Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

Geography: Climate

Topics Covered
o Weather and Climate
o Deforestation
o Climate Change
o Plate Tectonics
o Population Studies

Factors Affecting Climate

o Temperature
o Precipitation

Köppen Climate Classification (climate type)

o Main Climate + Precipitation + Temperature

Climographs
o Temperature doesn’t stop à Line graph
o Latitude (N/S) determines climate (e.g. 3ºS = tropical)
o Exceptions: Tropical, temperate and polar regions are not divided cleanly,
so even a country that falls outside a certain region may have a climate of
that region (e.g. 29ºN may have a tropical monsoon climate)

Tropical
o Tropical rainforest (>27ºC)

Tropical Monsoon
o Tropical monsoon forest
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

Cool Temperate
o Temperate deciduous forest

Cold Temperate
o ≥ 60ºN
o Temperature Difference: ≥30ºC
o Temperature drops below 0ºC
o Changes in temperature, precipitation, humidity, etc. due to space and time
will result in changes to the vegetation and wildlife found

o Climatic regions have a large influence on human activities

o Climate and the natural environment (e.g. coastal region) determine the type
of natural vegetation found in a region

o Systems have elements that interact with each other to perform a function
o Change is not always equal to progress
o Change generates more change

Enduring Understandings
o The self-regulating climatic system sustains life on earth
o Human activities generate changes in the climatic system
o The physical characteristics of a place determine the type of natural
vegetation

Level Of Response Marking Scheme

o Level 1, 2 and 3

Temperature
o General observation (e.g. fluctuating, slight fluctuation, almost constant)
o Annual temperature range (large, small, very small at __ºC)
o Highest / lowest temperature is in __ at __ºC
o Mean annual temperature (high, moderate, low at __ºC)
o Compare: Temperature in __ at __ºC is higher than in __ at ºC

Precipitation
o General observation (e.g. evenly, unevenly distributed; seasonal, throughout
the year; some dry months)
o Total annual precipitation (high, moderate, low at __mm)
o Wettest / driest month is __ at __mm
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

Adaptations to Climate (tropical rainforest)

o Sunlight: Shorter plants that cannot grow out of the canopy do not receive
as much sunlight as taller plants (unless the taller plants die and fall)
o Nutrients in soil: Decomposition, moisture à Forest soil is poor in nutrients
due to the many roots of the plants competing for nutrients
o Buttress roots: Large roots that grow sideways of a shallowly-rooted tree to
allow roots to more quickly obtain nutrients from the soil

Essay Outline
o Introduction
o Body (content paragraph)
• Point 1 (PEEL)
• Point 2 (PEEL)
• Point 3 (PEEL)
o Conclusion

Explanation
o Point
o Elaboration
o Evidence
o Link

Forests
o Tropical rainforest à inland
o Tropical monsoon forest (deciduous – sheds leaves during dry seasons)
o Tropical mangrove forest à coast
o Deciduous forest (not evergreen, temperate)
o Coniferous forest

Physical Characteristics
o Climate: Wind, sunlight, temperature, precipitation (rain, sleet, snow),
humidity
o Elevation / Relief
o Coastal (salinity), Inland (wind)

o Tropical rainforests and mangrove forests grow in the same climate

• Similarities: Evergreen, Drip tips
• Differences: Roots, Leaves (adapted to salinity, etc.)
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

o Climatic conditions and other environmental factors affect the types of trees
found in the forest and they different layers of the forest

Least to Most Salt Tolerant Mangroves [BRAS]

o Bruguiera (kneed roots)
o Rhizophora (prop / stilt roots)
o Avicennia (pencil roots)
o Sonneratia (pencil roots)

Halophytes
o A plant adapted to growing in saline conditions
o Found near saltwater sources (sea, desert)

Mangroves’ Adaptations to Saline Conditions

o Effective ultrafiltration at the roots to remove salt
o Salt is stored in old leaves that are later shed (going to drop off)
o Able to tolerate high levels of salt in their tissues
o Secrete excess salt through special glands on their leaves (pencil roots)

Challenges Faced by Mangroves [environmental factors]

o High Salinity of Water in Soil
• Leaves with glands that excrete salt
• Storage of salt in leaves that are later shed
• Ability to restrict opening of stomata (conserve freshwater)
o High Rate of Evaporation
• Ability to turn leaves (reduce surface area exposed to sun à reduce
water loss through evaporation)
o Tidal Environment
• Ability to produce seeds that float (tide disperses seeds to avoid
overcrowding)
• Ability to retain seeds after germination and propagule has formed
(dropped into water after this and remains dormant until soil is found)
o Anaerobic (lack of oxygen), Soft and Waterlogged Soil
• Roots that provide structural support in soft soil
• Above-ground roots that transport oxygen to roots trapped in
anaerobic soil
• Roots that filter salt from water before being transported to leaves
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

Ø Note: Climate is NOT the only determinant of the type of vegetation found in
a place – other factors include environmental (e.g. anaerobic soil) and
human (e.g. clearing of land) factors

What affects the type of vegetation found in a place?

o Climate
• Refer to page 3
o Other environmental factors
• Physical location (coastal, inland)
• Refer to page 4

PPA Topics
Climate
o Climographs
• Temperate: Rainfall + Temperature
• Tropical: Rainfall + Temperature
o Biomes
• Mangrove Forest: Adaptations to climate, other environmental factors
• Tropical Rainforest: Adaptations to climate
Deforestation
o Causes
o Effects
o Measures
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

Geography: Deforestation

Definition
o Long term cutting down or burning of trees through slash-and-burn or other
methods to clear the land

Causes
o Economic
• Mining (coal, heavy metal – gold): Economic growth
• Palm oil plantations: Economic growth
• Employment: People who cannot find jobs cut down trees to sell
(lack of education à limited job options à cannot find other jobs)
• Roads: Transport access to more areas
o Social
• Building of homes: Urbanization
• Materials: Wood furniture, paper, construction, fuel / charcoal

Negative Impacts
o Physical
• Loss of canopy cover
o Habitat destruction: Less wildlife diversity
o Soil erosion
• Water pollution: Contaminated with mercury used in gold mining
• Air pollution: Slash-and-burn
o Economic
• Loss of revenue
o Tourists cannot visit nature reserves, which are key tourism
spots especially in Indonesia
o Haze from slash-and-burn deters tourists worried for their
health and safety
o Cultural
• Loss of culture: Indigenous tribes lose their homes and are relocated
to urban landscapes which they find difficult to adapt to (lifestyle
change)
o Social
• Air pollution: Negative health impacts on people
• Mercury poisoning: Gold mining uses mercury to separate gold from
other substances à Mercury contaminates rivers / paddy fields à
People obtain food from these sources and are poisoned
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

Positive Impacts
o Economic
• Selling of materials for country’s economic growth
o Palm oil generates a lot of revenue (11% of Indonesia’s GDP)
• Cheap and profitable
o Palm oil costs 400 times less than an alternative, yeast and
yields more per harvest
• Increased accessibility
o Building roads in the jungle make it easier to access areas in
the jungle, so less time is needed for more goods to be
transported and productivity is increased
o Social
• Provides work for many who would otherwise face unemployment
o Loggers and miners who lack education and make little
income for their work
• Materials from the rainforest are used in everyday life
o Timber makes furniture; pulp makes paper
o Palm oil in beauty and food products
• Better standard of living with urbanization
o Building houses for the people using cleared land improves
their standard of living as they have more facilities accessible
to them

Measures

Effectiveness of Measures
o Loopholes and Corruption
• Government officials can be bribed by timbre companies to go
unpunished for illegal logging

Concepts
o Resource Curse
• Countries rich in natural resources are cursed with lack of economic
growth because they export a lot of the resources they have, and for
low prices = Need to continue exporting large amounts to sustain
economy
o Tragedy of the Commons
• People want to make use of the resources for self-interest (how they
can benefit from these free resources), resulting in the resources
being depleted rapidly
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography

PPA Topics
Climate
o Climographs
• Temperate: Rainfall + Temperature
• Tropical: Rainfall + Temperature
o Biomes
• Mangrove Forest: Adaptations to climate, other environmental factors
• Tropical Rainforest: Adaptations to climate
Deforestation
o Causes
o Effects
o Measures
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Geography: PPA1

Climate and Biomes

Tropical Temperate

Latitude - 23.5°S to 23.5°N of the - 23.5°S/N to 66.5°S/N

Equator of the Equator

Temperature - Almost constant / - Fluctuates

Fluctuates slightly - Moderate or low MAT
- High MAT (> 20°C) (10-20°C, < 10°C)
- Small or very small - Large ATR (> 10°C)
ATR (5-10°C, < 5°C)

Precipitation - High TAP (> 1000mm) - Moderate TAP

(250-1000mm)

Seasons - Little or no variation in - Variation in

temperature temperature with
- Seasonal precipitation season changes
with some dry months - Seasonal precipitation
(for some locations) with some dry months
(for some locations)

Temperature Adjectives
- Constant (ATR ‘very small’)
- Slightly Fluctuating (ATR ‘small’)
- Fluctuating (ATR ‘large’)

Temperature Description
- General adjective
- Mean annual temperature
- Hottest and coldest months
- Annual temperature range

Precipitation Adjectives
- Evenly distributed
- Unevenly distributed / Seasonal
- Some dry months (no precipitation)
- Precipitation throughout the year

Precipitation Description
- General adjective
- Wettest and driest months
- Total annual precipitation
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Equatorial Climate
- E.g. Island SEA
- 10°N to 10°S of Equator
- Temperature
- Almost constant
- MAT high (around 27°C)
- ATR very small ​(around 3°C)
- Precipitation:
- Evenly distributed
- TAP high (>2000mm)

Tropical Monsoon Climate

- E.g. Inland SEA
- 10°N to 25°N; 10°S to 25°S
- Temperature
- Fluctuates (slightly)
- MAT high
- ATR small / large ​(5-17°C)
- Precipitation
- Seasonal​ (distinct ​dry season​)
- TAP varies (relief, distance from sea)

Cool Temperate Climate

- E.g. NW Europe, New Zealand, Coastal US
- 40°N to 50°N; 40°S to 50°S
- Temperature
- Fluctuates
- MAT moderate / low
- ATR large
- Winter temp. ​above 0°C
- Precipitation
- Throughout the year
- TAP moderate (500-1000mm)

Cold Temperate Climate

- E.g. Russia, Canada
- 50°N to 70°N; 50°S to 70°S
- Temperature
- Fluctuates
- MAT very low
- ATR very large ​(>30°C)
- Winter temp. ​below 0°C
- Precipitation
- Throughout the year
- TAP moderate (300mm-700mm)
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Tropical Rainforest Adaptations

- Characteristic
- Function (so what?)
- Link to Climatic / Environmental Factors (trees have ___ in order to ___ due to ___)

High Precipitation
- Waxy Leaves​: Allow rainwater to run off easily to prevent pest infestation and water from
weighing down the leaves, which may cause branches to break
- Drip Tips​: Drain excess water to prevent pest infestation and water from weighing down the
leaves, which may cause branches to break
- Evergreen Leaves​: Trees do not shed leaves over the same period of time as there is less
need to conserve water with high precipitation and no dry season
- Buttress Roots​: Shallow and spread over a wide surface area to maximise absorption of
water from precipitation + nutrients from decomposition caused by high precipitation (and
temperature) found at the top layer of the soil
- Flower, Produce Fruit at Different Periods​: No need to flower, produce fruit at the same
time, so chances of pollination and dispersal for survival are increased as there is less
competition

High Temperature
- Waxy Leaves​: Minimise water lost through transpiration due to high evapotranspiration
rates [from the high temperatures]
- Thin Bark​: Trees do not need to protect their trunks from extreme cold or hot climatic
conditions
- Buttress Roots​: Shallow and spread over a wide surface area to maximise absorption of
nutrients from decomposition caused by high temperature (and precipitation) found at the
top layer of the soil

Obtain Sunlight
- More Upper Branches​: Branches at the top ⅓ of tree trunks maximise absorption of sunlight
for photosynthesis as leaves are better exposed to sunlight higher up; Can better compete
with other plants for sunlight
- Climbers, Creepers​: Maximise absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis as leaves are better
exposed to sunlight; Can better compete with other plants for sunlight (e.g. liana)
- Epiphytes​: Use host tree for support to grow at a height that exposes its leaves better to
maximise absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis → NOT PARASITIC
- Evergreen Leaves​: Trees do not shed leaves as there is less need to conserve water so
evergreen leaves maximise absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis
- Smooth Bark​: Prevent climbers from hooking onto tree and competing with it for resources

Obtain Water + Nutrients

- Parasites​: Compete with host tree for sunlight, water, nutrients and space (e.g. strangler fig -
different from epiphytes and lianas)
- Buttress, Shallow Roots​: Shallow and spread over a wide surface area to maximise
absorption of water and nutrients found in the top layer of the soil
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Support
- Buttress Roots​: Thick to support the weight of tall emergent and canopy trees and give them
increased structural stability → Link to why trees are tall [obtain sunlight]

Little to No Wind
- Bright, Sweet-Smelling Flowers, Fruits​: Attract insects to pollinate flowers and animals to
disperse seeds as there is little wind in the dense rainforest
- Wing-Like Structures​: Emergent and canopy trees may disperse seeds by wind (not so dense
higher up), so wing-like structures allow seeds to be dispersed further

Structure
- Paragraphs are structured based on the climatic or environmental factor
- Example
- Para. 1: Precipitation
- Para. 2: Temperature
- Para. 3: Salinity

- Climate does not include salinity, etc. for mangrove forests

Mould / Fungi / Algae

- Mould: Moisture
- Algae: Block sunlight
- Fungi: Cause diseases by attacking cells

Tropical Rainforest
- Found in tropical climatic region
- 23.5°S to 23.5°N of the Equator

Tropical Rainforest Layers

- Undergrowth (0-5m)
- Sparse vegetation (little sunlight)
- Saprophytes → Feed on dead, dying organic matter and do not photosynthesize (no
need for sunlight)
- Fungi, Fern, Small Plants
- Shrub (5-6m)
- Shrubs, Ferns, Tree Saplings
- Understorey (6-15m)
- Lianas, Epiphytes, Young Trees
- Trees have narrow, oval-shaped crowns
- Canopy (15-30m)
- Lianas, Epiphytes → Non-parasitic
- Strangler Fig → Parasitic
- Umbrella-shaped crowns form a canopy that prevents most sunlight from reaching
forest floor
- Emergent (30-50m)
- Scattered Emergents
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Mangrove Forest
- Found along coastal wetlands in the tropical climatic region
- 23.5°S to 23.5°N of the Equator
- Mangrove Genus (BRAS - halophytes)
- Bruguiera: Kneed roots
- Rhizophora: Prop / Stilt roots
- Avicennia: Pencil roots
- Sonneratia: Pencil roots

Tropical Mangrove Forest Adaptations

High Salinity
- Leaves contain glands to​ excrete salt​ ( salt secretor species: Avicennia)
- Storage of salt in ​old leaves that are later shed (ultrafiltrator species: Bruguiera, Rhizophora,
Sonneratia)
- Ability to restrict opening of stomata → Retain freshwater

High Temperature
- Waxy Leave​s: Reduce water loss through transpiration due to high evapotranspiration rates
from high temperature
- Ability to ​Turn Leaves​: Reduce surface area exposed to sunlight → Reduce water loss
through evapotranspiration

High Precipitation
- Waxy Leaves​: Drains excess water to prevent pest infestation and branches breaking due to
weight of water

Presence of Wind
- Fine Hairs​ (underside): Reduce air flow that carries away water vapor from the leaves
- Stomata in Sunken Pits ​(underside): Reduce air flow that carries away water vapor from the
leaves

Tidal Environment
- Ability to Produce ​Buoyant Seeds​: Tide disperses seeds → Avoid overcrowding
- Ability to ​Retain Seeds after Germination​: Tide disperses seeds → Remains dormant until
soil is found → Grows immediately (germinated), even under unstable conditions

Anaerobic, Soft, Waterlogged Soil

- Roots provide ​structural support​ in soft soil
- Aerial​ (breathing) roots ​transport oxygen​ to ​roots ​trapped in​ waterlogged​ (anaerobic) soil
- Roots ​filter salt​ from water before it is transported to leaves

Attract Pollinators
- Brightly, Sweet-Smelling Flowers​: Attract pollinators to pollinate flowers (not disperse seeds
- dispersal by water!)
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Deforestation

Structure
- Causes: Link the pre-causes (e.g. globalization) to the causes (e.g. greenhouse gases)
- Effects: PPECS (use different aspects)
- Conservation Measures: Why (not) effective?
- Explain with data / ​evidence​ from the source + e
​ laboration​ (CRAP, PEEL)
- Structure your ​answer​ based on ​question​ (apply knowledge)
- Present both viewpoints (agree and disagree)

Generalizations (climate + deforestation)

- Systems have elements that interact with each other to perform a function
- Change generates more change (pre-cause → cause; effect → post-effect)
- Change is not always equal to progress

Functions and Uses of Forests

- Maintain global water supply
- Maintain nutrients in the soil
- Replenish oxygen in the atmosphere
- Source of raw materials
- Source of medicinal products
- Habitat of various species of wildlife
- Home of indigenous people

Causes of Deforestation (PPECS)

Agricultural Land Use

- Forested areas are cleared to grow cash crops like rice and vegetables and expand farmland
for higher yield and profit for farmers
- Forested areas are cleared by companies to build plantations for growing cash crops like oil
palm [large areas cleared → more space → more plants → more harvest → more profit]

Urbanization
- Definition: Resettlement of people from rural to urban areas for better employment and
educational opportunities
- Forested areas are cleared to make way for buildings (houses, offices, facilities) for the
expansion of towns and cities [higher population → more facilities needed → forest cleared
to build facilities → loss of forest / deforestation]

Improved Transport Networks

- Roads and railway tracks are built to increase accessibility to remote areas for more efficient
transportation of goods, people, etc., but forests have to be cleared in order to construct
these roads and railway tracks
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Industrial Development
- Forests are cleared due to logging and mining
- Trees are logged to be sold as timber, processed, then exported at a rapid pace
[more logged → more sold → more profit → more economic growth]
- Trees are cleared to expose underneath ground for mining [more trees cleared →
more space for mining → more resources from mining mined → more sold → more
profit → more economic growth]

Forest Fires
- Slash-and-burn method used to clear large forested area to make way for oil palm
plantations, farmland for agriculture and other facilities as it is cheaper than employing labor
to cut down trees [slash-and-burn cheaper → more companies, cultivators use it → more
forest fires → air pollution, haze]

Physical Effects of Deforestation

Loss of Biodiversity (-ve)

- Plant and animal species live in forest → Forest cleared → Natural habitat of plant and
animal species destroyed → Plant species die; Animal species cannot survive outside the
forest and die → Endangering and extinction of species

Infertile and Eroded Soil (-ve)

- Forests ensure the availability of leaf litter [forest vegetation contributes to it] → Leaf litter
decomposes to release nutrients into soil → Soil is fertile as vegetation can grow well with
nutrients in soil → Forest cleared → Less leaf litter to provide nutrients → More infertile soil
- Trees in the forest have roots in soil that hold onto soil + keep sunlight from reaching it →
Less sunlight evaporates nutrients + Less rainwater erodes soil → Soil is fertile and does not
erode → Forest cleared → Less vegetation to prevent evaporation of nutrients + soil erosion
→ More infertile and eroded soil

Change in Quantity and Quality of Water (-ve)

- Trees in the forest transpire → Water vapor transpired forms clouds and allow for rainfall →
Forest cleared → Less vegetation = Less transpiration = Less cloud formation = Less rainfall
→ More droughts
- Trees in forest prevent rainwater from eroding soil → Forest cleared → More soil erosion →
More soil washed into rivers → Riverbed is shallower → Water overflows more easily →
More flash flooding
- Trees in forest prevent rainwater from eroding soil → Forest cleared → More soil erosion →
More soil washed into rivers → Water turns acidic → Aquatic life affected negatively +
Water unsafe for human consumption

Global Warming (-ve)

- Forests are carbon sinks [absorb more carbon than what they produce] → Forest cleared →
Less vegetation to absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen + More vegetation produces
carbon dioxide as they decompose → Reduced carbon sink → More greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere → More heat trapped in atmosphere → Global warming
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Air Pollution (-ve)

- Forests cleared through slash-and-burn → Dust and smoke produced → Air pollution and
haze

Economic Effects of Deforestation

Revenue Earned (+ve)

- Forest cleared for logging and mining → Products (e.g. timber, precious stones) exported
and sold [major source of export revenue] → Economic growth

Employment Opportunities (+ve)

- Forests cleared by companies which employ local labor → Lowly-educated locals have more
employment opportunities → More people contribute to economy → Economic growth

Less Revenue Earned (-ve)

- Forest cleared for logging and mining → Products (e.g. timber, precious stones) exported
and sold at a rapid pace → More logging and mining to meet demand → Resources depleted
→ Less resources to export and sell → Less profit → Less economic growth

Cultural / Social Effects of Deforestation

Employment Opportunities (+ve)

- Forests cleared by companies which employ local labor → Lowly-educated locals have more
employment opportunities → These locals are able to earn incomes to support their families

Displacement of Indigenous Communities (-ve)

- Indigenous communities live in forests → Forests cleared → Indigenous communities
evicted from their land [traditional land claims not recognized] → Land sold to developers
for other uses → Indigenous people forced to relocate and adapt to new lifestyle

Air Pollution (-ve)

- Forests cleared through slash-and-burn → Dust and smoke produced → Air pollution and
haze → Health of the people affected negatively

Measures to Counter Deforestation

Controlling Forest Fires

- Illegal to clear forests through slash-and-burn method
- Awareness campaigns organized to discourage locals from burning forests for land
- Limitations
- Insufficient monitoring and manpower → Illegal slash-and-burn clearing still occurs
- Cheaper method to clear forests [compared to employing labor] → Companies
continue to use slash-and-burn to clear forests for building plantations
- Traditional agriculture method → Shifting cultivators continue to use slash-and-burn
to clear forests
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Afforestation and Reforestation

- Afforestation
- Planting of trees in areas [abandoned agricultural lands] not covered with forests
before
- Reforestation
- Replanting of trees in deforested areas by locals, timber companies - commercially
valuable, fast growing trees are commonly planted to speed up reforestation
- Success
- Significant restorations of forests → Reduced negative effects of deforestation
- Limitations
- Unattractive incentives → Less local participation and support of reforestation →
Rate of deforestation higher than rate of reforestation
- Limited species of trees planted → Unable to support as much biodiversity found in
original forest → Loss of original biodiversity in the forest

Controlled Logging
- Careful management of forests being logged
- Only commercially valuable trees are removed so only a small area of the forest is
cleared, leaving a large area of non-valuable trees
- Success
- Enables regeneration of forests → Reduced amount of deforestation → Reduced
negative effects of deforestation
- Most forest vegetation retained → Roots still hold soil together + shield soil from
sunlight → Minimized soil erosion + infertile soil
- Limitations
- Insufficient monitoring and manpower → Illegal logging still occurs undetected
- Selective logging → Significant variety of plant species still cut down → Effects are
similar to clear cutting

Conservation
- Careful use of forests
- Protected nature reserves [where logging is banned]
- Success
- No destruction to original forests → Original biodiversity of forests preserved [and
other negative effects of deforestation prevented]
- Limitations
- Nature reserve is large → Difficult to monitor and control → Illegal logging might
still take place
- Balance between conservation and economic needs required → Limited number of
nature reserves → Fewer original forests preserved
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: PPA1

Factors Influencing Outcome of Conservation Measures (PPECS)

Physical
- Size of Forest
- Forest might be too large for effective monitoring and controlling → Illegal logging
might still take place

Political
- Territorial Rights
- More countries claim ownership over forested area → Each country is interested in
using the forest for its own agenda → Difficult to come to a consensus [agree on
need for conservation, single plan to conserve forest]
- Rapid Changes in Government
- Political parties stay in office for short periods → Lack of commitment to
reforestation, conservation and other efforts → Insufficient finances and manpower
put aside for these efforts → Inefficient monitoring to see if policies are effective
- Corruption
- Government officials easily bribed by companies → Allow illegal logging and other
activities to go unpunished → Inefficient monitoring and controlling

Economic
- Revenue from Forest
- Forest is a rich resource of timber and minerals → Resources needed to earn
much-needed revenue for economic growth and development → Forest conserved =
Less revenue from resources in forest → Countries less willing to put in place
conservation policies
- Lack of Funds, Manpower
- Budget cuts / Insufficient funds → Less manpower and funds to implement
conservation measures effectively + Enforce environmental protection laws [not a
priority to conserve forests when this money can be used for more pressing needs]

Social
- Increase in Population
- Urbanization → Population increase → More food + housing required → Forest
cleared to grow more food and cash crops + build settlements → Countries less
willing to put in place conservation policies
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

Geography: Plate Tectonics & Population

Earth’s Interior Structure

- Crust
- Upper Mantle
- Lower Mantle
- Outer Core
- Inner Core

Inner Core
- Iron and Nickel
- Solid from pressure
- 5000°C
- Spins independently of rest of Earth
- Creates electromagnetic field that shields Earth from cosmic rays (high energy
radiation from outside Solar system)
- Electromagnetic field creates polarity (magnetic North)

Magnetic Polarity of Rocks

- Positive = Normal Polarity → North end of the rock’s compass points to magnetic north
- Negative = Reversed Polarity → North end of the rock’s compass points to magnetic south
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

Magnetite on the Seabed

- When magma cools to form solid volcanic rock, alignment of magnetite grains aligns to
Earth’s polarity (normal or reversed) at the time of cooling
- These rocks formed magnetic stripes on the seafloor with alternating stripes of normally-
and reversely-polarized rock
- Near the ridge crest (highest part), the rocks are the youngest, and they become
progressively older further away from the ridge crest
- Rocks at the ridge crest always have normal (present-day) polarity → Earth’s magnetic field
has changed many times

Continental Shelves
- Parts of a continent that are below sea-level
- The edges of continents (shelves) fit with the edges of others, supporting Continental Drift
Theory

Continental Drift Theory

- Continental Fit
- Continental edges fit together like puzzle pieces
- Biological Evidence
- Same fossils can be found on different continents
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

- Geological Evidence
- Rock structures show mountains with similar features
- Climatic Evidence
- Coal deposits found in Antarctica, North America and the UK, showing that they
used to have tropical climates
- Glacial deposits similar across continents

Plate Tectonic Theory

- The Earth’s outermost layer [crust] is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small solid
slabs, called tectonic plates
- These plates are moving relative to one another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile
mantle material (asthenosphere)
- The edges of plates are called plate boundaries

Types of Plate Boundaries ​(movement)

Continental vs. Oceanic

- Continental crust is thicker than oceanic crust
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

Volcanoes
- Ash → NOT smoke
- Gases (e.g. sulfur)

Effects of Volcanoes
- Earthquakes, Tremors
- Ash Particles, Covers
- Corrode plane engines
- Cause respiratory problems [breathing in shards]
- Buries vehicles, houses → Economic resources
- Lahar (mudflow)
- Buries infrastructure under layers of mud
- Flooding caused by Displacement
- Lava flows into rivers and melts ice from glaciers
- Lava + Water = Steam

Pyroclastic Flow
- Definition: Fast-moving current of hot gas and rock
- Temperatures as high as 1000°C
- Vaporizes lungs if inhaled
- Pompeii: Preserved shapes of bodies in ashes
- Speeds of up to 700 km/h

Impacts of Earthquakes
- Deformation of the ground: Ground break due to rupture, Cracks in the road → Accessibility:
People cannot leave to access hospital facilities [remote location, road block, no money for
enough helicopters, no space to land] + Rescuers → Adds to death toll
- Walls crack from ​shear​ force
- Power lines were down: People cannot evacuate + Rescuers cannot help until the power
lines are fixed
- Water pipes burst → No water / Contaminated water
- Falling infrastructure: Buildings crush people + Secondary: No shelter
- Landslides on slopes: Loose soil falls, burying vehicles, houses, etc.
- Tsunamis: Friction generated causes it to ride up until it loses equilibrium and crashes

Why?
- Magnitude of earthquake (Richter scale)
- Building: Materials + Structure, Design
- Population size: Dense or sparse
- Preparedness of people
- Duration of earthquake
- Type of ground, rock: Soft or hard
- Time of day at time of earthquake
- Corrupted government: Money withheld
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions

Physical
- Effects on natural landscape
- Resources needed to rebuild parks, replant trees, etc. → Not prioritized over social and
economic impacts
Political
- Government actions
- Affects social impacts: Developed vs undeveloped countries
- Other countries’ governmental aid
Economic
- Damage, destruction of property and infrastructure
- Developed countries have more financial resources to rebuild infrastructure → Recover
faster
- Financial loss (e.g. death of livestock)
Social
- Death toll
- Extent of injury
- Extent of emotional trauma
- Effects of relocation
- Residents’ attitude

Level of Development
- Developed Country: Fewer economic problems → Focus its resources on social problems,
such as helping the wounded → Recover faster + Less damage (lower death toll)
- Developing Country: More economic problems → Focus on economic first + Less resources
for recovery→ Wounded may not receive sufficient medical aid → Recover slower + More
damage (higher death toll)

“The level of development of a country can determine the severity of damage caused by tectonic
activities as well as rate of recovery”
- More developed → More resources to set up rescue teams to evacuate people + More
technology to detect tremors and earthquakes → Impacts are less severe

Earthquake Questions
- Give evidence from given text and extend evidence, explain the impact
- Quality of Life: How happy you are, how much you sleep, how many friends
- Standard of Living: Basic needs met, sanitation, access to food, medical services

Direct Impacts
- Destruction of homes
- Loss of lives / injuries
- Falling infrastructure cause death
Secondary impacts
- A shaken structure would undergo shearing
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

- No electricity (power lines down), no water (water pipes burst), no food + no medical help
(cracks in road = less accessibility)
- Death caused by cold (winter times)
- Landslides → Occurs in mountainous areas
- Tsunami → Result of undersea earthquakes
*In secluded areas, there are no hospitals nearby → Higher death toll

Factors that determine the severity of an earthquake in terms of damages incurred

Physical Human

Magnitude Population
- Measured 1-10 - The denser the population, the greater
- Magnitude is the measure of the the extent of damage caused by
strength of the seismic waves released earthquake

Epicentre Infrastructure (Buildings, ports)

- The epicentre is the point directly - Material of Building
above the focus of the earthquake at - Absorb impact
the surface of the earth - Design of Building
- The potential to cause damage - No engineering faults
decreases as distance from the - Bad structure → Cannot
earthquake epicentre increases. → withstand impact
Places near the epicentre will usually
be more badly damaged as compared
to those further from it
- Reason: The shockwaves are stronger
near the epicentre whereas the energy
of the seismic waves would dissipate
further away from it
- Deep → >700km, shallow → <70km
(bigger impact)

Weather Preparedness​ (​related to development of

- Winter: Colder → Harder to survive country if evidence is given)
without shelter (house destroyed) - Education (on how to evacuate, what
- Monsoon: More landslides to do during an earthquake)
- Corrupted government → Allow badly
structured buildings that cannot
withstand earthquake
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

- Warning systems in place, and whether

or not they are functional

Time Land Use

- Night → People less aware = More - Houses built too near the sea, or on
deaths uneven ground
- Day → People more aware

Water
- Vibrations are amplified by the water
→ Effects of earthquake are stronger at
coastal areas, reclaimed land
- If earthquake occurs in sea, could lead
to a tsunami

Population Pyramid
- Gives an overview of the characteristics of a country’s population
- Allows the government to plan for the future and use resources more effectively
(e.g. In 6 years, 25 years → More schools, jobs)
1. Increase / Decrease in population
2. Evidence (BR, DR, growth)
a. Pro-Natalist
b. Anti-Natalist
3. Explanation

Nigeria Case Study

Problems
- Explosive Population Growth
- High BR and DR
- High infant mortality rate
Effects of Anti-Natalist Policies
- TFR (per woman) and BR (per 1000) decrease a little
- Mortality rate decrease
- Social: Low contraceptive use
- Social: Primary and secondary education enrolment remains low (although increasing)
- No knowledge of contraceptive use → Unwanted pregnancies
- Women: Less job opportunities → Rely on husband → No choice to bear children
- Economic: Low GDP, More than half at poverty headcount (less than $2 per day)
- Economic: Agricultural-based
- More manpower needed → Parents need help on the farm → Have more children
Influencing Factors
- Social: Acceptance of family planning → Leads to contraceptive use (affected by government
spreading awareness and own awareness from education)
- Social: Educational levels → Increased enrolment in primary and secondary schools
- Political: Cost of living with ref. to poverty → Government removes subsidies when couples
have more children = Discourage more children
Jermaine Wong (31) 210 Geography: Plate Tectonics

Photo Interpretation
- Evidence can be used for different interpretations, but the mark will only be given once
- Do NOT repeat evidence → NEW evidence for EACH point (don’t resuse)
- 6m: At least 3 pieces of evidence; 8m: At least 4 pieces of evidence

Population Trends
- State that the population increases/decreases/fluctuates (change)
- Describe this change as rapid/fast/gradual/slow
- Give evidence (% increase/decrease from...to, which is almost…)
- Impactful (e.g. Increased double, decreased by half)
- Explain evidence (what does it show and mean?)
Factors Affecting Effectiveness of Policies
- Political: Policies
- Economic: Income, Children’s income
- Cultural: Religion, Agriculture
- Social: Awareness of people
Challenges Faced By…
- 1 - High Stationary: High, variable BR and DR
- 2 - Early Expanding: High BR, Falling DR
- 3 - Late Expanding: Declining BR, Low DR
- 4 - Low Stationary: Low, variable BR and DR
- 5 - Low Declining: Low BR and DR
● Ageing, expanding, declining ​populations

Plate Tectonics
- Formation​ of Volcanoes and Earthquakes
- Convergent
- O/O: Oceanic trenches + Volcanoes + Island arc
- C/O: Oceanic trenches + Mountain ranges + Subduction volcanoes
- Divergent
- O/O: Oceanic ridges + Widened ocean basin + Shallow earthquake activity
- Impacts​ of Volcanoes and Earthquakes
- Immediate PPECS impacts
- Why people stay near volcanoes
- Factors Affecting Extent of ​Earthquake Damage
- Identify factors from source (evidence)
- Define factors (e.g. magnitude, depth of focus)
- Explain how the factor affected damage
- Mitigation​ Measures for ​Earthquakes
- Prediction: Possible impacts of earthquake
- Prevention: Early evacuation, Seismic building codes
- Preparedness: Early warning systems, Drills
TABLE OF CONTENTS
General
Plate Tectonics
Picture Questions (analysis of pictures)
Comparison of Case Studies and Suggestion of Mitigation Measures (8m)
Annotated Drawings
Explanation of Effects of Volcanic Eruptions / Earthquakes with Reference to a Map and
Extract
Write a Generalization about…
Population Studies
Evaluate the Effectiveness of Population Policies
Describe the Shape and Implications of a Population Pyramid
Analyze the Problems a Country's Population may Face

General
- Pay attention to keywords (e.g. if they want a threat don't talk about benefits)
- PEEL!!!
- Point / Stand: Successful or not?
- Evidence: Data and figures to use as evidence
- Explanation: Implications for the country
- Link: how does this make the policy successful/failure
- Make extensive use of data to support your answer
- Base replacement level: 2.1
- Remember all relevant formulas which may need to be applied when the question does not
give you the information directly
- Consider vulnerable groups (e.g. elderly, sick, young)
- Generalizations
- Only 1 sentence
- Don’t have to put explanation
- Relationship between 2 things → What is it that minimized, have to be more
specific (e.g. strict building regulations (mitigation) the level of damage is
influenced by the mitigation measures put forth by the government like
strict building regulations)
- Lifting evidence from passage will only get you to Level 1
- If quoted, use inverted commas
- How is damage measured?
- Percentage of damaged buildings
- People injured/killed/homeless
Plate Tectonics
Picture Questions (analysis of pictures)
- Divide the picture into 9 boxes
- Observe what you see and describe what you see (evidence from photograph)
- Refer to 9 boxes in your description of the evidence
- Infer what you see on the impacts of the eruption (think about vulnerable groups)
- Identify the causes for the scenes you see in the picture and their resulting effects
- Explain and elaborate clearly on the impacts (focus on short term / immediate) that can be
linked to the description of the observations made of the photograph
- Do not talk about PHYSICAL impacts if the main focus is on HUMAN impacts (e.g. the picture
below shows a village so it is human impact)
- Not necessary to write post-effects → Describe immediate effects (within 5 years)
- Use contextual knowledge to back up points
- Pyroclastic flow → Acidic lava
- Carbon dioxide
- Sulfuric gases
- Fine particles
- Respiratory / Eye problems
- Pay attention to the CAPTION of the picture!

ß REMEMBER TO FOLLOW BY THE 9 BOXES!

Comparison of Case Studies and Suggestion of Mitigation Measures (8m)

- ½ mark for each point, so must write a lot (16 points)!
- First identify the death toll, injuries, economic damage, etc. to find out which case study has
a more damaging earthquake
- Identify differences in the case studies and account for the differences using PEEL
- Why does 1 case study have more damaging earthquakes? What is the cause? Why does it
lead to more damaging earthquake?
- Write about more significant differences, i.e. one that has been described a lot in the case
study
- Identify weaknesses in a case study's response system and suggest measures
- Landzone regulation, infrastructure, public education, warning system
Annotated Drawings
- Tested on: C/O, O/O, C/C plate convergence and O/O plate divergence
- Understand the formation of convergence of plates clearly and learn how to draw and
annotate them with steps of formation (e.g. 1,2,3)
- Draw a clear diagram so the teacher can see the formation and process more clearly
- DON'T MISS OUT ON ANYTHING!
- PROCESS
- Draw with pencil, label and annotate with ink
- The drawing must fill up the entire box given
- Write the title at the top of the box
- Formation of a _____ through _____ Movement between [plate 1] and
[plate 2]
- Draw relevant features neatly and accurately
- Draw block arrows to show direction of plate movement
- Make sure features are relatively proportionate (e.g. thickness of plates, size of
volcano)
- Mantle should be the thickest
- Label key features, including the names of the plates
- Write brief descriptions of the key processes
- Number the sequential order of the processes of formation

Explanation of Effects of Volcanic Eruptions / Earthquakes with Reference to a Map and Extract
- Keep in mind to explain CAUSE and EFFECT (e.g. Overpopulation: Lack of sanitation facilities
and resources compared to the no. of people)
- Read the extract clearly, take note of important keywords such as (e.g. deep focus,
magnitude of 5.4) to understand more about the severity of the earthquake
- If the earthquake/eruption is a severe one → Major destruction; If the earthquake/eruption
is not a severe one → Minor destruction
- Time of the earthquake/eruption → Affects how prepared the people are; Period during
which the earthquake/eruption occurred (e.g. winter) → Affects weather conditions →
More people die from harsh weather conditions as they are homeless → Greater death toll
→ Affects severity of impacts of the earthquakes
- Also take note of the number of infrastructure and buildings collapsed → Relate to the
stability of the buildings → How developed the country is
- Take note of death toll to show how severe the earthquake/eruption was
- Knowing about how developed a country is will also tell you how prepared the country is
and if the country will be able to rebuild damaged infrastructure fast → Economy
- Consider VULNERABLE GROUPS (e.g. sick, elderly, young)
- Unhygienic ≠ Unsanitary
- Be specific with details (e.g. Villagers have to be relocated vs. Villagers have to be relocated
to evacuation centres → 5W1H)
Write a Generalization about…
- A relationship between two things
- Be as specific as possible (e.g. Impacts of earthquakes on infrastructure can be minimized by
introducing strict building regulations vs. Impacts of earthquakes can be minimized with
‘mitigation measures’ → Be relevant to the question!)
- 1 sentence only, don't need to elaborate, keep it as short and precise as possible (e.g. Level
of damage is dependent on a country’s level of development in which funding and resources
can be obtained to mitigate the damage caused)

Population Studies
Evaluate the Effectiveness of Population Policies
- Identify evidence of success/failure (e.g. Comparison of total fertility rate with base
replacement rate, graphs of population growth, population pyramid, comparison with
another country, etc → DO THIS AT THE START OF YOUR ANSWER!!)
- Line graphs: Identify trends/patterns (increase, decrease, constant, fluctuating)
- Tables: Specific figures from year to year, averages
- Identify factors/reasons for failure: PPECS
- Explain each factor using PEEL in ONE PARAGRAPH + Group similar ideas together + Support
your factors with evidences
- Link the factors back to your claim (whether it is successful or not) to show why the factor
substantiates it → Why does the factor to lead to the policy being successful or not?
- Max 3 marks for data evidence, 5 marks for INFERENCE and EXPLANATION skills
- CAUSE → EFFECT
- Infographics: Writing 3 factors is sufficient to show good inference
- Some things you can take note of
- Attitude/Mindset: Career-minded, family-minded
- Behavior: Gender roles (very sexist, liberal, or conservative)
- Cost: Cost of living high in Japan / low living cost
- Cultural Norms: Attitude towards single moms in Singapore/Asia

Describe the Shape and Implications of a Population Pyramid

- Divide the population pyramid into 3 age groups: Young dependents (base), Economically
active (middle), Aged dependents (apex)
- Use comparative adjectives (e.g. wider, narrower, etc.) for stronger impact
- Other Adjectives
- Shape: Pyramid/triangular, beehive/rocket, rectangular/kite
- Gradient: Tapers off at the top
- Concave/convex
- Bulge in the middle → Large economically active population
- Compare the % of the age groups: Which is more youthful? Which is more aged? Which has
a higher dependency ratio? (compare economically active people with youth and aged)
- Higher dependency ratio means more burden and strain on the economically active
to support the dependents
- Cite given data for evidence
 - What does the data shown mean for the country? What are the challenges of a country with
an overpopulated/underpopulated/aging/youthful/shrinking population?
- Draw a line to compare ^

Analyze the Problems a Country's Population may Face

- Only talk about HUMAN impacts → Basic needs of people (e.g. Water, food, sanitation, living
conditions)
- Analyse map systematically (e.g. from north to south, vice versa)
- Cite data evidence (e.g. figures)
- There can be several problems a country's population faces
- What are the implications of given data? (e.g. Rural-urban migration might lead to
overpopulation in the cities, and thus… (effects of overpopulation))
- Some things you can take note of
- Slums
- No facilities or rural areas
- Poor materials used for housing
- Poor standard of living
- Spread of diseases
- Rural areas
- Urbanization
- Rural-urban migration: Overpopulation and population explosion in cities

Exam Tips
1. What type of policy?
a. Anti-natalist
b. Pro-natalist
2. How successful?
a. Anti → Birth Rate, Total Fertility Rate decreases
b. Pro → Birth Rate, Total Fertility Rate increases
3. Policy
a. Types of measures
i. Incentives (monetary) → Singapore
ii. Disincentives (monetary) (fines) → China
4. Reasons/Factors/Explain why
a. Poverty Level
b. Cost of living
c. Cultural reasons (e.g. Religion)
d. High % of youths married/not married
e. Cities vs. villages
f. Employment
i. Agricultural
ii. Manufacturing and services
g. Quality of life of people
i. Working hours (work life balance)
 1. Policy gives more family bonding time → Maternity and paternity
leave
h. Level of education
i. Well-educated
ii. Not educated
i. People’s aspirations → More well-educated (education level)
i. Materialistic
ii. Career-driven
iii. Contented
j. Gender equality
i. Sexist attitude to child rearing
1. Women are expected to give up their career to stay at home to take
care of kids
2. Burden shared equallybetween men and women
k. Cultural norms
i. Religion
1. Catholic and Islam oppose artificial methods of birth control
2. Is single parenthood accepted? (Child born out of wedlock?)

Example
e.g. With reference to the infographics, explain whether the population policies adopted by Sweden
in encourage couples to have more children, have been successful. [8]

1. Answer the question

Claim: The population policies have been successful.

Evidence Explanation

TFR has risen from 1.5 to 2 in 15 years, which is much closer to the replacement rate of
2.1. (always compare TFR with replacement rate)

Sweden has 12 births per thousand people. Sweden’s birth rate is higher than Singapore’s,
Singapore is 8 births per thousand people. which may help to boost the natural increase of
Sweden. (to show there is positive growth, and
thus successful)

2. Factor 1: Good work-life balance for Mothers

Claim: One factor that led to the success of pp is good work-life balance for mothers.

Sweden maternity leave: 8 months paid leave New mothers can spend time away from work to
compared to Singapore maternity leave: 4 care for their infants while still being able to earn
months paid leave an income.

Sweden: more flexible working hours compared It allows career-minded women to have time for
to Singapore: not as flexible working hours both their jobs and their children. Female
 workers need not sacrifice work opportunities for
their children and can juggle both demands.

3. Factor 2: Lower cost of living

Claim: Another factor that led to the success of pp is the lower cost of living in Sweden, which means
a lower cost of bringing up a child.

Price per sq m, to buy an apartment (private Housing in Sweden is cheaper which makes it
property) outside of city centre: $4,853 in affordable to buy bigger houses and thus
Sweden compared to Singapore $11673 accommodate a large family.

Sweden: All 6 year olds are offered free pre- Since it is cheaper to get education and childcare
school education and govt pays 92% of pre- support for the children, children's basic needs
school fees, compared to Singapore where only can be effectively met, and it places less financial
$300 is subsidized for full day care. burden on the parents. Thus couples can afford
to have more children.

4. Factor 3: Social norms

Claim: A third factor is that societal norms in Sweden permits having children outside of marriage,
which encourages children from all family structure, leading to the success of pp.

An important aspect of Swedish policies is that Non-traditional family structures are accepted.
they are directed towards individuals and not This means that children born from single parent
families as such. They have no intention of families or born out of wedlock are not frowned
supporting certain family structure, such as upon, compared to a conservative country like
marriage between man and woman, over Singapore. Couples do not have to wait until
others. marriage to have children. This non-
discriminatory practice encourages children from
all family structures, which may help to increase
the birth rate.

Compared to Singapore: A family framework

comprising of a man and woman in a marriage,
is encouraged, as a means of safeguarding
“Asian values.”

5. Factor 4: Gender Equality

Claim: There is gender equality in Sweden, which leads to shared responsibility between father and
mother to care for a child, reducing the burden on the mother. This encourages couples to have more
children as women are more willing to have a child.

Sweden paternity leave: 8 months In Sweden, there is generous paternity leave

Singapore paternity leave: 1 week compared to the one given by Singapore.
This gives fathers the opportunity to help in the
 raising of their children, allowing for more
flexibility for both parents to care for their
children.
Also, both parents need not worry about losing
their income and thus a greater financial burden
when they take care of their child.
As a result, there is less financial burden on the
couple and less burden on the mother to care for
the child. Women are more willing to have
children, and couples have more children.

6. Link back to your answer.

Since the population policies of Sweden advocate for better work-life balance for mothers, a lower
cost of living, more liberal social norms, and fairer gender equality, they have been successful.

This is a picture of a road after an earthquake. Analyse the picture given and explain the impacts.

1. Damage to infrastructure (economic)

- In the picture, it can be seen that a road has collapsed with many fissures and debris
across the road. The ground supporting the road has also cracked. The soils beneath the
tarmac are also surfaced. (DESCRIBE)
- The damage to the infrastructure will result in economic losses for the country as they
had spent money building the road and its destruction will result in a loss of money. The
 country also has to spend money to repair the road. They may also have to spend money
to create temporary routes to divert traffic. (IMPACT)
- This may affect the finances of the country.

2. Lack of access (social)

- -road collapsed- (DESCRIBE)
- This leaves the road unusable and inaccessible to vehicles. This leads to a cut off in
access to other parts of the country through this road and inconveniences people, which
may hinder access to some amenities. If this road has to be used to transport relief
supplies to areas affected by the earthquake, it may also result in a higher mortality rate,
since less people have access to relief supplies. Trade may also be affected as vehicles
shipping cargo and goods to other parts of the country will be unable to do so, resulting
in a delay in transportation and financial losses for the company. (IMPACT)

3. Money is spent on rescue efforts (economic)

- In the middleground of the picture, several rescue workers can be seen walking around
and searching for casualties. (DESCRIBE)
- Money has to be spent to fund rescue efforts and pay rescue workers. Emergency
supplies have to be provided by the government to help victims of the earthquake. This
will result in a loss in finances for the country. (IMPACT)

4. Death toll (social)

- -GOT RESCUE WORKERS-
- This suggests that there may be victims of the earthquake at the road, increasing the
death toll of the earthquake. (IMPACTS)

This is a picture in Xinlerland after an earthquake. Analyze the picture and explain the impacts.
● Lack of shelter (social)
○ Description: There are a few HUMANS sitting in the middle foreground of the
picture. They are wearing thick winter clothings which can be inferred that the
weather is cold outside. Their homes must have most likely been destroyed during
the earthquake and they are homeless.
○ Impact: As the weather is cold, these people will have to suffer in the cold weather
without shelter over their heads. They might even fall sick out in the cold, some may
even die from it. This will thus increase the death toll. These people do not even
have temporary shelters over their heads and therefore their living standards have
dropped. Besides that, their surroundings are also quite dirty, showing the poor
sanitation of their living area currently. There may be a easy spread of diseases and
may cause people to fall sick or even die and causing the death toll to climb further.
● Damage to property (economic)
○ Description: In the middleground and background of the picture, several collapsed
and destroyed buildings can be seen.
○ Impact: This results in economic losses for the country, as it the government needs
money to rebuild these buildings and provide shelter for the people. The residents
also had spent money to buy these properties, and now that they are damaged, they
would have lost the money they spent. They might also need to pay for repairing
their own property. This results in loss of finances for both government and people.
● Lives are lost (social)
○ Description: In the middleground and background of the picture, in the collapsed
buildings, there might be people who are buried and trapped in those buildings.
Deaths might have occurred too.
○ Impact: The falling debris and the collapse of buildings have trapped people and
killed people, adding onto the death toll of the earthquake. They might not have
escaped in time from the falling debris.
● Damage to services (social)
○ Description: In the background of the picture, several water pipes can be seen to
have cracked and broken off, leaving them unusable.
○ Impacts: This will result in a cut off in clean water supply to residents of the area,
which may force them to drink dirty and unsanitary water to prevent themselves
from going thirsty. This may lead to residents falling sick due to water-borne
diseases in the water. Residents suffer and there is a drop in the standard of living.
● Disrupts business (economic)
○ Description: In the middleground and background of the picture, the collapsed
buildings seemed to be shophouses. This showed that those buildings are shops and
there are ongoing businesses during the earthquake.
○ Impacts: As businesses are hindered, there will be a lack of revenue from these
businesses and therefore leading in a dip in the economy. Their livelihood will also
be affected when those shops have collapsed as they do not have their shops to
continue their businesses and this will cause them to have a loss in income and
cannot support their family; this can even bring the family into a financial crisis.