Chapter 13

Pointers and Linked Lists

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Overview

13.1 Nodes and Linked Lists

13.2 Stacks and Queues

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13.1
Nodes and Linked Lists

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Nodes and Linked Lists

◼ A linked list is a list that can grow and shrink

while the program is running
◼ A linked list is constructed using pointers
◼ A linked list often consists of structs or classes
that contain a pointer variable connecting them
to other dynamic variables
◼ A linked list can be visualized as items, drawn
as boxes, connected to other items by arrows
12 14 end
head 10

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Nodes

◼ The boxes in the previous drawing represent the

nodes of a linked list
◼ Nodes contain the data item(s) and a pointer

that can point to another node of the same

type
◼ The pointers point to the entire node, not an
individual item that might be in the node
◼ The arrows in the drawing represent pointers
Display 13.1

Display 13.1

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Implementing Nodes
◼ Nodes are implemented in C++ as structs or
classes
◼ Example: A structure to store two data items and
a pointer to another node of the same type,
along with a type definition might be:

struct ListNode
{
string item; This circular definition
int count; is allowed in C++
ListNode *link;
};

typedef ListNode* ListNodePtr;

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The head of a List

◼ The box labeled head, in display 13.1, is not a

node, but a pointer variable that points to a node
◼ Pointer variable head is declared as:

ListNodePtr head;

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Accessing Items in a Node

◼ Using the diagram of 13.1, this is one way to

change the number in the first node from
10 to 12:
(*head).count = 12;
◼ head is a pointer variable so *head is the node

that head points to

◼ The parentheses are necessary because the

dot operator . has higher precedence than the

dereference operator *

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The Arrow Operator

◼ The arrow operator -> combines the actions of

the dereferencing operator * and the dot operator
to specify a member of a struct or object pointed
to by a pointer
◼ (*head).count = 12;
can be written as
head->count = 12;
◼ The arrow operator is more commonly used

Display 13.2

Display 13.2

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NULL
◼ The defined constant NULL is used as…
◼ An end marker for a linked list

◼ A program can step through a list of nodes by

following the pointers, but when it finds a node
containing NULL, it knows it has come to the end of
the list
The value of a pointer that has nothing to point
◼

to
◼ The value of NULL is 0
◼ Any pointer can be assigned the value NULL:
double* there = NULL;
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To Use NULL

◼ A definition of NULL is found in several

libraries, including <iostream> and <cstddef>

◼ A using directive is not needed for NULL

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nullptr

◼ The fact that the constant NULL is actually the

number 0 leads to an ambiguity problem.
Consider the overloaded function below:
void func(int *p);
void func(int i);
◼ Which function will be invoked if we call
func(NULL)?
◼ To avoid this, C++11 has a new constant,
nullptr. It is not the integer zero, but a literal
constant used to represent a null pointer.
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Linked Lists

◼ The diagram in Display 13.2 depicts a linked list

◼ A linked list is a list of nodes in which each node
has a member variable that is a pointer that
points to the next node in the list
◼ The first node is called the head

◼ The pointer variable head, points to the first

node
◼ The pointer named head is not the head of the
list…it points to the head of the list
◼ The last node contains a pointer set to NULL
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Building a Linked List:
The node definition

◼ Let's begin with a simple node definition:

struct Node
{
int data;
Node *link;
};

typedef Node* NodePtr;

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Building a Linked List:
Declaring Pointer Variable head

◼ With the node defined and a type definition to

make or code easier to understand, we can
declare the pointer variable head:

NodePtr head;
◼ head is a pointer variable that will point to the
head node when the node is created

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Building a Linked List:
Creating the First Node

◼ To create the first node, the operator new is used

to create a new dynamic variable:

head = new Node;

◼ Now head points to the first, and only, node in

the list

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Building a Linked List:
Initializing the Node

◼ Now that head points to a node, we need to

give values to the member variables of the node:

head->data = 3;
head->link = NULL;
◼ Since this node is the last node, the link is set
to NULL

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Function headInsert
◼ It would be better to create a function to insert
nodes at the head of a list, such as:
◼ void headInsert(NodePtr& head, int theNumber);

◼ The first parameter is a NodePtr parameter that points to the

first node in the linked list
◼ The second parameter is the number to store in the list

◼ headInsert will create a new node for the number

◼ The number will be copied to the new node
◼ The new node will be inserted in the list as the new head node

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Pseudocode for headInsert

◼ Create a new dynamic variable pointed to by

tempPtr
◼ Place the data in the new node called *tempPtr
◼ Make tempPtr's link variable point to the head
node
◼ Make the head pointer point to tempPtr

Display 13.3

Display 13.3

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Translating headInsert to C++
◼ The pseudocode for headInsert can be written
in C++ using these lines in place of the lines of
pseudocode:
◼ NodePtr tempPtr; //create the temporary pointer
tempPtr = new Node; // create the new node
◼ tempPtr->data = theNumber; //copy the number
◼ tempPtr->link = head; //new node points to first
node
head = tempPtr; // head points to new
// first node
Display 13.4

Display 13.4
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An Empty List

◼ A list with nothing in it is called an empty list

◼ An empty linked list has no head node
◼ The head pointer of an empty list is NULL

head = NULL;
◼ Any functions written to manipulate a linked list
should check to see if it works on the empty list

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Losing Nodes

◼ You might be tempted to write headInsert using

the head pointer to construct the new node:

head = new Node;

head->data = theNumber;
◼ Now to attach the new node to the list
◼ The node that head used to point to is now

lost! Display 13.5

Display 13.5

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Memory Leaks

◼ Nodes that are lost by assigning their pointers a

new address are not accessible any longer
◼ The program has no way to refer to the nodes
and cannot delete them to return their memory
to the freestore
◼ Programs that lose nodes have a memory leak
◼ Significant memory leaks can cause system

crashes

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Searching a Linked List

◼ To design a function that will locate a particular

node in a linked list:
◼ We want the function to return a pointer to the

node so we can use the data if we find it, else

return NULL
◼ The linked list is one argument to the function

◼ The data we wish to find is the other argument

◼ This declaration will work:

NodePtr search(NodePtr head, int target);

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Function search

◼ Refining our function

◼ We will use a local pointer variable, named

here, to move through the list checking for the

target
◼ The only way to move around a linked list is to
follow pointers
◼ We will start with here pointing to the first node
and move the pointer from node to node
following the pointer out of each node
Display 13.6

Display 13.6
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Pseudocode for search
◼ Make pointer variable here point to the head node
◼ while(here does not point to a node containing target
AND here does not point to the last node)
{
make here point to the next node
}
◼ If (here points to a node containing the target)
return here;
else
return NULL;

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Moving Through the List

◼ The pseudocode for search requires that pointer

here step through the list
◼ How does here follow the pointers from node

to node?
◼ When here points to a node, here->link is the

address of the next node

◼ To make here point to the next node, make the

assignment:
here = here->link;

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A Refinement of search
◼ The search function can be refined in this way:

here = head;
while(here->data != target && here->link !=
NULL)
{
here = here->next;
} Check for last node
if (here->data = = target)
return here;
else
return NULL;
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Searching an Empty List

◼ Our search algorithm has a problem

◼ If the list is empty, here equals NULL before

the while loop so…

◼ here->data is undefined
◼ here->link is undefined
◼ The empty list requires a special case in our
search function
◼ A refined search function that handles an
Display 13.7

empty list is shown in

Display 13.7

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Pointers as Iterators
◼ An iterator is a construct that allows you to
cycle through the data items in a data structure
to perform an action on each item
◼ An iterator can be an object of an iterator class,

an array index, or simply a pointer

◼ A general outline using a pointer as an iterator:
Node_Type *iter;
for (iter = Head; iter != NULL; iter = iter->Link)
//perform the action on the node iter points to
◼ Head is a pointer to the head node of the list

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Iterator Example
◼ Using the previous outline of an iterator we
can display the contents of a linked list in this
way:

NodePtr iter;
for (iter = Head; iter != NULL; iter = iter->Link)
cout << (iter->data);

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Inserting a Node Inside a List
◼ To insert a node after a specified node in the
linked list:
◼ Use another function to obtain a pointer to the node

after which the new node will be inserted

◼ Call the pointer afterMe
◼ Use function insert, declared here to insert the node:

void insert(NodePtr afterMe, int theNumber);

Display 13.8

Display 13.8
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Inserting the New Node

◼ Function insert creates the new node just as

headInsert did
◼ We do not want our new node at the head of the
list however, so…
◼ We use the pointer afterMe to insert the new

node

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Inserting the New Node

◼ This code will accomplish the insertion of the

new node, pointed to by tempPtr, after the node
pointed to by afterMe:
tempPtr->link = afterMe->link;
afterMe->link = tempPtr;
2 3 7 9
head
2 2 2 0

5
afterMe tempPtr
2
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Caution!

◼ The order of pointer assignments is critical

◼ If we changed afterMe->link to point to

tempPtr first, we would loose the rest of the list!

◼ The complete insert function is shown

in Display 13.9

Display 13.9

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Function insert Again

◼ Notice that inserting into a linked list requires

that you only change two pointers
◼ This is true regardless of the length of the list

◼ Using an array for the list would involve

copying as many as all of the array elements to

new locations to make room for the new item
◼ Inserting into a linked list is often more efficient
than inserting into an array

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Removing a Node

◼ To remove a node from a linked list

◼ Position a pointer, before, to point at the node

prior to the node to remove

◼ Position a pointer, discard, to point at the node

to remove
◼ Perform: before->link = discard->link;
◼ The node is removed from the list, but is still in
memory
◼ Return *discard to the freestore: delete Display 13.10

discard; Display 13.10

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Assignment With Pointers

◼ If head1 and head2 are pointer variables and

head1 points to the head node of a list:
head2 = head1;
causes head2 and head1 to point to the same list
◼ There is only one list!

◼ If you want head2 to point to a separate copy,

you must copy the list node by node or
overload the assignment operator appropriately

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Variations on Linked Lists
◼ Many other data structures can be constructed using
nodes and pointers
◼ Doubly-Linked List
◼ Each node has two links, one to the next node and one

to the previous node

◼ Allows easy traversal of the list in both directions

struct Node
{
int data;
Node *forwardLink;
Node *backLink; Display 13.11

}; Display 13.11
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Binary Tree

◼ A tree is a data structure that looks like an

upside-down tree with the root at the top
◼ No cycles

◼ In a binary tree each node has at most two links

struct TreeNode
{
int data;
TreeNode *leftLink;
TreeNode *rightLink;
};
Display 13.12

Display 13.12
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Linked List of Classes

◼ The preceding examples created linked lists of

structs. We can also create linked lists using
classes.
◼ Logic to use a class is identical except the syntax
of using and defining a class should be
substituted in place of that for a struct
◼ Interface and Definition for a Node Class
Display 13.13 Display 13.14 (1-2)

Display 13.13 Display 13.14 (1-2)

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Program using the Node class

◼ We can create a linked list of numbers using the

Node class.
Display 13.15 (1-3)

Display 13.15 (1-3)

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Section 13.1 Conclusion

◼ Can you

◼ Write type definitions for the nodes and

pointers in a linked list? Call the node type
NodeType and call the pointer type
PointerType. The linked lists will be lists of
letters.

◼ Explain why inserting into an array can be less

efficient than inserting into a linked list?
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13.2
Stacks and Queues

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A Linked List Application

◼ A stack is a data structure that retrieves data in

the reverse order the data was stored
◼ If 'A', 'B', and then 'C' are placed in a stack,

they will be removed in the order 'C', 'B', and

then 'A'
◼ A stack is a last-in/first-out data structure like
the stack of plates in a cafeteria; adding a plate
pushes down the stack and the top plate is the
first one removed Display 13.16

Display 13.16
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Program Example:
A Stack Class
◼ We will create a stack class to store characters
◼ Adding an item to a stack is pushing onto the

stack
◼ Member function push will perform this task

◼ Removing an item from the stack is popping

the the item off the stack
◼ Member function pop will perform this task
Display 13.17

◼ Display 13.17 contains the stack class interface

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Using the stack Class

Display 13.18 (1-2)

◼ Display 13.18 (1-2) demonstrates the use of the

stack class

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Function push

◼ The push function adds an item to the stack

◼ It uses a parameter of the type stored in the stack

void push(char the_symbol);

◼ Pushing an item onto the stack is precisely the same

task accomplished by function headInsert of the linked
list
◼ For a stack, a pointer named top is used instead of a
pointer named head

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Function pop

◼ The pop function returns the item that was at

the top of the stack
char pop( );
◼ Before popping an item from a stack, pop checks
that the stack is not empty
◼ pop stores the top item in a local variable result,
and the item is "popped" by: top = top->link;
◼ A temporary pointer must point to the old top item

so it can be "deleted" to prevent a memory leak

◼ pop then returns variable result

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Empty Stack

◼ An empty stack is identified by setting the

top pointer to NULL

top = NULL;

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The Copy Constructor

◼ Because the stack class uses a pointer and

creates new nodes using new, a copy constructor
is needed
◼ The copy constructor (a self-test exercise)

must make a copy of each item in the stack

and store the copies in a new stack
◼ Items in the new stack must be in the same position
in the stack as in the original

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The stack destructor

◼ Because function pop calls delete each time an

item is popped off the stack, ~stack only needs
to call pop until the stack is empty

char next;
while( ! empty ( ) )
{
next = pop( );
}

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stack Class Implementation

◼ The stack class implementation is

Display 13.19 (1)

found in
Display 13.19 (1) Display 13.19 (2)

Display 13.19 (2)

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A Queue

◼ A queue is a data structure that retrieves data in

the same order the data was stored
◼ If 'A', 'B', and then 'C' are placed in a queue,

they will be removed in the order ‘A', 'B', and

then ‘C'
◼ A queue is a first-in/first-out data structure like
the checkout line in a supermarket

Display 13.20

Display 13.20
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Queue Class Implementation

◼ The queue class is implemented in a manner

similar to the stack except there are two pointers,
one to track the front of the list, and one to track
the back of the list
◼ Interface: Display 13.21 (1-2)

Display 13.21 (1-2)

◼ Program using the Queue Class:
Display 13.22 (1-2)

Display 13.22 (1-2)

◼ Implementation: Display 13.23 (1-3)

Display 13.23 (1-3)

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Section 13.2 Conclusion

◼ Can you

◼ Give the definition of member function push?

Create a definition for the stack class copy
constructor?
◼ Know when to use a queue vs. a stack?
◼ Create a definition for the queue class copy
constructor?

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Chapter 13 -- End

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 Back Next

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