective function (maximizing or minimizing) on a
function. The linear objective with equations and linear inequality constraint
functions
2.2 Linear Programming
The problem of resource allocation will arise if there are certain activities that
require meeting needs. These problems will be translated into mathematical
formulations. In addition, the linear programming technique is an optimization
model of resource allocation to achieve efficiency in production planning it can be
applied to create a production schedule that aims to optimize resources. It is an
operational research technique that is widely used in various management
problems
2.3 Linear Programming Techniques
In this step, the creation of a mathematical model is based on variables that are
commonly considered in linear programming. Since in this study the objective
function is the minimum cost, with the constraints of demand for the future period,

81
the capacity owned by the company consisting of the number of hours worked and
raw materials, the notation is made as follows:
Xi = Number of Products Produced Per i Period
Uj = Regular Production Cost
KPi = Production Capacity of i Period
D = Total Demand for the next 12 Periods
KBa = A Raw Material Requirement
KBBa = A Raw Material Capacity
KBb = B Raw Material Needs
KBBb = B Raw Material Capacity
KBc = C Raw Material Needs
KBBc = C Raw Material Capacity
Wi = Time to Make Product i Period
Ktki = Labor Hour Capacity Under these conditions:
1 day = 8 hours of work
1 month = 26 working days
1 year = 12 months Model Development:
Zmin = Constraint: Production capacity:
Xi ≤ KPi Demand : ≥ D Raw material:
A: KBa x Xi ≤ KBBa
B: KBb x Xi ≤ KBBb
C: KBc x Xi ≤ KBBc
Labor : Wi x Xi ≤ Ktki
X1, X2,… X12 ≥ 0
Optimization of production planning in aggregate by using a linear program is
more flexible since it can include variables that are more suitable for the
company’s conditions.
82
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
In this study session you have seen the methods and techniques used in allocation
of scares resources during production planning in an organization.
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. What do you understand by the word linear programming?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)

https://youtu.be/gNdewLLxhv8
6.0References/Further Reading
Emmalia &Sri Indriani (2021) Optimization of Production Planning Using Linear
Programming iJournals: International Journal of Software & Hardware Research in
Engineering (IJSHRE) ISSN-2347-4890 Volume 9 Issue 11 November

83
84
 STUDY SESSION 6.2
THE IMPLICATION OF QUALITY CONTROL IN PRODUCTION
PROCESS

Section and Subsection Headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Quality
2.2 Implication of Quality Control
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
Quality could be said to be value attached to any product which may serve as a
source of stimulation to a buyer to make him demand the product. However, the
price of the product can be determined by the value attached to it. We shall discuss
the implication of quality control in production process in this study session.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to: -
1. Explain the implication of quality control in production
process

85
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Quality
Quality is a necessary ingredient of any product or service. It is associated with an
attribute of a product at a described time an industry must carry out a production
process, to meet customer demands accurately and quickly both in terms of product
quantity and quality.

2.2 Implication of quality Control

Customer satisfaction determines the success of a new product and only products
at high value meet the needs of clients who expect them to perform correctly in
their whole life cycle. In order to fulfil such requirements, the minimum of
variation of parameters should be assured within the manufacturing processes and
the product itself. From an elementary part to compound parts, they must be
designed and manufactured on high quality level and be reliable and safe in use.
The ultimate aim of any manufacturing organization is the production of quality
goods and services and the satisfaction of its consumers and the
maximization profit. To be able to accomplish this aims the quality of the product
must be given adequate concern. Therefore, for any product to service the
competitive nature of the market depends on the value attached to the product by
the consumer. Such values may include quality, durability, utility etc. it is in the
cognition of these, that most manufacturing, industries have a control department
to take up full responsibility of quality control.

IN-TEST QUESTION – What do you understand by the word quality?

Quality could be said to be the value attached to any product which may serve as a source of
stimulation to a buyer to make him demand for the product. However, the price of the product can
be determined by the value attached to it

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3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
In this study session you have seen that an industry must carry out a production
process, customer demands accurately and quickly both in terms of product
quantity and quality if consequently, optimization of production costs and profits
will be obtained by the company.
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
In your word words discuss the implication of quality control

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)

https://youtu.be/gNdewLLxhv8

6.0 References/Further Reading

The impact of production planning and control on operational cost of
manufacturing industry in Nigeria August 8, 2018.
Emmalia &Sri Indriani (2021) Optimization of Production Planning Using Linear
Programming iJournals: International Journal of Software & Hardware Research in
Engineering (IJSHRE) ISSN-2347-4890 Volume 9 Issue 11 November 2021.
Miroslav, Martina, & radovan, (2016), Quality Control in Production Processes pp.
77–83 University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak republic.
Zain ul abideen (2015) Inspection and Quality control in Production Management
Objectives of Inspection in Production Management.

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 STUDY MODULE 7
THE NEED FOR PROPER MAINTENANCE OF FACILITIES IN
PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Study Session 7.1: Definition of Maintenance. Preventive Maintenance and
Corrective Maintenance.
Study Session 7.2: Maintenance Culture in relation to any manufacturing or
service organization in Nigeria.

Study Session 7.1

DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE

Section and Subsection Headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Meaning of maintenance
2.2 Corrective maintenance
2.3 Preventive maintenance
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
In this study session, we shall discuss maintenance which is an important aspect
that increase productivity by reducing such downtimes and improving equipment
88
performance. Maintenance is basically a set of processes and practices that help in
the continuous and efficient operation of assets.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to: -
1. Define maintenance.
2. Explain preventive maintenance
3. Explain corrective maintenance

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Meaning of Maintenance
Maintenance is the effort required to undertake for maintaining the equipment’s
performance similar to a new one. Unscheduled downtime due to equipment
malfunction is one of the major concerns for industries which calls for billions of
dollars of losses each year.
2.1.1..Types of Maintenance
Broadly, there are two main types of maintenance categories that can further be
sub-divided into various maintenance-type groups.

1. Proactive Maintenance or Preventive Maintenance and

2. Responsive Maintenance or Corrective Maintenance
2.2 Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance is maintenance that is used to repair damages that has
already occurred. Usually, when this type of maintenance is performed, the
manufacturing process is stopped, decreasing production and increasing costs.
Repair time cannot be predicted, nor can the expenses be resulting from the
breakdown and consequent disturbance on the production line. Therefore,

89
corrective maintenance is applied on assets with low criticality, whose faults do not
involve large temporal or economic problems. It is often used for specific
equipment where other techniques would be more costly.
There are two types of corrective maintenance

1. Planned or scheduled corrective maintenance and

2. Unplanned or Unscheduled corrective maintenance

2.2.1. Planned or Scheduled Corrective Maintenance

Planned corrective maintenance is the corrective action that is not immediate but
planned or scheduled depending on the urgency and nature of the deficiency
identified. The risks involved and costs involved are major parameters to
determine the planned corrective maintenance schedule. This is also known as
deferred corrective maintenance. Example: An AC is not providing proper cooling
due to refrigerant gas leakage. So, work order is created to repair it during the next
inspection.
2.2.2 Unplanned or Unscheduled corrective maintenance
Unplanned corrective maintenance needs immediate attention due to some kind of
critical failure and must be repaired without delay as it directly relates to cost. This
philosophy is also known as Immediate Corrective Maintenance. Example: A
pump is inspected and repaired after every 200 hours but it breaks down after 150
hours of operation and it calls for an emergency repair. Similar cases are examples
of unplanned corrective maintenance.
Corrective maintenance involves the replacement or repair of equipment after it
fails. In response to equipment failure, the tasks identify the failure (it may be an
equipment component or equipment item) and rectifies the failure so that the
equipment can be reinstated and the facility production restored. The tasks are

90
prioritized so that the high-priority tasks that may be safety related or affecting
production are addressed.

This could be low cost because it can generally be performed with a fewer number
of resources and maintenance infrastructure, such as tools, technologies and
expertise. The result, however, is that it is inefficient and in the long term it can be
very expensive because failures generally result in catastrophic events, which
means there is more damage that needs to be repaired.

Corrective maintenance consists of the action(s) taken to restore a failed

component to operational status. Corrective maintenance is performed at
unpredictable intervals because a component's failure time is not known a priority.

2.2.3 Advantages of Corrective Maintenance

Major advantages of Corrective Maintenance are:

1. Minimal planning requirement

2. Lower short-term costs
3. Simplified maintenance process
4. For non-critical equipment, without much impact, this is the best
maintenance philosophy and can be cheaper.
2.2.4 The Disadvantages of Corrective Maintenance are:

1. Increased Unpredictability
2. Paused operations and hence production loss
3. The increased cost of maintenance
4. Equipment life not optimized.
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 5. Higher long-term costs
6. High safety concerns

2.3 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive Maintenance refers to the fixing of problems before they appear.

This means such maintenance prevents the problem from occurring.
Inspection of equipment at regular intervals to check the machine’s
condition and take necessary action is the motto of preventive maintenance.
Preventive maintenance is planned in a time horizon and aims to prevent
breakdowns. Unlike corrective maintenance, because it is planned, it is not
done during production time.

The intention of this type of maintenance is to reduce the number of

corrective interventions, performing periodic reviews and replacing worn
components.

It is a demanding type of maintenance, as it requires strict supervision and

development of a plan to be carried out by qualified personnel. In addition,
as it involves routine tasks, personnel may not be motivated. Furthermore, if
it is not done correctly, there will be a cost overrun with no significant
improvements in productivity.

2.3.1. Types of Preventive Maintenance

1. Time-Based Maintenance (TBM)

2. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)

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 3. Failure Finding Maintenance (FFM)

4. Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM)

5. Risk-Based Maintenance (RBM)

Time-Based Maintenance
Time-based maintenance or TBM calls for maintenance at a fixed time. Normally,
taking guidance from the equipment manufacturer maintenance plan a fixed
interval is scheduled and maintenance work is performed to restore equipment
efficiency and performance. Time-based maintenance also requires the
replacement of items based on their service life capability.

Predictive Maintenance (PDM)

As the name suggests, this type of maintenance refers to the prediction of failure
probability of an equipment and schedule maintenance to prevent failure. To
correctly predict the equipment’s workability and perform predictive maintenance
the organization should keep and analyse the following data:

1. Equipment history
2. All records of downtime, defects, performance, etc.
3. Equipment condition with respect to working time.
After analysis of the above data and including the experience with similar
equipment maintenance dates are fixed.

Failure Finding Maintenance

In failure finding maintenance, potential hidden failures are searched at regular
intervals and if discovered are repaired to prevent major breakdowns. So basically,
this is not a specific type of maintenance but a functional check. Failure finding
maintenance increases the system’s reliability.

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 Condition-Based Maintenance
In Condition-based maintenance (CBM) strategy, the actual asset condition is
monitored and further maintenance requirement is decided. In this type of
maintenance, based on visual inspection, scheduled tests, performance data, etc.
the equipment’s condition is studied. When some signs of decreasing performance
or failure is received, maintenance is scheduled.

Risk-Based Maintenance
Risk-based maintenance considers the philosophy of maintaining the assets
carrying the most risk during failure. This philosophy determines the most
economical use of the maintenance resources and optimizes the risk of failure.

IN-TEXT QUESTION Identify the Advantages of Corrective Maintenance,

Major advantages of Corrective Maintenance are:

Minimal planning requirement

Lower short-term costs
Simplified maintenance process
For non-critical equipment, without much impact, this is the best
maintenance philosophy and can be cheaper.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

The purpose of maintenance, which we have seen in this session is to achieve the
desired component perfectly by maintaining the components’ ability to function
correctly.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Define Maintenance
2. What is Corrective and preventive Maintenance?

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 3. What are the different types of Corrective Maintenance?
4. Identify the disadvantages of Corrective Maintenance

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of Class activities)

Visit any government organization near you and narrate what you think are the
causes and effects of non-maintenance in the production process.
6.0 References/Further Reading
Yong, & Wei-Liang (2016) Marine Structural Design (Second Edition), 2016
Michael Guy Deighton, in Facility Integrity Management, 2016

Anil & Aashi, (2016 ) Product Development (Second Edition), 2016

Jiuping, & Lei Xu, (2017) Integrated System Health Management, 2017
Amup (2022) Maintenance,Mechanical,Piping Interface Types of Maintenance
2022

Study Session 7.2

MAINTENANCE CULTURE IN RELATION TO ANY MANUFACTURING
OR SERVICE ORGANIZATION IN NIGERIA

Section and subsection headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcomes
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Definition of Maintenance
2.2 Maintenance Culture
2.3 Maintenance Culture in Manufacturing Industry
3.0 Summary and conclusion

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4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings
Introduction
In this study session, we shall attempt to explain Maintenance culture in
manufacturing or service industry/organization. The reliability of a manufacturing
system depends on the quality of its conception and the actions of the maintenance
which are undertaken during its exploitation (production activities)
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study session, you should be able to:
1. Identify Maintenance Culture in relation to any Manufacturing or
Service Organizations in Nigeria

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of Maintenance
According to Martin et al., (2016). Maintenance represents a large portion of
operations and Management effort, cost and risk. The purpose of maintenance is to
achieve the desired component performance by maintaining the component’s
ability to function correctly. The component failure rates, as well as the
maintenance duration, the vessel availability and the operational weather limits
have the greatest effect. In addition, maintenance is the effort required to undertake
for maintaining the equipment’s performance similar to new ones. Unscheduled
downtime due to equipment malfunction is one of the major concerns for industries
which calls for billions of dollars of losses each year. Maintenance is an important
aspect to increase productivity by reducing such downtimes and improving
equipment performance. Maintenance is basically a set of processes and practices
96
that help in the continuous and efficient operation of assets.
2.2 Maintenance Culture
According to Suwaibatul et al. (2012) cited by Tijani et al. (2016) Maintenance
culture is the values, way of thinking, behaviour, perception and the underlying
assumptions of any person or group or society that considers maintenance as a
matter that is important (priority) and practices it in their life. When a person or
group has maintenance culture, they would have the attitude to maintain, preserve
and protect the public facilities.

The concept of maintenance culture is the internal environment between

management and staff in ensuring effective maintenance through the sharing of
ideas, beliefs, and values of each member in an organization. Developing and
embracing maintenance culture through effective leadership, sound policy,
attitudinal development among others would not only enhance national
development but also enlist the country among the list of developed nations.

Maintenance culture is the continuous provision of adequate care of the

infrastructure of a firm or company by resource managers.

2.2.1. The Purpose /Objectives of Maintenance

The purpose /Objectives of maintenance are:
1. To sustain equipment and facilities as designed, in a safe, effective operating
condition;
2. To ensure production targets are met economically and on time;
3. To prevent unexpected breakdown of machinery and equipment
4. To extend the useful like of equipment; and
5. To ensure the safety of personnel using the system.
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The need for reliability and dependability of equipment as well as compulsion to
save cost in all areas are satisfied by these objectives.

As the population is fast growing, technological advancement (in quality and

quantity) should also be growing in like manner, for this reason, production
engineers and manufacturers are working round the clock seeking for technical
ideas of maintenance to meet up with the ever increasing demand of the
populace. The maintenance of production machinery and equipment and
assurance of availability of spare parts is becoming increasingly important.
As the population is fast growing, technological advancement (in quality and
quantity) should also be growing in like manner, for this reason, production
engineers and manufacturers are working round the clock seeking for technical
ideas of maintenance to meet up with the ever increasing demand of the
populace.
2.3 Maintenance Culture in Manufacturing Industry
As the population is fast growing, technological advancement (in quality and
quantity) should also be growing in like manner, for this reason, production
engineers and manufacturers are working round the clock seeking for technical
ideas of maintenance to meet up with ever increasing demand of the populace.
The maintenance of production machinery and equipment and assurance of
availability of spare parts are becoming increasingly important,
All equipment and facilities have a predetermined expected standard of
performance; therefore, maintenance supports for these equipment and facilities to
meet this performance standard should be maintained. The effectiveness of
maintenance refers to the extent to which the maintenance objectives are met as
regards to the satisfaction of both internal, external and customer requirements.

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In financial perspectives, maintenance is classified as an operating expense while
the other non-maintenance activities such as process optimization, manufacture
of replacement parts, relocation, upgrading, modification and installation of
equipment (plant engineering functions) are capitalized. A good maintenance
culture ensures that machinery functions properly even when depreciation is
assured. Cost saving can be enormous if basic maintenance procedures are put in
place (Ikpo, 2000). Appropriate maintenance culture, proper repair and preventive
maintenance of industrial machinery and equipment will not totally prevent their
breakdown and failure but it would be reduced.

Nigeria as a developing country is seriously confronted with insufficient resources

for the establishment of capital overheads, or infrastructure which is essential for
harnessing the available raw materials for production. But the desire to reshape,
improve and develop, the economy has been paramount in the various
programmes, strategies and policies of the country. Since after independence, a
large chunk of the country’s resources has been channelled to transportation
infrastructure construction, industries, government administrative buildings for
ministries and parastatals, schools, colleges and universities. Besides, assorted
types of vehicles, tractors and trucks are acquired for essential services. All are
geared toward repositioning the underdeveloped economy. However, one
remarkable action needed to ensure sustainability of these varieties of
infrastructure has not been given the right and sufficient attention. Maintenance
culture which encompasses provision for adequate care of the hard earned
resources.

The extent of non-maintenance culture in Nigeria which has rendered many useful
investments such as road networks, buildings, plants, industries and other
99
infrastructures useless to the extent of inability to support production capable of
enhancing sustainable development. It was obvious that inadequate fund provision,
lack of efficient maintenance department and poor quality manpower required to
embark on repairs have contributed to the decay of assets, social overheads and
infrastructure. Besides, the attitudes of the government that embarks on public
goods provision but does not care so much for the quality of investment projects
and ensuring living up to their life span gradually lead to deplorable infrastructure.

2.3.1 Non-Maintenance Culture in Nigeria/ Poor Maintenance Culture in

Nigeria
In Nigeria, the organization and implementation of maintenance strategy have not
been given adequate attention and so very low results are seen in the use of assets,
which led to the country being labelled as having a ‘poor maintenance culture,’ for
engineering infrastructure, among others. Dishearteningly, huge and very
expensive projects are allowed to go into disuse in a short while due to lack of
maintenance culture. Succinctly, the establishment of infrastructure in Nigeria is
not easily attained, but the extent to which the existing ones are allowed to
deteriorate owing to lack of maintenance culture is a thing of worry.

These actions in myriad ways have resulted to a colossal waste of scarce resources.
It is really one of the major problems, hitherto ravaging and undermining
developing countries, especially Nigeria. Bamgboye (2006) posits that
maintenance is the art of bringing back the operating conditions of an asset into
normal functioning at a minimal cost capable of enhancing the life span of the
item. In other words, maintenance is the ability and skill of keeping infrastructures
available for normal use and the designed life span of many infrastructures are at
present very low in Nigeria. Life span enhancement necessitates a culture of
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adequate maintenance.

In Nigeria, the orientation of the private sector’s executive towards profit making,
through more production of goods and reduction in cost is another factor hindering
for a good maintenance culture in their establishment. It is believed that
maintenance do reduce their profits and consequently affect their achievements
adversely. There is need to accept the maintenance function, as the aims of the
organization may not initially conform to the main aim and objectives of
production. In the long run, proper maintenance culture will enhance the
productivity and full capacity utilization of industrial facilities.

Besides, one major consideration by foreign investors in opting for investment in a

country during a feasibility study is the level of infrastructure. In Nigeria, there is a
large market for varieties of goods and services, but infrastructure deficiency
owing to lack of maintenance have restrained investment. For instance, power
supply gadgets exist, pipe borne water plants are available but improper
maintenance, sabotage, selfishness, corruption, among others have made them non-
functional and the supposed provided services are not available and where
available, they function erratically. This has discouraged the needed foreign
investment that will boost the economy. Poor infrastructure has sent some foreign
investors operating in Nigeria to relocate to other countries. In some cases,
domestic investors would prefer investing in nearby countries due to high costs of
doing business emanating from poor infrastructure. The adverse effect of this is
reduced resources use in Nigeria which has helped to raise unemployment level.

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Maintenance has been classified as follows: breakdown, routine, planned,
preventive, predictive, corrective, design out maintenance, total productive
maintenance and contracted out maintenance (Westerkamp, 1999).

The type of maintenance that can be employed by any industry depends on the
maintenance objectives of that industry. Also, the specific and operational
objectives of maintenance are determined by the nature of the organization’s
business. Therefore, in order to ensure effectiveness of operations, the objectives
of maintenance must be clearly defined to be understood by all stakeholders in the
organization.

Maintenance is primarily:
1. To sustain equipment and facilities as designed, in a safe, effective operating
condition;
2. To ensure production targets are met economically and on time;
3. To prevent unexpected breakdown of machinery and equipment
4. To extend the useful like of equipment; and
5. To ensure the safety of personnel using the system.
The need for reliability and dependability of equipment as well as compulsion to
save cost in all areas are satisfied by these objectives.

Maintenance can be classified as follows:

1. Breakdown,
2. Routine,
3. Planned,
4. Preventive,
5. Predictive,
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 6. Corrective,
The type of maintenance that can be employed by any industry depends on the
maintenance objectives of that industry and the nature of the organization’s
business. In order to ensure effectiveness, the objectives of maintenance must be
clearly defined to be understood by all stakeholders in the organization.

2.3.2 Benefits of a Good Maintenance Culture

Some benefits of maintenance culture are seen below:
1. Keeping assets in utmost working condition in order to minimize downtime
and disruption to services
2. Keeping facilities in a state of good repair for the owner’s health and safety
3. Keeping assets from deteriorating in appearance and aesthetics
4. Keeping facilities so as to optimally achieve their full potential service life
5. Leveraging efficiencies that can be reflected on the owner’s statement of
financial position
6. Satisfying a legislated duty that is owed to owners, occupants and guests on
the property
7. Preventing unnecessary damage to assets or facilitation that may result in
their performance failure
The poor maintenance culture in public sector is attributed to a very hard process
in securing approval for procurements of spare parts, the poor attitude of workers
in Nigeria towards the use and maintaining the public (government) properties,
corruption, poor maintenance record keeping, and poor systematic scheduling of
maintenance works, improper maintenance supervision, poor funding and poor
maintenance management

IN-TEXT QUESTION 12 - What are the objective of maintenance culture?

103
To sustain equipment and facilities as designed, in a safe, effective operating condition
To ensure production targets are met economically and on time
To prevent unexpected breakdown of machinery and equipment
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
We have discussed in detail that maintenance culture can be summarized as the
repair and upkeep of existing equipment, buildings and facilities to keep them in a
safe and effective way as its designed condition so that they can meet their
intended purpose.
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. What do you understand by the word Maintenance culture?
2. What would you regard as the conceptual facts about maintenance culture in
Nigerian Industries?
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
Visit any factory or production plant near you, examine and narrate their
maintenance culture.
6.0 References and Further Reading
Tijani et al (2016 lack of maintenance culture in Nigeria: the bane of national
development
Department of business administration & management, federal polytechnic, ede
civil and environmental research vol.8, no.8, 2016
104
Bukola & Samuel (2012) Evaluation of Maintenance Culture in Manufacturing
Industries in Akure metropolitan of Nigeria department of mechanical engineering,
university of Agriculture journal of information engineering and applications
www.iiste.org issn 2224- 5782 (print) issn 2225-0506 (online) vol 2, no.3, 2012
Uma et al (2014) international journal of economics, commerce and management
united kingdom vol. ii, issue 11, Nov 2014 licensed under creative common page 1
http://ijecm.co.uk/ issn 2348 maintenance culture and sustainable economic
development in Nigeria: issues, problems and prospects
Diego galar, uday kumar, in Maintenance, 2017
Journal of information engineering and applications www.iiste.org issn 2224-
5782 (print) issn 2225-0506 (online)
vol 2, no.3, 2012
(Martin et al., 2016) Production, Preventive and Corrective Maintenance Planning
for manufacturing systems under imperfect repairs.

STUDY MODULE 8
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Study session 8.1: Impact of industrial pollution on the environment

Study Session 8.2: accidents in production / pollution control and methods of
industrial safety

STUDY SESSION 8.1

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Section and Subsection Headings:

105
Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 What is Pollution?
2.2 Role of Industry in Pollution
2.3 Environmental Impact of Industrial Operations
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
We shall discuss Industrial pollution in this study session, which is the pollution
caused by the industry. Together with the industrial revolution, more factories and
technologies were developed, which caused a lot of air, land, and water pollution
on our planet. This kind of pollution is one of the worst because the smoke that the
industry emits in the air contributes a lot to ozone depletion, health problems to
both animals and humans, and global warming.
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Study session, you should be able to:

1. Explain Impact of industrial pollution on the environment

2. Explain Methods of industrial waste disposal and
management
2.0 Main Content
2.1 What is Pollution?

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Due to rapid economic development, environmental pollution has escalated over
the last few decades. It is mainly due to manufacturing and industrial sectors,
which is the backbone of a country’s economy. Statistics show that about 50% of
pollution is due to industries and manufacturing units. Industrial pollution is
considered an important factor to contaminate the environment. It results in
environmental degradation and imposes heavy costs on society as well as on
human health and safety.
There is no systematic approach used by many industrial sectors for proper
disposal and drainage of their harmful effluent. The industrial sector should be held
accountable for their responsibilities towards proper management of waste
effluent, as it contributes to about 50% of the environmental pollution. It creates
great social costs in a developing country.
2.1 .1 Major Industrial Pollutants:
Due to the advancement of science and technology, the industrial revolution
emerged. However, the industrial revolution has also generated industrial
pollution. With the advancement in industrial sectors, pollution becomes an ever-
growing phenomenon, which needs to be addressed on urgent basis. Industrial
pollution not only affects biotic component but also a-biotic component of the
environment. Both components are interdependent on each other and maintain a
balance in the environment and this balance is lost due to pollution. Industries
cause pollution due to certain reasons such as the burning of fossil fuels, like coal,
oil and natural gas, chemicals used in tanning and dyeing industries.
The following are various causes of industrial pollution:
1. Lack of policies and monitoring systems, which resulted in mass-scale
pollution.
2. Unplanned growth of industries also causes pollution.
3. Old technology that is still in-use generates a large amount of waste.
107
 4. Lack of responsibility on the part of an individual sector or organization.
5. A large number of small-scale industries also aids in generating pollution.
6. There are no proper methods for waste disposal.
7. Burning coal.
8. Burning fossil fuels like oil, natural gas, and petroleum.
9. Chemical solvents used in dyeing and tanning industries.
10.Untreated gas and liquid waste being released into the environment.
11.Improper disposal of radioactive material
2.2 Role of Industry in Pollution
1. Role of Industry in Air Pollution:
The gaseous pollutants include Sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxides (NO₂),
ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulphide (H₂S). These pollutants
released from large industries like cement industry, power plant, manufacturing,
smelters, and refineries. These are the primary source of environmental damage
and cause many respiratory disorders in human and can also vision impairment.
Due to urbanization and industrialization and increasing demand for energy, the
burning of fossil fuels and waste products in industries intensify this serious issue
of air pollution. Certain units like cement, sugar, power plants release much
amount of sulphur and nitrogen that are present in atmosphere in the form of
various oxides of nitrogen, sulphur, and carbon. These oxides when combining
with water resulting in acidic rain which also deteriorates soil, water, human-
animal, and plant health as well. These air pollutants can directly or indirectly
affect the plants or can cause acid raining which depletes the earth’s crust. Various
contaminants suspended in the air causes acid rain and settle down on the ground
surface causes land and water pollution.
2. Role of Industry in Land Pollution:

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Industrial pollution is the biggest contributor to land and soil pollution and it is
increasing by 2% every year. It is typically caused by industrial activities and the
processing of heavy metals like zinc, chromium, and lead, copper. There are no
proper systems to treat these metal wastes and they are openly thrown out on land
and water bodies. This improper disposal of waste material is a serious threat to
soil pollution. The storage of toxic material in landfills has an adverse effect on
soil. Soil pollution also pollutes underground water storage bodies. These effluents
affect soil properties, change the PH of the soil, and make soil acidic or alkaline.
Soil salinity is increasing. The use of bleaching agents and chlorination solvents is
increasing day by day in these sectors. Acidic or alkaline soil indirectly affects the
decomposition process and the nutrients cycle, and creates ecological imbalances.
Due to urbanization, there is no distinction between societal and residential areas
and industrial areas. They are merged and industrial areas are situated now within
the vicinity of residential areas which is certainly a threat to human health. Land
pollution has several negative impacts on humans and plants. Plants were grown in
acidic or alkaline soil, accumulated in plant bodies and when these plants are eaten
by animals, the accumulated salts pass on to the next affecting the entire food chain
3. Global Warming:
Major changes in weather patterns due to the ever-growing heat in the environment
causing global warming. Human activities are altering the climate. The burning of
oil, fossil fuels are increasing day by day and the result is global warming and the
greenhouse effect. Radiation passing down to earth due to this phenomenon results
in various diseases in humans and animals along with major changes in tropical
regions including rising sea level, and change in weather pattern.

2.3 Environmental Impact of Industrial Operations:

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All three natural environmental components air, land, and water are severely
affected due to various industrial operations. It has an adverse impact on biotic
(humans, animals, plants, microorganisms) and a-biotic (air, water, land, soil)
components of the environment. Untreated industrial effluents cause serious
degradation of the environment. Residential areas in urban cities are also affected
badly due to increasing pollution. Because of the harmful impacts of industrial
operation, society as well as the economy has to pay heavy costs³
Impact of Textile Operations:
Various bleaching and dying chemicals, which are used in textile industries cause
diseases in humans related to the eye and skin. Many skins irritant constituents are
used in textile operations. The effluents, which are generated by textile industries,
contain solid materials, dying and bleaching agents, acidic waste, chemicals like
chromium, chlorine, which results in serious health issues in humans⁴.
2.3.1 Industrial Waste Disposal and Waste Management
The issue of industrial pollution is critical to every nation on the planet. With the
increase in the harmful effects of industrial pollution, there are many agencies and
individuals who are working to reduce carbon footprints and live and work in an
eco-friendly way.
2.3.2 Classification of Wastes:
The Three main classes of waste are:
1. Wastes from manufacturing processes
2. Waters used as cooling agents in industrial processes
3. Wastes from sanitary uses
Many steps can be taken to seek permanent solutions to the problem.
There are three major alternatives for the disposal of the industrial wastes:
1. The direct disposal of the waste into the streams without any treatment.
2. Discharge of the wastes into the municipal sewers for combined treatment.
110
 3. Separate treatment of the industrial wastes before discharging the same into
the water bodies.
The selection of particular process depends on various factors:
1. Self-Purification Capacity of the Streams.
2. Permissible limits of the Pollutants in the water bodies.
3. Technical advantages if any in mixing the industrial wastes with domestic
sewage.
Others includes
Source Control
Adopting new technology, efficient training of employees for safe use, and
development of better technology for disposal of waste, and being more
conscientious about the use of raw materials can help control industrial pollution at
the source.
Recycling
Recycling as much polluted water in the industries as possible by increased
recycling efforts to reduce industrial pollution.
3. Cleaning of Resources
Organic methods should be adopted to clean the water and soil, such as using
microbes that use heavy metals and waste as feed naturally. Cooling rooms or bins
need to be developed that allow industries to recycle the water they need instead of
pushing it back into the natural water source it came from.
4. Industry Site Selection
Consideration of the location of the sites and the potential impact on the
surrounding environment can help reduce harmful consequences.
5. Proper Treatment of Industrial Waste
By developing and implementing adequate treatment facilities for handling
industrial waste and proper habits can reduce pollution.
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6. Rebuilding Habitats and Afforestation
Rebuilding habitats by planting more trees and plants can help give wildlife back
their homes, and the trees can help purify the air with enough oxygen and act as a
buffer against the environment.
7. Stricter Laws and Enforcement
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) works to correct the damage from
industrial pollution. There should be more stringent rules to take action against
companies who do not follow proper protocol and more significant rewards for
companies that operate properly. It requires creating policies that prevent the
misuse of land.
8. Regular Environmental Impact Assessments
Being a responsible company or industry should require regular environmental
impact assessments that are reported for evaluation. If there are harmful impacts
discovered during the review, necessary actions to correct the negative
consequences should be developed and enforced

I N-TEXT QUESTION 13. What are the major types of waste?

Waste from manufacturing processes

Water used as cooling agents in industrial processes
Waste from sanitary uses

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

You have learnt that Industrial pollution has an adverse impact on environmental
biotic and a-biotic factors. Due to the presence of harmful chemicals and
pollutants, it contaminates all the natural resources air water, and soil. When these
pollutants and harmful chemical come in contact with humans, various health-
related issues are created such as respiratory, nervous, digestive disorders.

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4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Enumerate the sources of pollutants you know
2. Discuss the method of waste disposals
3. What do you understand by the concept of waste disposal?
4. What are the roles of Industry in pollution in Nigeria?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & out of class Activities)

Visit any manufacturing organization near you and study their method of waste
disposal
https://youtu.be/A3rLfrIUzY4
6.0 References and Further Reading
Environment management act 2005 (no. 1 of 2005) ________ environment
management (waste disposal and recycling) regulations 2007
Shah, Manzoor & Asim( 2021) Impact ofIindustrial Pollution on our Society
pakistan journal of science (vol. 73 no. 1 march, 2021)

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 STUDY SESSION 8.2:
ACCIDENTS IN PRODUCTION / POLLUTION CONTROL AND
METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

Section and Subsection Headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning outcome
2.0 Main contents
2.1 Accident in Production and Manufacturing Industry
2.2 The objective of emergency plan
2.3 Industrial Safety
3.0 Summary and conclusion
4.0 Self-assessment question
5.0 Additional Activities
6.0 Reference/further readings

Introduction
Safety is a very important aspect for any industry as an accident-free work
environment boosts the morale of the team members working in any hazardous
situations. Recognizing these facts industries involving various hazards and risks,
industries prepare their own safety policy, safety manual and have a separate
department/section for safety so as to create proper aware-ness and provide the
know-how-about the safety. In this study session, we shall discuss accident in
production and the need for accident and pollution control.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

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At the end of this Study session, you should be able to:
1. Explain Accidents in production.
2. Explain The need for accident and pollution control.
3. Explain The Various methods of industrial safety

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Accident in Production and Manufacturing Industry
Industrial Accidents are caused by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical, or other
process failures, negligence or incompetence, in an industrial plant which may spill
over to the areas outside the plant causing damage to life and property.
These may originate in:
1. Manufacturing and formulation which may include commissioning and
process operations; maintenance and disposal.
2. Material handling and storage in production process and storages
3. Transportation (road, rail, air, water, and pipelines
2.1.1 Emergency Response System
Most of the chemical process plants usually have an emergency response team
with required equipment’s and materials. This trained team has to play a key role
in major emergencies or disasters. The team coordinator determines the measures
that need to be taken during emergencies and he/she co-ordinates the activities of
various departments and services .
2.2 The Objective of Emergency Plan
1. Control the hazard

2. Safeguard the lives

3. Minimize damage to process plant

4. Minimize damage to environment.

5. Start rescue operations and offer medical treatment.

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 6. Identify the affected personnel, offer them medical and financial assistance,

inform their relatives.

7. Industrial safety covers a number of issues and topics affecting safety of

personnel and the integrity of equipment in a particular industry. These

includes
2.2.3 Control Approaches and Strategies

The fundamental goal of measuring safety performance is to create and implement

intervention strategies for potential avoidance of future accidents. Recognizing
signals before an accident occurs offers the potential for improving safety; many
organizations have sought to develop programs to identify and benefit from alerts,
signals, and prior indicators.

Elimination of the hazardous substance at the source can involve three different
items:

1. The production processes

2. The hazardous substance
3. The work practices.

A production process can be changed by applying a production method which

generates less pollution. This is a sensible approach at the design stage of a
production process or when production lines are changed due to the introduction of
new product lines.

A hazardous substance may be eliminated by changing the process so that the

substance is no longer needed, or by using a less hazardous substance as a
substitute. It is, of course, necessary to assess all of the effects of the change,
taking into account other hazards such as noise, dust and any effects on the

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performance of the product, particularly effects on its safety. If substances are
changed, it will be necessary to assess and control any eventual new risks.
The prevention of occupational hazards is much more effective and usually
cheaper if it is considered at the planning stage of any work process and
workplace, rather than as control solutions of already existing hazardous situations.
This applies first to the planning of new processes or factories, to ensure that
hazardous substances are only used if necessary. If they are necessary, then
emissions inside and outside the workplace, as well as waste generation, should be
minimized, considering the whole life of the process and the products. The
workplace and the job should be planned so that hazardous exposure is either
avoided or kept to an acceptable minimum. Incentives should reward work
practices which minimize exposure. The same considerations should apply to the
introduction of new or modified processes and procedures. The order of priority
should be to:

2.3 Industrial Safety

Industrial safety refers to the management of all operations and events within an
industry in order to protect its employees and assets by minimizing hazards, risks,
accidents, and near misses.
Industrial safety was realized because of the fact that every year millions
occupational/ industrial accidents occur which result in loss of production time
equivalent to millions of man hours, machine hours etc. In all this about one-fifth
production time is lost by those actually injured due to temporary and permanent
disability and the remaining production time is lost by fellow operators/ people in
helping the injured, in taking care of the damage caused by accident etc. The loss
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to the industrial unit would appear much more alarming when death occurs due to
accidents and are considered. It is therefore essential to examine the causes of
industrial accidents and take necessary steps to control them.
2.3.1 Methods of Industry Safety
1. General Safety – General aspects of safety which are common to all
industries
2. Occupational Safety and Health – Particularly associated with the
occupation
3. Process and Production Safety
4. Material Safety
5. Workplace Safety – Safety issues directly related to the workplace setting
6. Fire Safety
7. Electrical Safety – Arising from the equipment used
8. Building and Structural Safety – Including installations as per existing
building code
9. Environmental Safety – Concerns the direct and indirect environmental
impact of the industry
2.3.2 Need for Safety:
In view of the above, the need for safety should be the concern of every
management in the production process. There are some direct effects of an
accidents but there are certain indirect costs involved such as machine down time,
damage to machine, ideal time of nearby equipment and horror created among
workers, loss of time, etc.
Safety measures would not only eliminate/ avoid cost but would mean performing
their moral responsibility towards workmen/operators also.
An accident is by virtue of an unsafe factor or an unsafe condition which may also
be the combined effects of two.
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 1. An unsafe act results in the form of operator/people doing thing without
proper authority, misuse of safety devices, ignoring warnings and
precautions etc.
2. An unsafe condition may be present in various forms e.g. faulty or defective
electrical fittings, inadequate maintenance of gang way. Use of defective
tools etc. So, to prevent the occurrence of accidents, unsafe acts have to be
avoided/ eliminated or checked.

I N-TEXT QUESTION: 14 what are the major methods of industrial safety?

Methods of Industry Safety
General Safety – General aspects of safety which are common to all industries
Occupational Safety and Health – Particularly associated with the occupation
Process and Production Safety
Workplace Safety – Safety issues directly related to the workplace setting
Fire Safety
Electrical Safety – Arising from the equipment used
Building and Structural Safety – Including installations as per existing building

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

In this study session you have seen that Safety is no longer just the following of
Occupational Safety & Hazard Analysis. It is the coordination of all
departments to produce the greatest profit for the company at the most minimal
risk. A safety programme intends to identify when where and why accidents
occur. On the same lines a safety programme aims at reducing accidents and
associated losses. A safety programme is initiated with the assumption that it is
possible to prevent most work connected accidents.
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is safety?
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 2. What are the methods of industrial safety?
3. Identify the methods of industry safety
4. What do you think is the need for safety in an industry?
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)

1. How does an organization near you maintain their

safety programme?
2. Visit any Manufacturing firm in your area and study
the kind of hazard the employee go through.

6.0 References and Further Reading

Jain.& Sunil Industrial safety – sch1311/scha301 school of bio and chemical
department of chemical engineering
khanna (2006) Industrial Safety, Health and Environmental Management Systems,
1st edition 2006.
Shrikant(2012) , Chemical Hazards and Safety, 2nd edition, khanna publishers,
2012.
Daniel & joseph (20110 Chemical Process Safety: fundamentals with applications,
3rd edition, prentice hall inc., new jersey, 2011
World health organization: Hazard Prevention and Control in the work
environment: airborne dust 31 may 1999 publication

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