GENERAL CHEMISTRY

LABORATORY
HANDBOOK

Chem 115/116
All sections

Prepared by General Chemistry Faculty

in the
Department of Chemistry
 Table of Contents
Table of Contents

Laboratory Guidelines for Chem 115 & 116

General Information About The Lab:
Pre-lab Assignment (Submitted via Blackboard) (25 points)
Preparation, In-Lab and Post-lab Activities (75 points)
Notebook Requirements
The Role of the Laboratory Notebook
Laboratory Notebook Specifications
Daily Lab Notebook Procedures
Guidelines for Notebook Entries
The Post-lab report
Questions/Data Analysis
Discussion
Conclusion

Laboratory Safety Practices and Policies

Dress Code and Personal Protective Equipment
Personal Safety
Housekeeping
Medical Conditions
Students with Service Animals Enrolled in Laboratory Courses
Heat/Burn Safety
Fume Hoods and Biosafety Cabinets
Waste Disposal
Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
Chemical Labeling
Accident Guidelines

General Chemistry Laboratory Rules

GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICES

Water
Washing Glassware
Obtaining Chemicals from Reagent Bottles
Solids
Liquids and solutions
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 Using Bunsen and Micro Burners
Hot Hands
Measuring Mass
All Balances
Highly Accurate Balances
Measuring Volume
All Volumetric Glassware
Graduated Cylinders
Volumetric Flasks
Pipettes
Burets
Microliter Syringes
Using Spectrophotometer Cuvettes
Plastic Cuvettes
Quartz Cuvettes
Filtration
Gravity Filtration
Vacuum Filtration (suction filtration)

Chemistry with Computers

Logger Pro Program and Vernier Sensors

Vernier Gas Pressure Sensor
Vernier Stainless Steel Temperature Probe
Go! Link USB Computer Interface
Vernier Electrode Support
Conductivity Probe
Vernier pH Sensor
Logger Pro: Definitions of Buttons

Spectrophotometry and Beer’s Law

SpectroVis Plus Spectrophotometer

Instructions for the Vernier Melt Stations

Precision, Math and Graphing

Mistakes and Errors
Precision and Accuracy
Rounding
Rules for Significant Figures
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Percent and Theoretical Yield
Percent Error
Standard Deviation
Applying standard deviation:
Linear Regression Analysis
Using Excel – Office 2013
Calculations in Excel
General Instructions for Labeling and Printing Graphs
and Data Tables in Logger Pro

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 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Laboratory Guidelines for Chem 115 & 116

General Information About The Lab:

The first year chemistry laboratory is designed to introduce students to the tools and techniques
used in the laboratory as well as to establish proper procedures for keeping a laboratory notebook.
Although accuracy is very important, the lab grade will be primarily based on coming to class
prepared (with a written purpose, completed pre-lab activities, prepared laboratory notebook and
an understanding of the experiment to be performed), and completing all laboratory measurements
in a neatly written notebook and typing post-lab requirements, rather than on getting the correct
answer for the lab.
All students MUST be dressed appropriately for lab sessions; students will be covered from
shoulders to toes. Neither shorts nor sandals are permitted in the laboratory. Eye protection and
lab coats WILL be worn at all times while performing experiments in the lab. Lab coats will
remain in the lab throughout the semester; students are responsible for bringing eye protection to
each laboratory period. Food and drink of any kind are forbidden in all labs. This includes gum
and mints. Student must follow instructions for chemical waste disposal for each experiment;
chemicals should not be poured down the sink.
Students are expected to follow an explicit format for each lab. This is outlined in detail in the
sections that follow. The actual experiments will be placed on Blackboard under
“Syllabus/Documents” approximately one week prior to the lab date. A grading rubric for each
experiment, providing the number of points for each portion of the lab, will also be placed on
Blackboard. Because the grading rubric will provide additional detail, it is essential that it be
reviewed carefully before beginning work on the assignments associated with each lab.
Students are expected to be on-time and perform all experiments. Please see the course syllabus for
the policy regarding tardiness and missed labs.

Students are encouraged to confer with classmates when working in the lab; however, the work
turned in is expected to be one’s own efforts.

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 Pre-lab Assignment (Submitted via Blackboard) (25 points)

It is essential that the entire experiment, including relevant sections of this manual, must be
read prior to coming to the laboratory, as completing the lab successfully in the time allotted
requires a familiarity of the vocabulary and a general idea of the procedures to be performed. The
pre-lab assignment must submitted via Blackboard by the date specified by the instructor, usually
at the beginning of the week in which the experiment will be performed. Students will not be
permitted into the lab if the pre-lab activities have not been handed in. A penalty of 5 points will
be subtracted from the pre-lab grade for each hour that the assignment is late.
No pre-lab assignment = No lab.

Purpose:
The purpose of each experiment is the scientific reason for undertaking the experiment. In
other words, why are you doing the experiment. What quantity/physical property are you
determining? Write your purpose as if you are the first person to ever determine these quantities.
Note: The purpose is not the technique/concept that you will learn about.

The purpose should consist of a single sentence for each portion of the experiment. In some cases,
there is a single purpose; in others, several concepts may be explored and a sentence will be
required for each concept. This should be written in complete sentences, and must be in your
own words, not copied from the handout.

Here is an sample framework for a purpose:

a) _______________ will be (determined, observed, identified, etc).
b) A set of solubility rules will be constructed and compared to those in the text.

Experimental Approach:
This is the all-important link that is made between what is being learned and "how" it is being
accomplished. This should consist of one to three sentences per each purpose, providing the
primary methods, reactions, key chemicals employed and any type of assessment used.

Examples of each include:

-Primary methods - chromatography, precipitation reactions, titration, Beer's Law and spectroscopy,
Gay Lussac's gas law, synthesis, Spartan modeling program, etc.
-Reactions - If you're studying a particular reaction, then that reaction should be provided. It's not
necessary to write every reaction that will occur during an experiment.
-Key chemicals - provide the name, followed by the formula for the primary chemicals that will
be used in the experiment. For example, if a solution is being titrated by sodium thiosulfate, that
should be mentioned. If you're using separation techniques in a qualitative analysis experiment,
you would only list those substances that you're trying to identify, not the dozens of chemicals that
you'll use to accomplish this.
-Mention that the data will be graphed analyzed, the percent yield will be calculated, standard
deviation will be calculated, melting point will be taken and compared to the literature value, etc.

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Do not include step-by-step directions. Assume that the reader knows how to use the methods
you've listed. This should be written in complete sentences.

Here is a sample framework for the Experimental Approach section:

In order to (whatever you wrote in the purpose), _____ (titration, spectroscopy, etc) will be
employed. [You might need this next part as well.] ________________ must also be completed
before ____ can be determined. This will be done by __(give methods). [Give very brief, 1-2
sentence explanation of what will be done to accomplish your goals. Note how data might be
analyzed.]

Methods: Provide an ACS-style reference as shown below.

ACS-style References
Author 1; Author 2; etc. Title of Document, Year. Title of Site. URL (accessed Month Day,
Year)

An example of a reference for the first experiment in CHEM 116L is shown below. Since most
experiments were written by a number of SU faculty and/or provided through Vernier, no author
will be listed. Although the URL is longer, this shortened version will be acceptable.

The Rate of an Iodine Clock Reaction, 2021. CHEM 115 – General Chemistry I – Jane Smythe.
https://www.labarchives.com (accessed August 16, 2023).

Title of experiment (no italics or quotes), year last edited (taken from the top of the protocol).
Course info (CHEM 115 (or 116) – General Chemistry I (or II) – Your Name).
https://www.labarchives.com (this is the first part of the actual URL and will be sufficient for
the lab notebooks) (date you downloaded the experiment – written in exactly this format).

Problems:
The pre-lab assignments will also include definitions, questions, and calculations.

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Preparation, In-Lab and Post-lab Activities (75 points)

In addition to the pre-lab activities, students must prepare the notebook (as shown in subsequent
sections) by heading the pages, and copying/creating data tables and charts into the notebook as
directed prior to the laboratory period. The instructor will initial each notebook at the beginning
of the laboratory period. Those who have not completely prepared their notebooks prior to lab
must complete them before being permitted to begin the experiment, but will lose the
corresponding points for not being prepared. (For example, if tables are not inserted into the
notebook, they must be inserted before beginning the experiment; however, the points that would
have been awarded for doing so will be forfeited.)

During the lab period, students will make observations and take measurements based on directions
given in class and in the lab instructions. These observations and measurements are to be made in
a carbonless lab notebook, making two copies of each page. The top copy will remain in the
notebook unless instructed otherwise. The tear-out copy of each of these pages will be stapeled
together and turned in. Some instructors will collect these at the end of the laboratory period,
while other instructors will collect these pages stapled together with the typed portion of the
post-lab, which will be due the class period following the end of the experiment.

The following Notebook Requirements describes the Role of the Laboratory Notebook,
Laboratory Notebook Specifications, Daily Lab Notebook Procedures, and Guidelines for
Notebook Entries, the Post-Lab Report, and General Expectations for Typed Portions of the
Lab Report as written for all chemistry courses. Additional notes and slight modifications have
been made for the General Chemistry courses.

Notebook Requirements
The Role of the Laboratory Notebook

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One of the most useful skill sets you will acquire in the laboratory is the proper use of a laboratory
notebook. Notebooks, or other contemporaneous records, are an essential tool in many careers,
ranging from that of the research scientist to that of the practicing health care provider. The
objective of a laboratory notebook is to permit another scientist to know what was done in the
laboratory in sufficient detail as to be able to reproduce the procedure and get the same result. In a
"real life" research situation, someone may have to reproduce your work several years after you
have left the laboratory and the only record they will have to rely on will be what you wrote in
your notebook.

Experience has indicated that skillful notebook use is developed by most students only through
continued special effort--it does not come naturally. General guidelines for writing chemistry
laboratory notebooks are described below. You will also receive course-specific instruction and
feedback regarding your lab notebooks from your instructors.

Laboratory Notebook Specifications

The laboratory notebook is a permanent record of laboratory observations. All must adhere to the
following general specifications. Additional specifications are provided at the end of this
document for typed portions of the laboratory report.

1. The notebook is permanently bound and has numbered pages.

2. The pages are numbered sequentially and no original pages may ever be removed.
3. The notebook begins with a regularly updated Table of Contents.
4. Students may use laboratory notebooks for multiple chemistry courses, with the exception
of research courses and the senior Capstone course for which a new notebook must be used. Each
course should have its own Table of Contents, beginning on a fresh page at the front of the lab
notebook. Do not start Experiment 1 on page 1, but rather on page 3 or 4, leaving room for the
Table of Contents.
5. Notebooks for research courses become the property of the research mentor, although the
students may keep copies of the pages relating to their work.
6. New experiments must start on a new page.
7. All entries must be recorded in blue or black permanent ink.
8. All entries must be grammatically correct with attention to spelling, sentence structure and
paragraph development.
9. All entries must be written neatly to allow others to read your work. Notebooks entries that
are not easily read will need to be redone or points will be forfeited.
10. There should be no erasures-- errors should be clearly lined out (one line only) and
replaced with corrections.
11. If you come to lab with your lab notebook incomplete, you will not be able to begin lab.
12. Write on only the front side of the page, leaving the back side blank.
13. Sometimes it will be necessary or desirable to insert printed data tables, spectra, etc. into
your notebook. Two copies of each printout will be made and inserted into the notebook, one
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 which will be turned in and another copy that remains in the notebook. Trim all materials (without
removing your name and date from the printout) and tape them where they belong in the notebook.
In other words, make sure that they appear with the appropriate dated entry and are securely
attached to the numbered notebook page. Do not use paper clips as data can easily be lost. (Note:
the notebook page number and heading must be visible.)
14. NEVER use intermediate scratch sheets. All data and descriptions should be entered
directly into your lab notebook. Students found using scratch sheets will have points deducted
from their notebook score and may also receive a penalty for poor lab technique.
15. Most lab time should be devoted to experimental work rather than writing. However, it is
useless to do the work unless it is properly recorded for later use and reflection. Not only should
measurements and procedures be recorded, but also all conceivably pertinent observations. A
slight change in procedure or a seemingly insignificant observation is often a crucial matter in the
final analysis.
16. All numbers must contain units, and units must be listed in all tables and figures. Numbers
are meaningless without the accompanying units.
17. Copy all tables provided exactly as given. Do not omit line numbers or shorten the
wording.
18. A line should be drawn through any blank page or large blank space in the notebook so that
it is clear that it is meant to be blank.

Daily Lab Notebook Procedures

Before you come to lab, review the experiment. Complete the Heading as described below.

During each laboratory period, enter data and observations in your notebook according to the
guidelines given below. Observations should include problems encountered (spilling, splattering,
contamination, etc) and any other information that might be helpful when writing the lab report.

At the end of the laboratory period, show your notebook to your instructor to inspect for
completeness. If everything is in order, the instructor will initial your book. If it is not in order,
you will be instructed to remedy the deficiencies.

Guidelines for Notebook Entries

Heading – partially completed before the lab period - On the top of the first page of the experiment
write-up, include a title, the date of the experiment, the experiment number and the name of your
lab partner (if known). As the experiment progresses, each page must include the above
information, including the full name of your lab partner(s).
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Data – most data tables should be prepared before lab and data filled in during the lab period.
Observations should be noted, sketches should be made of new setups, and graphs and figures
should be included. When more than one table must be drawn into the notebook prior to arriving
in lab, be sure to leave sufficient space following each table where calculations are needed. If
occasionally, there is insufficient space causing data or calculations to be separated, place a
note where it should have been inserted, noting what it was and where it can be found as well
as a note on the page it has been placed, again noting what it is and where it should have
been.

For experiments in which the data, graphs or tables are generated by the computer, two copies
should be printed for each student: both to be placed in the notebook, one of which will be turned
in with the report and another copy that remains in the notebook. These should be taped in the lab
notebook as explained in #13 of Notebook Specifications on the previous page. Pages should be
neatly trimmed, so that it does not cover any data or the heading before inserting into the notebook.
Be careful not to remove your name or date from the printouts. If it will not fit on the page
where it would naturally follow, place it on the next page. It is important to be consistent, reading
all measurements of the same type to the same degree of precision, and following the rules for
using significant figures.

Data Analysis/Calculations – All calculations must be shown and labeled with appropriate
units. Include statistical information and standard deviations, as required. Should you determine
that your notebook calculations are incorrect before they are turned in, provide corrected
calculations on a later notebook page, with an explanation that the new calculations are to replace
those on a previous notebook page, noting the page of the original calculations. Cross out each
incorrect calculation with a single line, noting the notebook page where the corrected
calculation(s) can be found.

Error analysis in lab notebook: Make notes in your lab notebook concerning changes made to the
original instructions, mistakes, and potential/real errors. Errors aren't always obvious, especially
systematic errors. Check the grading rubric for instructions specific to each experiment.

Never place data obtained later in a lab period in an "empty" space in an earlier section of
the notebook. All entries must be entered in the order in which they were completed.

The Post-lab report

The post-lab report will typically include questions, formal discussion, and conclusions.

This part of the report will be typed using 12 point Times New Roman font. Margins should be set
at 1” on all sides. The following heading should be used:

Stevenson University Name:

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Chemistry 115/116 (list appropriate course & section) Date:
Experiment number and title

Each section should be headed by a centered heading.

Questions/Data Analysis
Label these sections as listed in the handout. Questions will usually be provided to help identify the
key points and develop the significance of the experiment. Cut and paste these from the handout
into a Word document. Questions and answers should be single-spaced, with a space before and
after each question. Type all answers in complete sentences, spacing before and after each
question. Mathematical calculations may be printed neatly if sufficient space is allotted.
Reactions must be typed using subscripts and superscripts as needed.

Discussion
When the discussion is in the form of guided questions
In Chem 115 and for the first few experiments in Chem 116, students will provide responses to
guided questions that would make up a formal Discussion. Questions and answers should be
single-spaced, with a space before and after each question. These must be answered in complete
sentences in third person.

When the discussion is to be written in paragraph form

Those in Chem 116 will learn to integrate the responses to these questions into a formal discussion
part-way through the semester. The questions should not be copied into the post-lab report.
Instead, the formal discussion should be composed in paragraph form, with 1½ spacing.

Instructions for formal discussion, regardless of whether it is questions or in paragraph form.

The experimental results should parallel what was written in the Purpose and compare results to
expected results. Avoid the use of “I liked this lab,” “This lab went well,” or “This lab was
successfully completed.” Begin each discussion with an introductory sentence or short paragraph
explaining the basis of the experiment. Provide results (but generally not data) and compare these
to known values if available. If changes were made to the procedure, list these as well.

Include a discussion of specific sources of error and evaluate how these affected your results.
Suggest ways in which identified errors could be minimized or eliminated. If you did not
experience any noticeable errors, you must suggest several reasonable errors that could have (and
very well may have) occurred during the experiment. Never state that your experiment was
“error free,” as there is no way to know that with any certainty. Instead, state that “no errors were
observed.” Note that errors in mathematical calculations are not considered to be laboratory
errors. Be thorough, but concise in this section. Grading is based on the quality of the ideas
presented rather than on the length of the discussion.
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 Conclusion
The conclusion should be typed with 1½ spacing. The Conclusion should be no more than 1-3
sentences and should provide a concise statement about what can be concluded from the
experiment. Important numbers and results should be reported. Include the final results, but no
discussion about them. If a known or literature value is available, include this here, labeling it as
such. Where the experiment consists of several sections, provide the results for each section. This
must also be typed using the same parameters as those used for the Discussion.

General Expectations for Typed Portions of the Lab Report

Students should proofread the lab report for content, grammar, suitable language and spelling
prior to handing it in. The report should be clear and use properly punctuated language that is free
from slang. Points will be deducted for incomplete sentences. Students should keep notes in
their LabArchives notebooks Organization is important.

Avoid use of the first and second person (I, we, and you). This will force passive sentence
construction at times: “The weak acid was reacted with 0.100 M sodium hydroxide,” not “I reacted
the weak acid with 0.100 M sodium hydroxide.” “The student did …” is not a suitable substitute
for first person and should be avoided.

In general, the pre-lab purpose should be written in future tense while the discussion should be
written in past tense. Present tense should be used when referring to tables and figures, because
they exist in present time: “Table 1 shows the results of the titration of the unknown weak acid
with 0.100 M sodium hydroxide.” Everything else in the discussion should be written in past
tense.

Do not begin sentences with numerals. Either write out the number (e.g. “Two milligrams were
added…” rather than “2 mg were added…”) or revise the sentence so it does not start with a
number. In technical writing, always put a zero before the decimal point, give units to each
number, and watch significant figures. Write “0.678”, not “.678”.

When using chemical names and formulas, type the name of a compound followed by the formula
in parentheses the first time each chemical is named in the report. Subsequently, the student may
use only the formula; for example: “Sodium chloride (NaCl) was added to the solution. The 0.1g
of NaCl added caused the color of the solution to change from blue to green.”

The data (actual measurements and observations) of partners must match one another. Students
are encouraged to confer with classmates when working in the lab and may discuss their data and

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conclusions; however, the work turned in is expected to be each student’s own. Copying in any
form is unacceptable.

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 Laboratory Safety Practices and Policies

Sarah Brush, M.S.

Laboratory Safety Manager

It is of the utmost importance that all individuals within a scientific laboratory practice safe
operating procedures. One person’s carelessness or ignorance of proper lab safety procedures can
jeopardize the safety of all individuals in the laboratory. Adhering to the following laboratory
safety principles will create a safe learning environment for the students, faculty, and staff at SU.
Remember that your actions or inactions could cause injury to a fellow student. Always use
common sense and, when in doubt, ask the science faculty or staff for assistance.

Proper lab attire (i.e. long pants that extend beyond the ankle and closed-toe shoes covering
all skin) is required for all individuals entering the laboratory regardless of the activity being
performed (e.g. wet labs, dry labs, lectures, movies, or presentations). Please note that
failure to have proper lab attire and proper personal protective equipment (chemical splash
goggles, lab coats, and/or gloves) will result in removal from the laboratory and the
possibility of earning a “0” for the laboratory assignment. In addition, students who are
reminded more than twice in a lab period to put their chemical splash goggles over their eyes
will be asked to leave the laboratory and could possibly earn a “0” for the laboratory period.

Generally, when you are in the lab:

1. Understand your experiment and its associated dangers. The instructor expects you to
have read the experiment before you arrive.

2. Work methodically and at an even, reasonable pace. Follow directions and use common
sense as you proceed.

3. Know how to get help if something goes wrong. Learn what safety resources are
available, where they are located in the lab and adjoining areas, and how to use them.
Know where the emergency exits are located for the laboratories and the building.

Dress Code and Personal Protective Equipment

1. Students must adhere to the laboratory dress code requirements.

a. Wear closed-toe shoes that cover the entire foot. No high heels, crocs, ballet
flats, sandals, or flip flops. Any shoe that does not cover the top of the foot is
not acceptable in the laboratory. Socks are not an acceptable substitute for
proper footwear.
b. Wear long pants that extend beyond the ankle and completely cover the legs.
Leggings, spandex pants, and yoga pants are not recommended in labs.
c. Tie back hair as it can be singed, catch fire, become contaminated with chemicals
or biological material, or get caught in moving machine parts.
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 d. Exposed midriffs are not permitted in labs, as a spill on the lab counter can
splash and potentially contact these areas causing injury.
e. Do not wear loose sleeves. The excess fabric may knock over items, catch fire,
or drag through biologicals or chemicals.

2. Lab coats must be worn while working in the laboratory and must be buttoned at all
times.
a. Student names should be printed in marker on the back of the lab coat.
b. Chemistry lab coats are disposable coats made of Tyvek or a Tyvek alternative
and are white. Students must use care when working around open flames in
Tyvek lab coats. Tyvek can melt when exposed to direct heat.
c. Biology lab coats are disposable coats made of a non-woven fabric and are blue.
The blue lab coats cannot be used in chemistry courses because they do not offer
protection from chemical splashes.
d. Lab coats are to be kept in plastic storage bags in the designated storage bins
within the laboratory. Some coats will be stored on designated wall coat hooks
within the laboratory. Students should button their coats prior to hanging them
on the wall to prevent cross contamination.
e. Lab coats cannot be taken back and forth between laboratories.

3. Chemical splash goggles have guards on the side of the face and a shield on the top of
the goggles that meet the forehead. They provide both splash and impact protection.
Prescription glasses provide little protection to the eyes so goggles should be worn over
them. Contact lenses are unacceptable as eye protection.

4. It is not recommended to wear contact lenses in the laboratory. If a splash to the eye
were to occur, there is the potential for the chemical to seep under the lens. The contact
lens will not only hold the chemical on the eye but will also hinder subsequent rinsing of
the eye. Inform your instructor at the beginning of the semester if you wear contact
lenses and ensure you wear the safety goggles when conducting work in the lab.

5. Protection of the eyes is essential in any laboratory activity. Chemical splash goggles
must be worn anytime there is the possibility of a splash hazard to the eyes or face.
Specifically, they must be used in the following scenarios:
a. Handling chemicals hazardous to the eyes.
b. Using chemicals with unknown hazards.
c. Working with gases.
d. Working with liquids which are hotter than 60°C or 140°F.
e. Working with solid materials (i.e. glassware) or equipment under stress, pressure,
or force that might cause fragmentation or flying particles.
f. When dust or fumes are present.
g. Working with preserved specimens during dissection activities.

6. Face shields provide protection to the face and throat from flying particles and liquid
splashes. For maximum protection against chemical splashes, a face shield must be
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 worn with chemicals splash goggles. Face shields should be worn when working with
large volumes of hazardous materials or when implosion or explosion hazards exist
(flying particles).

7. There is no one glove that is protective against every chemical used on campus. For this
reason, the School of the Sciences provides different types of gloves for use in the
laboratory. Make sure to use the correct gloves when working in the laboratory. Rings
should not be worn under gloves as they may cause punctures.

8. Remove one glove and use the ungloved hand when touching any surface in common
areas such as hallways, keyboards, door knobs, elevator buttons, etc. that other people,
without protection, may also touch. The idea is to prevent cross contamination.

Personal Safety

1. Do not eat, drink, chew gum, apply any lip products and/or make-up, or put any
pens, pencils, or gloves in your mouth during laboratory time. Biological and
chemical airborne toxins may contaminate any substance that may ultimately end up in
or near your mouth. It is best to minimize the possibility of contact.

2. Never taste biologicals or chemicals.

3. Students may not remove any biologicals, chemicals, or reagents from the laboratory
areas without the permission of the instructor.

4. Students must wash their hands with soap and water whenever reagents contact the skin.
Students must wash their hands before leaving the laboratory.

5. Students should never use their mouth to pipette liquids. Use the provided pipetters.

6. Students may not work alone in laboratories. A science faculty member should
always be present in the laboratory. If s/he is unavailable, two students or a student and
a member of the laboratory staff must be present in the laboratory at all times while lab
work is in progress.

7. Students may not enter the laboratory until their instructor is present.

8. All students must keep cell phones, extra books, clothing, and personal possessions
away from the laboratory workbench as they can become contaminated. Only the items
necessary for lab are to be brought to the laboratory workbench. Store all possessions in
the designated areas in the laboratories. Do not store them on the floor or in the isles
where someone may trip over them.

9. Cell phone use, including texting, is not permitted during lab. Generally, cell phones are
not intrinsically safe and could cause a spark in an environment with ignitable vapors.
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 There is also a potential for contamination with biologicals or chemicals used in the
laboratory. Your cell phones should be left in your book bags and placed in the
designated storage areas.

10. Do only the assigned laboratory experiments as described in the directions. Do not
change the procedure unless the instructor has approved it. Do not perform more than
one laboratory experiment at a time as you may end up obtaining poor results from both.
In addition, the accidental mixing of reagents from different experiments may be
dangerous.

11. Check labels on bottles of biological and chemical reagents twice before removing any
of the contents. Many chemical names and many genus-species names sound similar.
Do not take more biological or chemical than is needed by the laboratory exercise. Your
instructor will tell you if any reagent or organism is particularly hazardous. In general,
all chemicals and all biological specimens or organisms should be considered hazardous.

12. To prevent contamination of chemical stocks, never return unused chemicals to the
original containers.

13. Always hold containers away from your body when transferring reagents from one
container to another or heating a reaction.

14. All acids should be handled with extreme care. The proper dilution of an acid is to
add the acid to water with a swirl or stir. Never add water to an acid. Be advised that
heat may be produced. Helpful Hint: Remember A to W – Acid to Water –
Alphabetical Order!

15. To determine the odor of a chemical, waft the vapors toward your nose with your hand.
Never place your nose directly over a bottle or test tube and sniff.

16. Do not use broken or cracked glassware and only use fire polished glass tubing.

17. When inserting any long thin piece of glass (such as a thermometer, glass tubing, funnel
end, glass rod, etc.) into a rubber stopper or cork, protect your hands with a cloth towel
or several paper towels. Hold the glass tubing close to the end (nearest the stopper),
gently pushing and twisting it into the stopper. Use water or glycerin to lubricate the
glass before insertion.

18. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug and not the cord.
Ensure hands are completely dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, or outlet.

Housekeeping

1. The laboratory must be kept clean to prevent cross-contamination. Students should wipe
down benches with the provided cleaning solution before leaving the laboratory.
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 Microbiology lab benches must be disinfected with an EPA registered disinfectant after
each laboratory experiment.
2. Return chemicals and equipment to their proper places, dispose of trash, and make sure
the drains are uncluttered.

3. Glassware and general supplies must be washed, dried, and returned to their designated
storage location after use. Refer to the supply lists and cabinet labels for proper storage
locations.

4. When using gas or vacuum outlets, make sure they are turned off before leaving the
laboratory.

5. Students should not leave their chemical splash goggles in the lab coat storage bins
located in the laboratories. The bins are only large enough for the storage of lab coats.

Medical Conditions
1. Tell your instructor at the beginning of the course if you are pregnant, have an allergy
or medical condition that may be affected by course activities involving exposure to
biologicals and/or chemicals. Examples may include indoor allergies, outdoor allergies,
and chemical sensitivities. If your allergies are severe and may require the use of an
Epi-pen, please let your instructor know where you keep your Epi-pen. If you are
pregnant, or have a medical condition that requires regular medical management and/or
places you at risk, you must review and complete the Medical Informed Consent for
Student Laboratory Work.

2. Potential Exposure to Reproductive Toxins - There is the potential for exposure to

chemicals classified as reproductive or developmental toxins in Stevenson University
laboratories. Reproductive toxins cause adverse health effects of the reproductive
organs, endocrine system, or gametes (egg or sperm). Some of these health effects
include menstrual dysfunction, impaired fertility, feminization/masculinization, or the
inability to maintain a pregnancy. Developmental toxins adversely affect the developing
organism at any time from conception to sexual maturity. Effects include spontaneous
abortion, structural or functional defects, low birth weight, or issues later in life.

It is the policy of Stevenson University to establish procedures to minimize the potential for
adverse health effects to the reproductive health of our students. Any student registered for a
laboratory course who is, or suspects that she might be pregnant, must contact the Laboratory
Safety Manager to evaluate the presence and use of reproductive or developmental toxins in the
laboratory course(s) in which the student is enrolled. Those risks will then be communicated to the
student, and the student shall be responsible for communicating those risks with her treating
physician. The student and the treating physician will then make the decision as to whether the
student should continue participating in laboratory courses at Stevenson University during the
course of the pregnancy. The Laboratory Safety Manager and the Dean of the School of Sciences
will make appropriate accommodations as necessary.
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Students with Service Animals Enrolled in Laboratory Courses

Stevenson University recognizes the importance of service animals to individuals with disabilities.
The University is committed to providing safe access to all individuals with service animals, as
well as to the service animals. The regulations to Titles II and III of the American with
Disabilities Act (ADA) define a service animal as a dog that is individually trained to do work or
perform a task for a person with a disability. These regulations permit service animals to
accompany people with disabilities in all areas where members of the public are allowed to go. A
service animal can only be asked to be removed if the animal is out of control and the animal’s
handler does not take effective action to control it or the animal is not housebroken. The service
animal must be under the control of the handler via harness, leash, or other tether, unless this
would interfere with the service animal’s safe and effective performance of work or tasks, in which
case the service animal must be otherwise under the handler’s control via voice control, signals, or
other effective means.

The majority of the School of the Sciences laboratories are considered safe locations for a service
animal to occupy. However, there are specific laboratories, as well as specific experiments, that
could cause harm to a service animal. There may also be laboratories where a service animal
poses a direct threat to health and safety or to specific research being conducted that cannot be
reduced or eliminated by a reasonable accommodation. During those instances, the service animal
will not be allowed into the laboratory and an acceptable alternative arrangement will be agreed
upon by all parties.
The following procedures involve the Office of Disability Services, the student with disabilities,
the Laboratory Safety Manager, and the program department chair to ensure the safety of the
student, service animal, and laboratories:
● The determination of whether or not a service animal may accompany a student with a
disability into a laboratory will be determined on a case-by-case basis.
● Only qualified service animals will be provided access to the laboratories. Animals
whose sole function is to provide emotional support will not be allowed in the
laboratories.
● Students requesting the presence of a service animal within the laboratories must submit
a request to have the animal with them with the Office of Disability Services.
● The Director of Disability Services will provide the Laboratory Safety Manager with the
courses and room numbers of any student with a service animal who wishes to have
their service animal occupying the laboratories prior to the start of the semester.
● The Laboratory Safety Manager will identify any laboratories that would be deemed
unsafe for the service animal and/or any specific experiments that would be deemed
unsafe for the service animal based on severity of risk to the service animal.
● The Laboratory Safety Manager will identify any laboratories that the service animal
will not be allowed to enter due to the possibility of harm to research experiments within
that laboratory.
● The Laboratory Safety Manager will determine safe locations for the student and service
animal within the laboratories that the service animal will be occupying.

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20
 ● The student and the Office of Disability Services will be responsible for providing any
personal protective equipment for the service animal to ensure its safety within the
laboratory, which may include but is not limited to booties, eye protection, and a mat for
the floor.
● If the service animal will not be allowed in a laboratory, alternative accommodation
options will be considered for the student. This assessment will include an interactive
process between the student, the Director of Disability Services, the Director of
Laboratory Services, and the Laboratory Safety Manager.

Students should contact Disability Services at 443-352-4920 for further information regarding the
University’s policy on service animals.

Heat/Burn Safety

1. Heating objects may cause adjacent objects to also become hot. Ringstands, clamps, hot
plates, stirrers, Bunsen burners, and other objects near the flame or hot plate may be hot
or at least warm. Keep hot objects out of the way when cooling. Students should leave
a note* if a hot object is left out to cool to prevent another individual from burning
him/herself. Use tongs or heat protective gloves if moving heated objects. Do not place
any hot objects on or near paper towels. Hot objects placed on paper towels may ignite
the towels. *If leaving a note, it should be written on lab tape placed on the bench next
to the hot object. Do not leave notes on paper, paper towels, or KimWipes on the hot
object.

2. Students should never dispense flammable liquids near an open flame or heat source.

3. Students should ensure that all hot plates or Bunsen burners are turned off prior to
leaving the laboratory. Students should never leave a lit burner, anything being heated,
or anything visibly reacting unattended. Hot plates must be unplugged after each use.

4. Students should take extreme caution when heating and boiling liquids in test tubes.
Never point the open end of the test tube towards your body or anyone else’s body.

Fume Hoods and Biosafety Cabinets

1. Fume hoods may be required for all or part of the laboratory experiment. Students must
use fume hoods when instructed to do so and should understand the importance of their
use for the assigned laboratory experiment. The following procedures should be
followed when using a fume hood:
a. Fume hoods should be monitored to ensure proper face velocity of around 100
fpm. If you believe the fume hood is not working properly, immediately stop
working within the fume hood and inform SU faculty or staff.
b. Working fume hood sash height should be no higher than 18 inches and generally
no lower than 12 inches. Use the sash stop of the fume hood as a guide to the

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21
 proper sash height. To reduce energy costs, the fume hood sash should be pulled
all the way down when the hood is not in use.
c. Experiments should be performed 6 inches within the fume hood to prevent
fumes from escaping into the laboratory.
d. Keep the amount of equipment in the fume hood to a minimum to prevent
turbulence.
e. Do not allow Kim Wipes or paper towels to be sucked into the back of the fume
hood. They may lodge into ducts and fans and can affect the operation of the
hood.
f. Be aware that walking in front of an operating fume hood, as well as working
within the fume hood will alter the velocity and affect flow.
g. Small beaker fires can be extinguished within the fume hood by suffocation
using a watch glass or another piece of glassware. Anything larger than a small
beaker fire should never be extinguished by students. The fume hood sash
should be closed and the laboratory evacuated. The fire alarm should be pulled
while exiting the building to alert the fire department and others within the
building.

2. Biosafety cabinets may be required to be used during experimentation or research with

biological agents. Biosafety cabinets are enclosed, ventilated workspaces designed to
protect the user from exposure to biological agents. There are three classes of biosafety
cabinets that provide different levels of protection. Depending on the level, the cabinets
provides personnel, product, and environmental protection against harmful
contaminants.
a. Biosafety cabinets should not be confused with fume hoods, which offer
protection from chemical exposure. Chemicals should not be used within the
Biosafety cabinet as the HEPA filters are not designed to contain chemical dust,
fumes, or vapors. Biosafety cabinets clean the air and circulate it back into the
laboratory.
b. All SU biosafety cabinets are equipped with UV light for its germicidal effects.
If a UV light is being used, it must be turned off prior to using the cabinet.
c. Be careful not to cover grill slots with any work materials as this will affect the
operation of the cabinet.
d. Biosafety cabinets should be wiped down with an alcohol solution before and
after each use to prevent contamination of work materials.

Waste Disposal

There are different types of waste streams, including hazardous waste, biohazardous waste, and
nonhazardous waste. Each waste stream is disposed of in a different manner. Hazardous waste
and biohazardous waste are carefully tracked to ensure individuals, property, and the environment
are not in danger during the disposal process. Likewise, a designated nonhazardous waste stream
may also exhibit some hazardous properties. Therefore, it is important to be cognizant of all types
of waste. If you are unsure of how to properly dispose of your waste, please ask a SU faculty or
staff member.
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22
1. Non-contaminated broken glass should be placed into broken glassware bins (labeled
cardboard boxes), which can be found throughout the laboratories.

2. Waste from all chemistry laboratory courses should be discarded into the 1, 2, or 4-liter
pre-labeled containers, which will be put out for each laboratory exercise. These waste
collection containers will typically be placed in the fume hoods at the beginning of class.
The Chemistry Laboratory Manager will perform the segregation and ensure proper
waste storage. If you are disposing of your own waste, you must include the words
“Hazardous Waste” on the container. You must also include the chemical name, the
amount, the concentration, and an indication of the hazard (ignitable, corrosive, toxic or
reactive). No chemical symbols or abbreviations are permitted. All hazardous waste
containers must be within secondary containment to prevent leaks. Students should be
careful not to fill waste containers past the neck of the bottle to prevent overflow.

3. All chemical waste from biology will be collected in pre-labeled containers for disposal.
All gram stain, dissection preservative, and gel buffer wastes must be collected for
disposal. All waste bottles must be within secondary containment to prevent leaks. If
the waste bottle has a hinged lid funnel attached, the funnel must be kept closed except
when adding waste to the container. Students should be careful not to fill waste
containers past the neck of the bottle to prevent overflow.

4. Any gels containing Ethidium Bromide, Propidium iodide, Acridine Orange, SYBR
Green I, SYBR Green II, SYBR Gold, GelStar or any other mutagenic dye must be
disposed in the labeled white buckets with the red flip top lids. Like all waste
containers, the lid should be opened only when adding or removing waste from the
container.

5. Disposable test tubes, having been emptied of waste and rinsed once with water, should
be placed in the proper labeled receptacle. The Biology and Chemistry Laboratory
Managers will dispose of the test tubes.

6. Chemical solid waste goes in the designated solid waste containers in the lab. Some
solid wastes may be placed in the regular trash. You must check with your instructor
before disposing of any chemical in the trash.

7. Pasteur pipettes, slides, and other contaminated items that can puncture or pierce a bag,
should be placed in a “Sharps” container. These are labeled receptacles found
throughout the laboratories. They include a small labeled biohazard cardboard sleeve or
a green non-biohazard plastic bin. Needles, syringes, scalpel blades, razor blades, or
blood tubes must be disposed in puncture resistant and leak proof containers. These
containers are available in red for biohazard contaminated sharps and white for
chemically contaminated sharps. Both are equipped with a clear lid that limits
accidental or intentional access to used sharps.

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23
 8. Disposable laboratory coats need to be disposed of properly at the end of each semester.
If used in Microbiology laboratory courses, they will need to be autoclaved prior to
disposal. The Biology Laboratory Manager will leave autoclave bags out for collection
of the coats on the last day of labs. All other Biology and Chemistry laboratory coats
may be disposed in the general waste unless they are grossly contaminated with
chemical residues (spill on coat). The Biology and Chemistry Laboratory Managers will
provide waste bags for collection of the coats on the last day of lab. For those who
choose to wear cloth coats, they will need to be sent out for professional cleaning at
the end of the semester. The student is responsible for the cost of the cleaning
service. Students should contact the Laboratory Safety Manager to arrange
cleaning.

Safety Data Sheets (SDS)

Safety Data Sheets (SDS), previously called Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), are documents
supplied by the manufacturer of the chemical or biological that outline physical and chemical
properties, health hazards, exposure limits, reactivity and flammability levels, storage and spill
instructions, first aid, and regulatory information.

1. SDS must be accessible to faculty, staff, and students at all times. Paper copies can be
found in binders in N148 and N164B.

2. Students may also access the SU SDS online service provider through the “Laboratory
Safety Resources” course in Blackboard and the SU Portal under the “Academic
Resources” tab. Students will be able to search by chemical name, manufacturer name,
and/or chemical location. All questions regarding the SDS online service should be
directed to the Laboratory Safety Manager. Note that the name of the company
managing the University’s online SDS system is MSDS Online.
a. A laptop computer is available in N133 in the Manning Academic Center for
continuous access to Stevenson’s MSDS Online account. This computer should
only be used to searching for an SDS.

Chemical Labeling
1. Primary Container Labeling (Manufacturer Label)
OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard with the Globally Harmonized System
(GHS) for the Classification and Labeling of Chemicals
a. Classification of Hazards
i. Under the revised OSHA Hazard Communication Standard, a hazardous
chemical is defined as a chemical that meets the definition of a health
hazard class, a physical hazard class, or it is a simple asphyxiant,
combustible dust, or pyrophoric (spontaneous combustible) gas. The
majority of the health and physical hazard classes also include category
classifications within each specified class.
b. Communication of the Hazards
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24
 i. The use of SDS (see above)
ii. Chemical labeling – There are six different sections to the GHS
compliant labels
1. Product Identifiers – Unique names or numbers used on a
hazardous product label or in a safety data sheet
2. Signal Words – One word used to indicate the relative level of
severity of a hazard and alert the user
a. “Warning” for less severe hazard categories
b. “Danger” for more severe hazard categories
3. Hazard Statements – Phrase assigned to each hazard class and
category that describes the nature of the hazard
4. Precautionary Statements – Phrases that describe recommended
measures that should be taken to minimize or prevent adverse
effects resulting from exposure to a hazardous product, or
improper storage or handling of a hazardous product
5. Supplier Identification – Must include the name, address, and
telephone number of the manufacturer or supplier of the substance
6. Pictograms – A symbol with other graphic elements intended to
convey specific health, physical, and environmental hazards of a
chemical

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25
2. Workplace Container Labeling (Secondary Container Labeling)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 704 Diamond) label
a. This system uses a diamond shape symbol with color coded categories of hazard.
The diamonds will contain a hazard rating range of 0-4 indicating the degree of
hazard associated with that chemical. Helpful Hint: The higher the number,
the more hazardous the chemical is for that category.
i. Red indicates flammability
ii. Blue indicates health
iii. Yellow indicates reactivity
iv. White indicates a specific or special hazard such as water reactive, acids,
bases, oxidizers, or corrosives.
b. The NFPA labeling system will be used for marking secondary containers as well
as chemical storage areas on campus.
i. Any container of a chemical, with the exception of biological growth
media, that has a rating of 1 – 4 in any category on the NFPA diamond
must have a fully filled-in NFPA label.
ii. NFPA labels must include a rating in each colored section, the full
chemical name (no abbreviations!), and the date.
iii. Laboratory Managers will provide NFPA label stickers.

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Accident Guidelines
1. Any accident, physical or chemical, mild or severe, must be IMMEDIATELY
reported to the instructor. any accident requiring first aid or CPr must be reported
to security and the laboratory services team. ANY CHEMICAL SPILL, SMALL
OR LARGE, MUST BE REPORTED TO THE LABORATORY SERVICES
TEAM FOR EVALUATION. Security serves as SU’s first responders.
a. Security can be reached in the following ways:
i. Dial “4500” from any in-house phone. This will connect you with the
Security Office on Owings Mills. They will alert Security on Owings
Mills North.
ii. Dial 443-352-4500 from any phone to contact the Security Office on
Owings Mills directly. They will alert Security on Owings Mills North.
iii. Dial 410-486-7000 from any phone. Be prepared to tell the operator your
location and emergency. S/he will contact Security for you.
b. The Laboratory Services Team can be reached in the following ways:
i. Contact information for all Laboratory Services Team members is posted
near the telephones in all laboratories.
ii. The Laboratory Safety Manager’s office is located in N160.

2. If a flammable, volatile substance spills on any surface, make sure all flames in the
laboratory are immediately extinguished. Disconnect any equipment that might generate
a spark. All experiments should be stopped immediately. If the instructor tells you to
evacuate the lab, follow instructions. Prior to cleaning up any spill, the Laboratory
Services Team should be contacted to evaluate the spill and determine if the faculty or
staff member can safely clean up the spill, or if the Laboratory Services Team will
handle the cleanup.

3. If a chemical splashes a large area of a person’s body, immediately get the person
under the safety shower and remove all contaminated clothing while the water is rinsing.
Lukewarm water should flow across the affected area for at least 15 minutes. A mild
detergent may be used to clean the area further, followed by a lukewarm water rinse. Do
not apply any medications until medical assistance arrives and advises. Security and the
Laboratory Services Team must be notified for any chemical splashes that require the
use of the safety showers.

4. If a chemical splashes a small area of a person’s body, run lukewarm water over the
affected area immediately and continue to flush the skin for at least 15 minutes. The
instructor will advise on further care. Security and the Laboratory Services Team must
be notified for any chemical splashes that contact the body.

5. If a chemical splashes into the eye(s), act fast. Get to the eyewash, force your eyes
open and rinse for at least 15 minutes with lukewarm water. Move your eyes around
while rinsing so the water can get to all parts of the eye. Security and the Laboratory
Services Team must be notified for any chemical splashes that contact the eye. If further

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 medical attention is needed, Security will notify emergency response personnel.

6. If a chemical splash occurs to the face when you have chemical splash goggles on,
do NOT take the goggles off. Wash the goggles (as if they were part of your face) with
lukewarm water and when the chemical is gone, remove the goggles and wash the face
further if needed. Security and the Laboratory Services Team must be notified of any
chemical splashes that contact the face.

7. If a chemical is ingested, the course of action will be dependent on the nature of the
chemical. Call for medical assistance by contacting Security or by dialing “911” directly
from any campus phone. Always check the SDS for suggested protocol. Security and
the Laboratory Services Team must be notified for any chemical ingestion. You may
also contact poison control at 1-800-222-1222.

8. A cut or wound should receive immediate attention and should be carefully protected
from contamination. If the cut or wound is bleeding and requires First Aid, Security and
the Laboratory Services Team must be notified. First Aid kits are available in all
laboratories.

9. If a person falls unconscious, alert the instructor who will seek medical attention.
Unconsciousness and/or respiratory failure could be caused by inhalation of a substance,
electric shock, or skin contact with certain chemicals. Security and the Laboratory
Services Team must be notified if a person falls unconscious.

10. All burns from flames, heat, or chemicals, are treated by running cool water (do not use
ice or ice cold water) over the affected area until it does not hurt anymore. Security and
the Laboratory Services Team should be notified of any burns. Security and the
Laboratory Services Team should decide if further medical attention is necessary. Burns
to the face or hands should be sent off campus for further medical evaluation.

11. If a fire should occur in the laboratory, faculty, staff, and students must evacuate, shut
the laboratory door, and activate the fire alarm pull station near the exit door. If the fire
occurs within a fume hood, the sash should be closed, if possible. Students are not
permitted to use fire extinguishers in SU laboratories because they have not received the
proper training. Faculty, staff, and students should meet at the assembly areas, which
are based on location at the time of alarm. Refer to the posted Emergency Evacuation
Routes in your area to determine which assembly area to report to.
● Assembly Area 1 – Grass median between Academic Center and School of
Design parking lot.
● Assembly Area 2 – Grass area next to the Facilities trailer.
● Assembly Area 3 – Grass area in back parking lot.
● Assembly Area 4 – Grass area along the fence line.
● Assembly Area 5 – Grass area between the Academic Center and School of
Design buildings.

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12. If your clothing catches on fire, STOP what you are doing, move away from the fire
source, DROP to the ground, and ROLL to smother the flames. Another person could
use the fire blanket to further smother the flames, or someone could walk you to the
shower. In either case, do not run because running will rekindle or enhance the fire and
it can cause increased respiratory intake of heat, which is very damaging to the lungs. A
drawback of the fire blanket is if it is wrapped around a burn victim for too long a time
period, the heat can become trapped within the blanket potentially causing greater burn
damage. Others in the room should turn off the fuel supply to the original source of the
flame and call “911” and Security for additional help.

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 General Chemistry Laboratory Rules

1. Come prepared; treat your partner as you would want to be treated.

2. Wear protective clothing, proper shoes and eye protection.
3. Follow all safety rules.
4. NEVER eat, drink, chew gum or apply cosmetics in the lab.
5. Place all bookbags on the shelving near the entrance of the lab. They
do not belong at your workstation.
6. Do not contaminate the stock bottles of chemicals by directly
pipetting from the stock bottles or by returning unused chemicals to
the stock bottles.
7. Always assume all hot plates are hot. You or your partner must
attend heating solutions at all times.
8. NEVER put your face close to a container you are opening. If
smelling, waft a small amount of the substance towards you with
your hand.
9. Dispose of waste as directed by your instructor.
10. Clean up after yourself. Before leaving you must clean the balance
room, your bench top and sink; refill the distilled water bottles, and
return all equipment and chemicals as directed. Clean and return
all glassware to the appropriate place.

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 GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICES

Water

As you will soon learn in class, chemists define a pure substance as one that has uniform
properties and a defined composition. You will also learn that many substances that we often
consider to be pure in every day life do not fit the chemist’s definition of purity. One such
substance is the water that we commonly obtain from the tap. Such water is usually contaminated
with various salts and minerals, and may also contain some organic compounds and chlorine.
Many of these substances do not evaporate, as water does, when it dries. Many of these substances
can interfere with the results of an experiment. Therefore, for the vast majority of their work,
chemists use water that has been purified to remove such contaminants. We have a source of
purified (deionized) water in the laboratory. It is important that you use this water in all
experiments when water is used to dissolve other substances, or when water is itself being studied
in the experiment. It is also important that you rinse all clean glassware with deionized water to
remove the contaminants in the tap water that you use to wash the glassware (see below). You are
provided with a wash bottle, which you can use to keep a source of deionized water at your work
area. Use tap water only for washing glassware, or when water is needed to make a heating or
cooling bath. When in doubt, check with your instructor.

Washing Glassware

In chemistry, one of our main interests is the characterization of the properties of matter.
For that reason, it is very important that you know the exact identity of the matter with which you
are working. Often in the laboratory, you will be working with chemicals that are provided to you
by your instructors. These chemicals have been purchased from reliable suppliers, and are known
to be in a high state of purity. Sometimes you will be working with mixtures, but even in that case,
the mixtures will usually be made from chemicals that are initially highly pure. Because we have
the opportunity to work with substances of known purity, we can have confidence that our
observations of the properties of those substances are not being compromised by the presence of
contaminants in our samples. You can imagine, therefore, that it is very important for you to be
sure that your samples do not become contaminated during the course of your work. This is also
important when you are working with samples from nature that are not necessarily pure, since in
most cases, you will be interested in measuring a particular substance within those samples, and
you will not wish to contaminate your samples with materials that can interfere with your
measurements.
A major source of sample contamination in the chemistry laboratory can occur if the
glassware that the chemist uses is not scrupulously clean. You might be surprised to learn that
glassware that you would normally consider clean (such as the glasses and plates in your kitchen at
home) are not adequately clean for a chemistry experiment. Despite the claims of advertisers,
unless glassware is rinsed very thoroughly, detergents will leave a residue after the washing
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process. Even more important, however, is the fact that ordinary tap water is not pure. It contains
salts and organic contaminants that are left behind on the glassware as the water evaporates.
Although such residues on kitchen plates and utensils are not usually injurious to your health, and
do not affect the results of your cooking, they can certainly cause problems in the chemistry
laboratory, where even trace contamination of a sample can lead to erroneous results.
Consequently, correct cleaning of glassware is essential. To achieve this goal, you should carry out
the following steps:

1. Pour out any chemicals from the glassware to be cleaned. (Be sure to discard chemicals in
appropriate waste containers. Do not pour a chemical down the drain or throw it into a waste
basket unless instructed to do so. Ask your instructor if you are not sure of how to correctly
discard of a chemical).
2. Rinse the glassware with tap water to remove any residual chemicals.
3. Place a small amount (about the size of a pea) of laboratory glassware cleaning detergent into
your largest beaker, and then fill the beaker with hot tap water.
4. Use the detergent solution to clean each piece of glassware.
5. Scrub each piece of glassware with your test tube brush, being careful not to scratch the
glassware with the wire end of the brush.
6. When you have thoroughly removed all chemicals from the glassware, pour out the detergent
solution, and rinse the glassware thoroughly with hot tap water. Note that several rinses with small
amounts of water are more efficient than one rinse with a large amount of water.
7. Rinse the glassware again, at least three times, with small amounts of deionized water.
8. Set the glassware on a towel to dry.
9. Do not use a towel to dry the inside of your glassware! The towel will transfer lint, or other
kinds of contaminants to the glassware that you have so carefully washed.
10. If you are in a hurry, and if the glassware is made of Pyrex, it may be dried by gentle heating in
a Bunsen burner flame. Pyrex items include test tubes, beakers, and Erlenmeyer flasks. After
heating, set the glassware onto a hot pad to dry. Do not set it directly onto the laboratory bench.
Do not heat graduated cylinders, funnels, watch glasses, volumetric flasks, or bottles.
11. If your glassware is clean, water should flow off of the surface of the glass in a thin sheet,
without forming droplets.

Obtaining Chemicals from Reagent Bottles

As noted above, most of the chemicals with which we will work are obtained at high levels
of purity. It is important that you do not contaminate these chemicals in any way. This means that
when you obtain a sample of a chemical, you should do so by following some very specific rules.

Solids

1. If possible, pour solid material slowly, directly from the bottle into your container.
2. Do not pour excess solid material back into the container. If you pour out too much, discard the
excess, unless your instructor specifically tells you to do otherwise. Again, be sure that you
discard the chemical into the appropriate waste container.
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3. If you must use a spatula or scoop to obtain the solid material, be sure that your scoop is
absolutely clean and dry. After using the scoop to remove material from one container, wash it
thoroughly before using it to remove material from a different container.

Liquids and solutions

1. If the liquid container is closed by a glass or plastic stopper, do not set the stopper on the bench
top so that the surface that contacts the liquid touches the bench. The stopper will pick up
contaminants from the bench top, and thus contaminate the liquid.
2. Do not use your own pipette or medicine dropper to remove liquid from the bottle. Instead, pour
a small amount of the liquid into a beaker, and then use your pipette or dropper to obtain the
desired amount of liquid from the beaker.
3. Never pour any excess liquid back into the reagent bottle. If you pour out too much, discard the
excess, unless your instructor specifically tells you to do otherwise. Again, be sure that you
discard the chemical into the appropriate waste container.

Using Bunsen and Micro Burners

Occasionally, you will have the need to heat a sample to a fairly high temperature. As long
as the sample is placed in an appropriate container (such as a Pyrex tube, beaker, or flask), and as
long as no flammable materials are involved, we often use a gas burner to accomplish this goal.
You will have need to use two such kinds of burners. The Bunsen burner is the larger of the two.
It achieves a hotter flame, and is used for large samples when high temperatures are needed.
Micro burners look very much like Bunsen burners, but they produce a small flame, and are used
when a much gentler heating is required. Since both kinds of burners use natural gas to produce a
flame, both must be used with caution, and will nearly always be restricted to the hood.

To successfully use the burners, follow these instructions:

1. Be sure that there are no flammable materials anywhere near the area where you will be using
the burner.

2. Attach a piece of rubber tubing to the inlet of the burner, and then attach the other end of the
tubing to the gas outlet in the hood.

3. Have a striker ready to light the burner before turning on the gas. The striker has a handle made
of a piece of heavy wire attached to a metal cup. Inside of the metal cup is a round metal cylinder
with a rough surface. One end of the wire handle is attached to one side of the cup, and can not be
moved. A flint is attached to the other end of the wire handle, and as you squeeze the handle, the
flint will scrape over the rough metal cylinder. The movement of the flint over the cylinder
produces a spark that will light the burner flame. Try producing a spark several times before
turning on the gas to light the flame. You may find it necessary to press on the handle so that the
flint scrapes more firmly against the cylinder. If you do not obtain a spark, even after applying
extra pressure on the flint, check with your instructor.
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4. Once you are sure that you will be able to operate the striker successfully, turn on the gas to the
burner. The gas will be flowing as fast as possible when the handle of the gas jet is in line with the
outlet. You should not need to have the gas flowing at maximal speed to light your burner. In fact,
too much gas flow will often “blow” the burner out. Instead, turn on the gas just until you begin to
hear a hissing sound. Then increase the flow just a little more.
5. Hold the metal cup of the striker one to two inches over the end of the burner, and produce a
spark. You may have to do this several times to light the flame. If you are not successful, stop,
turn off the gas flow, and check with your instructor.

6. Once the flame has been ignited, inspect it carefully. The flame should be light blue in color,
and there should be a bright blue inner cone inside of a lighter blue outer cone in the flame. If the
flame is yellow in color, or if it does not show both cones, this is an indication that the oxygen
supply to the flame is inadequate, and the flame will not reach its maximum heat. If this is the
case, you should increase the oxygen supply to the flame. For the larger Bunsen burner, you
should see a set of holes at the bottom of the shaft of the burner. For most burners, the shaft is
attached to the base with screw threads, and the base stem partly fills the holes at the bottom of the
shaft. If you twist the shaft, you will either lower or raise the shaft on the base, causing the base
stem to increase or decrease the amount of air that can flow through the holes at the bottom of the
shaft. This is how you regulate the amount of oxygen reaching the flame. Grasp the base of the
burner firmly (it should not be very hot), and then use a hot mat to carefully turn the shaft of the
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burner. Note the effect on the flame. Continue to make these adjustments until you have a strong
blue flame with a bright blue inner cone. For the smaller micro burners, there is a lever attached to
the base of the burner. Moving this lever back and forth opens and closes a vent in the base of the
burner, and this regulates the flow of air to the flame. Try moving this lever to adjust the flame.

7. The hottest part of the Bunsen burner flame is at the tip of the inner blue cone. Therefore, if you
need very high heat, you should not place the object that you are heating close to the mouth of the
burner, but at the tip of the inner blue cone.
8. Do not heat any glassware unless it is Pyrex, or some other kind of heat resistant glass.

9. Be very careful in heating any chemicals with a burner. It is quite common for the substances to
heat so quickly that they come flying out of the mouth of the container. This is especially true for
chemicals in test tubes. Always be certain that the open mouth of the container being heated is not
pointed in the direction of any person.

10. Turn off the burner by turning off the gas jet. Be sure that you do not leave the gas flowing!

11. Always leave heated objects on a hot mat or other heat resistant surface, and give them
adequate time to cool before handling or storing them.

Hot Hands

The device pictured above is called a “hot hands” and is used to safely pick up hot items.

Measuring Mass

During the course of your laboratory work, you will have the opportunity to use several
kinds of electronic balances to obtain mass measurements. These balances are similar in that all
have a button to turn the balance on and off and all have a button to “zero” or “tare” the balance.
The major difference between the balances is that they measure mass with different degrees of
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precision and accuracy. Some of the balances will provide you with mass measurements to the
nearest 0.01 gram, while others will provide you with measurements to the nearest 0.0001 gram.
This may lead you to wonder why you would want to use the less accurate balance when one with
greater accuracy is available. There are two reasons for this. First of all, the balances with less
accuracy usually will work for samples with larger mass. Therefore, if you have a large sample to
measure, you may be forced to use the balance with less accuracy. Second, the more accurate
balances are much more expensive, and they are also more delicate. Therefore, it makes sense to
use the less expensive, sturdier balances for routine work, when a high degree of accuracy is not
required. You may conclude therefore, that you should always use the balances that measure to the
nearest 0.01 gram except in cases when very highly accurate and precise measurements are
required. Whenever using the balances, you should also apply the following general rules:

All Balances

1. Make sure that you are using the correct balance for the necessary degree of precision and
accuracy.

2. Before using the balance, be sure that the balance pan, and that the top surface of the balance is
clean. (The person who used the balance before you should have cleaned it when he/she was
finished). If it is not clean, use the brush that is next to the balance to remove any contaminating
materials.

3. Check to be sure that the balance is on.

4. Check to be sure that there are no air currents that can affect the stability of the balance’s
measurements.

5. Before placing anything on the balance pan, press the “tare” button. The balance should display
zero after a few seconds. If it does not do so, check with your instructor, because the balance may
be malfunctioning. (Note that it is not unusual for the balance to fluctuate up or down by one or
two units in the last decimal place).

6. If you are going to obtain the mass of a sample in a container, place the container on the balance
pan first, and press the “tare” button. The balance should display zero after a few seconds, which
means that it will automatically subtract out the mass of the container.

7. Now add your sample to the container. If you spill any sample onto the balance pan while trying
to add it to the container, you must remove it immediately. The balance will obviously give the
mass of everything that is on the pan, whether or not it is in your container. On the other hand, you
only want to know the mass of material in the container. Therefore, you must not allow material to
fall onto the pan, but into your container!

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8. The balance will display the mass after a few seconds. Record the mass directly into your
notebook. Do not use scrap paper, since you increase the likelihood of error by incorrectly
copying your numbers.

9. Remove the sample from the balance pan.

10. Check to be sure that the top of the balance is completely clean. If not, use the brush to remove
any spilled materials.

11. If no one else will use the balance, turn it off. If you expect others to use it, simply press the
“tare” button, to re-zero the balance.

12. Always measure your entire sample at one time. Error comes with every measurement, so it is
always better to measure your entire sample at once, rather than in two or more “batches”.

Highly Accurate Balances

1. All of the above rules apply to these balances.

2. While zeroing or taring the balance, or obtaining a mass, be sure that the doors of the balance are
closed. This will prevent air currents from affecting your measurements.

3. While zeroing or taring the balance, or obtaining a mass, be sure that you do not lean on the
balance table or jar the balance in any way.

4. These balances are accurate enough to obtain the mass of a finger print! Therefore, you must
handle your glassware with a clean piece of paper during all procedures, to be certain that you do
not change your measurements as a result of residues from your hands.

5. These balances are very delicate. Add and remove materials from them gently.

Measuring Volume

In the chemistry laboratory, we have a number of kinds of instruments with which we

measure volume. During your experience in this laboratory, you will use four such instruments,
the graduated cylinder, the burette, the pipette, and the volumetric flask. Each of these instruments
has its own advantages and disadvantages, and you should become familiar with all of these, so
that you select the correct instrument for the job. You will note that beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks
are usually “graduated”, meaning that they are labeled for volume measurements. However, the
accuracy of the graduations on beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks is very poor. Therefore, you should
never rely on these types of glassware for anything but a crude estimate of volume. In order for
you to become familiar with the major types of volumetric glassware, we will first review some

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general rules that apply to all kinds of volumetric glassware, and then we will consider each kind
individually here.

All Volumetric Glassware

1. Be sure that the glassware is absolutely clean before you use it.

2. Use the smallest piece of glassware that will hold the total volume that you wish to measure.
The best accuracy comes when the glassware is filled as full as possible, within the region that is
graduated. However, error comes with every measurement, so it is always better to measure your
entire sample at once, rather than in two or more “batches”.

3. If the glassware is not dry, this may or may not be a problem. If the glassware is going to be
used to make a solution in water, so that you will be adding water anyway, it does not matter if it is
dry. However, if you are going to measure a solution of known concentration, then the glassware
must not be wet with water, because this water will mix with and dilute the solution you wish to
measure. In this case, you can either dry the glassware, or rinse it out at least three times with
small volumes of your solution. This will replace the water in the glassware with the solution, so
that no dilution will occur.

4. Volumetric glassware is calibrated “to contain” or “to deliver”, and it is usually labeled “TC” or
“TD” to indicate its kind of calibration. The “to contain” designation means that the glassware
will hold the indicated volume, but when you pour the liquid out, some of the liquid will be left
behind, so that the amount delivered will be slightly less than the amount contained. In other
words, the amount contained is measured accurately, whereas the amount poured out is not. The
“to deliver” designation means that the glassware is calibrated so that when you pour or drain the
liquid, out of the glassware, you obtain exactly the amount that you intended to measure in your
new container. This kind of glassware corrects for the small amount of liquid that remains in the
glassware after it is poured or drained out. Obviously, you should choose the correct kind of
glassware, depending on the kind of measurement you need to make.

5. When pouring or draining a liquid from volumetric glassware, always allow enough time for
the liquid to completely drain out, since some of the liquid will have a tendency to cling to the
glass.

Graduated Cylinders

Graduated cylinders are perhaps the most easy to use of all of the volumetric glassware.
They allow you to measure over a range of volumes, and you need only to pour the sample into the
cylinder and obtain a reading. The accuracy of the instrument depends on its size, and the way that
the graduations are marked. Remember from your rules for using significant figures (Chapter 1 in
your textbook) that you may estimate one decimal place between the graduations of an instrument.

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Therefore, if a graduated cylinder is marked in milliliters, you may read a volume to the nearest
tenth of a milliliter. Some graduated cylinders are calibrated “to contain”, while others are
calibrated “to deliver”. Still others are marked for both, meaning that the difference in the amount
of liquid contained and delivered is insignificant compared to the overall accuracy of the
measurement.

When using a graduated cylinder, you should remember the following rules:

1. Read the volume measurement at the bottom of the meniscus (curvature) at the surface of the
liquid.

2. Read the volume using the graduations on the cylinder, and then estimate one decimal place
between the graduations.

3. Record the volume directly in your notebook. Do not use scrap paper, since you increase the
likelihood of error by incorrectly copying your numbers.

Volumetric Flasks

Volumetric flasks provide greater accuracy than graduated cylinders. A typical volumetric
flask such as you will use in the laboratory has an error of less than 0.2 %. In general, the larger
the flask, the greater the accuracy and precision of the flask. The major disadvantage to these
flasks is that they can only measure one volume. For example, a 100 mL volumetric flask will
accurately measure 100.0 mL, but no other volume. Therefore, if you need a high degree of
accuracy in the volume of a sample with which you are working, you should use a volumetric
flask, but you must restrict your work to the volumes of flasks available. Usually, volumetric
flasks are calibrated “to contain”.
When using such flasks you should follow these rules:

1. Identify the mark on the neck of the flask that indicates the level to which you should fill the
flask.

2. When the flask is filled, the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid surface should just touch the
fill line.

3. Since the volumes of liquids may change as solutions are formed, be sure that the solution is
thoroughly mixed before filling to the mark.

4. Mixing is best accomplished by placing the stopper in the flask, turning the flask upside down,
and shaking vigorously.

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Pipettes

Pipettes are used to measure liquids at the same time that they are being transferred from
one container to another. They are essentially like large “eye droppers”, and to use them correctly,
you must attach to them a device (pipettor) that draws the liquid up into the pipette, and then
allows it to flow out of the pipette at the correct time. There are a wide variety of different kinds
of pipettors, and you should obtain instructions on how to correctly use the ones provided to you in
the laboratory. Be sure, however, that you select the correct size pipettor for the pipette that you
wish to use! There are two kinds of pipettes that you will use in this laboratory. One kind, the
serological pipette, is similar to the graduated cylinder, in that it is graduated throughout its length,
and may be used to measure a wide range of volumes. The other kind, the volumetric pipette, is
more accurate than the serological pipette, but like the volumetric flask, allows you to measure
only a single volume. Both kinds of pipette are calibrated “to deliver”. Be sure that you
distinguish between the two kinds of pipettes, because the rules for using them are somewhat
different.

These rules are as follows:

1. Under no circumstances whatsoever should you pipette by mouth (use your mouth to draw
solution up into the pipette as if it were a straw). This is an excellent way to get a mouth full of
some nasty, corrosive, poisonous, or otherwise simply distasteful chemical!

2. After learning everything there is to know about how to use your pipettor, and choosing a
pipettor that is the correct size for your pipette, attach the pipettor to the pipette.

3. Place the pipette into the desired liquid and draw the liquid up into the pipette with the pipettor.

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4. For serological pipettes, draw the liquid up into the pipette until the bottom of the meniscus of
the liquid surface is slightly above the zero line at the top of the pipette. Be careful not to draw the
liquid up into the pipettor!

5. For volumetric pipettes, draw the liquid up into the pipette until the bottom of the meniscus of
the liquid surface is slightly above the mark on the neck of the pipette. Be careful not to draw the
liquid up into the pipettor!

6. For both kinds of pipettes, remove the tip of the pipette from the liquid. Be sure that you do not
have any air bubbles trapped in the pipette. (If you do, you will have to empty the pipette until the
air bubble is gone, and then refill).

7. For the serological pipette, slowly drain the liquid until the bottom of the meniscus at the surface
of the liquid is aligned with the zero marking on the pipette.

8. For the volumetric pipette, slowly drain the liquid until the bottom of the meniscus at the surface
of the liquid is aligned with the calibration marking on the neck of the pipette.

9. For both kinds of pipettes, touch the tip to the sample container to remove any droplets of liquid
that might be clinging to the tip. Check to be sure that your liquid is not dripping out of the
pipette. (If it is then you do not have the pipettor attached correctly, and you will have to attach it
again, and refill the pipette).

10. Place the tip of the pipette into the container to which you want to deliver the liquid. Be sure
that the tip of the pipette is touching the wall of the inside of the container. This will allow the
liquid to flow freely into the container without splashing.

11. For serological pipettes, slowly drain the pipette until the bottom of the liquid meniscus reaches
the desired volume as indicated by the graduations on the pipette. If the entire volume of the
pipette is desired, use the pipettor to blow out the last little bit remaining in the tip of the pipette.
Note that it is important to drain the pipette slowly, since the liquid tends to cling to the sides of the
pipette, and you must give it adequate time to flow out of the tip.

12. For volumetric pipettes, slowly drain the pipette completely. Give the liquid plenty of time to
completely flow out of the pipette. Do not use the pipettor to blow out the last little bit remaining
in the tip of the pipette. Volumetric pipettes are calibrated so that the correct volume is delivered
with that last bit remaining in the tip.

13. For all pipettes, touch the tip of the pipette one last time on the inside of the container before
you remove it from the container.

14. Be sure to record the delivered volumes directly into your notebook. Do not use scrap paper,
since you increase the likelihood of error by incorrectly copying your numbers.

Burets

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Burets resemble a large serological pipette with a stopcock on the end. The most common ones
contain up to 50 mL of liquid, and are calibrated in 0.1 mL units. They can therefore be read to the
nearest 0.01 mL. Burets are used to measure variable amounts of a liquid with great accuracy,
since the stopcock controls the exact amount of liquid drained from the buret.

Rules for correct use of the buret are as follows:

1. Rinse the buret at least three times with small amounts of the solution to be used. As you do so,
check to see that the burette is clean, as indicated by the absence of water droplets collecting on the
surface of the glass on the inside of the burette.

2. Fill the buret with the liquid to be used, and then open the stopcock so that the liquid flows
freely out of the tip for a second or two. This should flush any air bubbles out of the tip. Be sure
that there are no air bubbles remaining. If bubbles are observed, flush again until they are all gone.

3. Fill the buret with liquid so that the meniscus of the liquid surface is below, and close to the zero
mark at the top of the burette. Do not try to fill the burette so that the reading is exactly zero. It is
difficult to make the reading exactly zero, and if you try to do so, you are likely to read the burette
as 0.00 mL even when it is not. Instead, simply fill the buret to close to the zero line, and then
accurately read the volume.

4. Record the reading directly into your laboratory notebook. Do not use scrap paper, since you
increase the likelihood of error by incorrectly copying your numbers.

5. Use a wash bottle filled with deionized water to rinse any droplets of the liquid from the tip of
the burette.

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6. Use the stopcock to deliver the desired amount of liquid into the chosen container. Allow the
burette to stand for a few minutes to give the liquid adequate time to drain.

7. Touch the tip of the buret to the inside wall of the container to remove any droplets of liquid
from the tip, or use a wash bottle filled with deionized water to wash any droplets into your
container (if adding extra water to your sample will not affect your experiment).

8. Read and record the final volume from the buret. Once again, be sure to record your reading
directly into your notebook.

Microliter Syringes

A number of our experiments will require that you use specialized syringes that measure
quantities in the microliter range. In some cases, we will use these syringes simply as a tool to
measure very small volumes of liquids. In other cases, we will use them to inject samples into
instruments (specifically the gas chromatograph). Regardless of the purpose of their use, you must
take special care in order to obtain accurate volume measurements with these instruments. In
particular, you should know that a correct volume will be measured only if there are no air bubbles
at all in the syringe from the end of the plunger to the tip of the needle.

The following steps will help you to eliminate the air bubbles and to measure liquids in the syringe
correctly:

1. Choose the smallest size syringe available that will hold the entire sample that you wish to
measure or inject.

2. Place the tip of the needle in the sample, and draw some of the sample up into the syringe, so
that you have more liquid in the syringe than the amount of sample you wish to measure.

3. Look carefully at the liquid in the syringe to see if there are any trapped air bubbles. If there are
any bubbles, they must be removed, because they prevent you from obtaining an accurate
measurement with the syringe. To remove air bubbles, place the needle of the syringe in your
sample, and carefully move the plunger of the syringe up and down several times. Do this very
carefully, since it is quite easy to bend the plunger and ruin the syringe. (They are expensive!)

4. Check for the presence of air bubbles again. You may need to repeat step 3 more than once to
remove all bubbles from the syringe.
5. Once all air bubbles have been removed, fill the syringe to slightly more than the desired
volume, and then expel enough liquid from the syringe to get the plunger to the exact mark at the
desired volume.

6. Carefully wipe the syringe needle with a tissue to remove any droplets of liquid.

7. If you are using the syringe to inject a sample into an instrument that has a septum, push the
needle of the syringe through the septum slowly, so that the needle does not bend. A bent needle
can ruin the syringe.
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Using Spectrophotometer Cuvettes

When measurements are made using a spectrophotometer, it is very important that the sample
holder be made of a material that will not interfere with the transmission of light through the
sample. In other words, it is important that the sample holder itself does not absorb the light in the
beam that you wish to pass through the sample. Since different materials absorb light of different
wavelengths, sample holders (cuvettes) have been made of a number of different kinds of
materials, each of which has its own appropriate use. Most commonly, for ultraviolet and visible
light spectroscopy, the cuvettes may be made of glass, plastic, or quartz. Glass and plastic cuvettes
are appropriate for visible light measurements, since visible light readily passes through these
cuvettes. However, ultraviolet light does not pass through glass or plastic, so if we wish to measure
light absorbance in the ultraviolet spectrum, quartz cuvettes are required. Among the three kinds
of cuvettes, glass and quartz give the best results, but both kinds of cuvettes are expensive and are
readily broken. Plastic cuvettes, in contrast are inexpensive, and disposable, so they are very
economical to use. The results obtained, however, are not quite as good as with glass or quartz,
and they may not provide adequate light transmission for certain kinds of work.

For your work, you will be using either plastic or quartz cuvettes, depending on the spectra to be
measured. When using the cuvettes, you should consider the following rules:

Plastic Cuvettes

1. Be sure that you are using the correct cuvette for the job. Plastic cuvettes are fine for visible
spectrum work (wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm). Quartz cuvettes must be used for wavelengths
below 400 nm (the ultraviolet spectrum). Quartz cuvettes may actually be used for both ultraviolet
and visible work, but due to their expense, should be reserved only for experiments in which
ultraviolet light will be measured.

2. You will be provided with a new plastic cuvette at the beginning of the experiment. Unless
otherwise instructed, you may discard this cuvette in a waste basket at the end of the experiment.
Do not use more than one cuvette for a given experiment unless instructed.

3. If the cuvette appears to be dirty or scratched, check with the instructor.

4. Most plastic cuvettes have four clear sides. Always handle the cuvettes by touching the same
two clear sides, so that you keep two sides free of fingerprints.
5. Rinse the cuvette with deionized water or another appropriate solvent between samples.

6. Do not try to wash the cuvette with a test tube brush or any other object.

7. Do not try to dry the inside of the cuvette with a tissue or towel. Rinse the cuvette with a small
amount of sample to remove water before filling it with the sample.

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8. After filling the cuvette with sample, and before placing it in the instrument, dry the outside with
a tissue provided at the spectrophotometer.

9. Before inserting the cuvette into the holder of the spectrophotometer, check the instrument
instructions to see how the cuvette should be placed in the instrument. Then be certain that you
follow those instructions.

Quartz Cuvettes

1. Be sure that you are using the correct cuvette for the job. Plastic cuvettes are fine for visible
spectrum work (wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm). Quartz cuvettes must be used for wavelengths
below 400 nm (the ultraviolet spectrum). Quartz cuvettes may actually be used for both ultraviolet
and visible work, but due to their expense, should be reserved only for experiments in which
ultraviolet light will be measured.

2. Quartz cuvettes are stored in special boxes lined with foam. Always return the cuvettes to these
boxes when you are finished.

3. If the cuvette appears to be dirty or scratched, check with the instructor

4. Most quartz cuvettes have two frosted sides and two clear sides. Always handle the cuvettes by
touching the frosted sides to avoid getting fingerprints on the surface through which the light will
pass.

5. Rinse the cuvette with deionized water or another appropriate solvent between samples and at
the end of the experiment.

6. Do not try to wash the cuvette with a test tube brush or any other object.

7. Do not try to dry the inside of the cuvette with a tissue or towel. Rinse the cuvette with a small
amount of sample to remove water before filling it with the sample.

8. After filling the cuvette with sample, and before placing it in the instrument, dry the outside with
a tissue provided at the spectrophotometer.

9. Before inserting the cuvette into the holder of the spectrophotometer, check the instrument
instructions to see how the cuvette should be placed in the instrument. Then be certain that you
follow those instructions.

Filtration
Filtration is a technique used either to remove impurities from a solution or to isolate a solid. The
two types of filtration commonly used in chemistry laboratories are gravity filtration and vacuum

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or suction filtration.

Gravity Filtration

Gravity filtration is the method of choice to remove solid impurities from a liquid. The "impurity"
can be an undesired side product or leftover reactant. Gravity filtration can be used to collect solid
product, although generally vacuum filtration is used for this purpose because it is faster.

Procedure for standard gravity filtration:

Select and fold the filter paper: Select the size of filter paper that, when folded, will be a few
millimeters below the rim of your glass funnel. Fold the paper into a cone by first folding it in half,
and then in half again, as shown below.

Fig 1

Support the glass funnel in a ring or place it in the neck of an Erlenmeyer flask. Wet the filter paper
with a few milliliters of the solvent to be used in the procedure. Wetting the paper holds it in place
against the glass funnel. Pour the mixture to be filtered through the funnel, in portions if necessary.
Pour the liquid down the side of a glass rod to prevent spillage.

Vacuum Filtration (suction filtration)

Vacuum filtration is used primarily to collect a desired solid, for instance, the collection of crystals
in a recrystallization procedure. Vacuum filtration uses either a Buchner or a Hirsch funnel.
Vacuum filtration is faster than gravity filtration, because the solvent or solution and air is forced
through the filter paper by the application of reduced pressure. The reduced pressure requires that
they be carried out in special equipment:

● Buchner or Hirsch funnel

● heavy-walled, side arm filtering flask
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● rubber adaptor or stopper to seal the funnel to the flask when under vacuum
● vacuum source
Procedure for vacuum filtration:
1. Assemble the apparatus
Check the side-arm flask, (FIG.1), carefully for cracks, since cracks could cause the flask to break
when vacuum is applied. Then, clamp the flask securely to a ring stand, (FIG 2). Add an adaptor
and a Buchner funnel, (FIG 3). Place a piece of filter paper in the funnel that is small enough to
remain flat but large enough to cover all of the holes in the filter (FIG 4).
2. Wet the paper with a small amount of the solvent to be used in the filtration. Turn on the
vacuum source.
3. Filter the solution
Pour the mixture to be filtered onto the filter paper. The vacuum should rapidly pull the liquid
through the funnel. Watch that particulates do not creep under the edges of the paper. If this
happens, start over and carefully pour portions of the solution onto the very center of the paper.
4. Rinse the solids.
Rinse the cake with a small amount of fresh, cold solvent to help remove impurities that were
dissolved in the filtrate. Disconnect the rubber tubing before turning off the water aspirator.
Remove the filter paper and the collected solid that is on it. Usually you will set it on a watch glass
and let it air dry for a while.

FIG 1 FIG 2
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 FIG 3 FIG 4

Chemistry with Computers

Logger Pro Program and Vernier Sensors

Several of the laboratory experiments that will be done in General Chemistry will utilize a
computer and appropriate software for collecting, displaying, printing, graphing and analyzing
data. The computer will be an invaluable and integral piece of chemistry laboratory equipment.

Each lab work station has a Windows based computer with Logger Pro 3 laboratory software
installed along with other supportive programs including Microsoft Excel and Word, and each has
printing capability on the in-lab network printer. Each computer is connected to the internet via
the Stevenson University network and can be used to access many public data bases for research
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48
and informational purposes. The computers are student password protected and all data and
information can easily be stored on each student’s personal drive for later access from any other
campus computer.

The Logger Pro 3 program is readily opened by double clicking the icon on the desktop. The
individual program that is to be run will be indicated in the instructions for the experiment. The
program is standard Windows based and most of the menu items and key strokes are similar to
most Windows based software. All of the sensors (probes) that will be used for the experiments
are connected to the computer via an interface and a USB connection. The sensors are detected
automatically and are pre calibrated and ready to use with no student adjustments.

The following sensors and supports will be available for various experiments:

● Gas Pressure Sensor: This sensor can be used for pressure-volume, pressure-temperature,
and vapor pressure experiments in chemistry. The pressure range is 0 to 2.1 atm. It comes with a
variety of pressure sensor accessories, including a syringe, plastic tubing with two Luer-lock
connectors, two rubber stoppers with Luer-lock adapters and one two-way valve.

● Stainless Steel Temperature Probe: This probe is durable and accurate. Its range is -400C
to +1350C.

● Conductivity Probe: This probe is used to test for total dissolved solids or conductivity in
water samples. Students can use it to investigate the differences between ionic and molecular
compounds, strong and weak acids, and salinity. The probe has three different sensitivity settings.

● pH sensor: This sensor is a Ag-AgCl gel filled electrode. It has a storage solution that is
attached directly to the electrode. The range of the sensor is 0 to 14 pH units.

● Probe support: There is a supporting arm that attaches to a ring stand to hold the various
sensors during an experiment.

The following pages contain pictures and further descriptions of the sensors described above.

Vernier Gas Pressure Sensor

The Vernier Gas Pressure Sensor is used to monitor pressure changes in gas-law experiments in
chemistry and physics, such as Boyle’s law (pressure vs. volume) and Gay-Lussac’s law (pressure
vs. absolute temperature).

Vapor pressure of various liquids and solutions can be monitored using this sensor.

The general procedure to follow when using the Gas Pressure Sensor:

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1. Connect the Gas Pressure Sensor to the interface.
2. Start the data-collection software.
3. The software will identify the Gas Pressure Sensor and load a default data- collection setup.
You are now ready to collect data.

Vernier Stainless Steel Temperature Probe

The Stainless Steel Temperature Probe is a rugged, general-purpose laboratory temperature

sensor. It is designed to be used as you would use a thermometer for experiments in chemistry.
The temperature probe is connected to the computer through the Go-Link interface and the USB
port. Logger-Pro will automatically detect the probe and open a default data collection screen.
Temperature data can be collected immediately. If a specific data collection program is used, open
that program from the Chemistry with Computers library.

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Go! Link USB Computer Interface

The Go! Link USB Computer interface is designed to connect all of the Vernier Sensors to the
USB port of a PC or Mac.

Vernier Electrode Support

The Electrode Support is a perfect holder for many sensors. It is built to connect to all standard
ring-stand posts; its large-handled locking nut keeps your sensors firmly in place. The larger
opening (13 mm in diameter) is for the pH and Conductivity probes. The smaller opening (5 mm)
is designed to hold the Stainless Steel Temperature Probe.

Conductivity Probe

The Conductivity Probe can be used to measure either solution conductivity or total ion
concentration of aqueous samples being investigated in the field or in the laboratory. Conductivity
is one of the easiest environmental tests of aquatic samples.

Even though it does not tell you specific ions that are present, it does quickly determine the total
concentration of ions in a sample. It can be used to perform a wide variety of tests or planned
experiments to determine the changes in or levels of total dissolved ions or salinity.

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Vernier pH Sensor

The pH Sensor can be used for any lab or demonstration that can be done with a traditional pH
meter. This sensor offers the additional advantages of automated data collection, graphing, and data
analysis.
Typical activities using the pH sensor include studies of household acids and bases, acid-base
titrations, monitoring pH change during chemical reactions, investigations of acid rain and
buffering, and investigations of water quality in streams and lakes.

Logger Pro: Definitions of Buttons

New - This button will create a new Logger Pro file. When clicked, you may be prompted to save
the current file.

Open - The Open button gives you the opportunity to open an existing file. Logger Pro contains
hundreds of files that help you collect and analyze data.

Save - This button is used to save the current file.

Print - This button opens the Print Options dialog box and then sends all pages to the printer.
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Previous Page - Logger Pro documents can contain multi-pages of information. While navigating
through a document, the Previous Page button will take you back one page. To the right of the
Previous Page button you will find a drop down list of the pages in a document. This list lets you
go directly to a page instead moving forward or backward one page at a time.

Next Page - This button will take to the next page.

Show/Hide Data Browser - The Data Browser is a container for all the data in a Logger Pro
session. This gives you a quick way to see what data lists are in the file.

Autoscale - The Autoscale button provides a quick way to scale a graph and fit the data on the
graph. The graph below displays temperature data. Click the Autoscale button to see how it
changes the graph.

Zoom In - This button is used to zoom in on a region of a graph. Use your mouse to click and drag
a region of the graph. Now click the Zoom In button.

Zoom Out - With this button you can zoom out to see more data. Click the button now to see how it
changes your graph.

Examine - The Examine button puts a pop up box, called a helper object, on the graph screen. As
you move the mouse across the graph, coordinates of the data points are displayed in the helper
object. To turn this feature off, either click the Examine button again or click the close box in the
upper left corner of the helper object.

Tangent - When the Tangent button is clicked, a line that approximates the tangent to the data will
be drawn on the graph. As you move the cursor, the tangent line moves with the cursor.

Statistics - The Statistics button displays statistical information about the data on the graph. If you
click and drag on a region of the graph, the statistical data will be shown for that region only. If
you do not click and drag, data will be displayed for the entire graph.

Integral - This button calculates the integral of a region of data or the entire graph.

Linear Fit - The Linear Fit button fits a linear function (y = m*x + b) to the selected region or the
entire graph.

Curve Fit - The Curve Fit button brings up a dialog box from which you can fit functions to the
data.

Data Collection - If you are collecting data with Logger Pro, the Data Collection button brings up a
dialog box that is used to control the data collection parameters.

Collect - The Collect button is clicked to start data collection.

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In the next row of the toolbar are icons for any connected devices such as “Go! Link” and the
associated live readouts. These icons are also buttons to bring up a dialog box that shows
sensor information.

Spectrophotometry and Beer’s Law

Light, or electromagnetic radiation, is a form of energy characterized by having a frequency (ν)

and a wavelength (λ) which are related to each other by the constant velocity (c) of the light waves.
This relationship is expressed by the simple equation: c = λ ν

Many compounds will absorb light energy and every material has an optimum wavelength (λ) at
which the absorption occurs. Chemists can utilize this phenomenon in order to determine the
concentration of a substance in a solution. If a beam of light at a pre-selected wavelength is passed
through a solution of a substance, the intensity (I) of the light that is detected after the transmission
through the solution will be less than the intensity (I0) of the light that enters the solution. (Fig.1)
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 Fig. 1

The amount of light that comes through the solution can be measured in several ways:
Transmittance (T) = I / I0

% Transmittance (%T) = 100 T

Absorbance (A) = - log T = - log I/I0 = log I0/I

Absorbance (A) = log 100 / %T

Absorbance (A) = 2- log %T

Most spectrophotometers will allow you to select either A, T or %T for a measurement.

The difference between I0 and I is the absorption. In practice the absorption, A, is expressed as a
logarithm of the ratio of I0 to I. A = log I0/I. This absorption of light can be quantified by a
relationship known as Beer’s Law. The equation is written as:
A=εbc

A is the absorbance (unitless)

ε is the molar absorption constant (M-1 cm-1)
b is the path length of the light through the solution (cm)
c is the concentration of the solute. (M)

This equation is referred to as Beer’s Law. A = ε b c

The piece of equipment used to determine the concentration of a solute in solution is called a
spectrophotometer. A diagram of a typical machine is seen in Fig. 2

Fig. 2
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 In the laboratory a sample of material is dissolved into a solvent and dilutions are made to make a
series of solutions of varying concentrations. These solutions are then placed into the
spectrophotometer and the absorbance is recorded. For each measurement, ε and b will be
constant so Beer’s Law will allow us to directly measure c. The value of “b” in our
spectrophotometer is 1.0 cm. We can therefore easily find ε and can graph the absorbance vs. the
concentration and the relationship will be linear passing through the origin. ( if I = I0 then I0/I = 1
and log 1 = 0, so A= 0) See Figure 3.

Fig.3

The graph generated can now be used to determine the concentration of the solute in a sample of
unknown concentration. Beer’s Law is valid for dilute solutions but breaks down at high
concentrations due to interaction of the solute molecules.

SpectroVis Plus Spectrophotometer

General Instructions

For certain experiments (i.e. 7A & 7B), additional instructions may be available on Blackboard.

The SprectroVis Plus Spectrophotometer is a useful instrument for finding the absorbance of
colored solutions in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Getting started
1. Connect spec to computer using USB cable provided
2. Open Logger Pro program

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 3. Calibrate the spectrophotometer
a. Choose Calibrate → Spectrometer from the Experiment menu
b. Fill a cuvette ¾ full with deionized water and place in the cuvette holder
c. When the warm up is complete, click Finish Calibration, then click

Finding λmax
1. Fill the cuvette ¾ full with your sample and place in the cuvette holder
2. Click to generate the absorbance vs. wavelength spectrum. Once the spectrum is
stabilized (only a few seconds) click to end data collection
3. Examine the data to find the wavelength at maximum absorbance, or λmax. There are two
methods to do this:
a. Place the cursor at the very top, center of the peak. A wavelength and absorbance for that
peak will be displayed in the bottom left of the screen
b. Scan the table on the left side of the screen to find the highest absorbance – the
corresponding wavelength is λmax.

Measuring the absorbance of a sample

1. Fill the cuvette ¾ full with your sample and place in the cuvette holder
2. Click to generate the absorbance vs. wavelength spectrum. Once the spectrum is
stabilized (only a few seconds) click to end data collection.
a. *If you are measuring the absorbance of more than one sample or dilutions of the same
stock solution:
i. Rinse the cuvette twice with the next sample then fill to ¾ full and place in holder
ii. Click to generate the spectrum and then when stable. This will add the next
sample spectrum to the same graph as the first.
iii. Continue for all samples/dilutions of the same solution. (You do not need to re-calibrate in
between if the samples are from the same stock solution).
3. From the ‘Analyze’ menu, select ‘Examine.’ Move the cursor to the desired wavelength.
The box in the upper left of the graph will display the absorbance for samples at that wavelength.
(See figure below)

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Measuring absorbance of samples with known concentration
1. Generate a spectrum
a. Fill the cuvette to ¾ full with the solution in test tube #1and place in the cuvette holder
b. Click to generate the absorbance vs. wavelength spectrum and click to
end data collection once the peak is present and stabilized.
c. Find the wavelength at maximum absorbance, or λmax, by placing the cursor at the top of the
peak and reading the wavelength and absorbance shown in parenthesis in the bottom left of the
screen.

2. Click the Configure Spectrometer Data Collection button

a. Under ‘Set Collection Mode’, select Absorbance vs. Concentration
b. In the dropdown menu, change ‘Single 10nm Band’ to ‘Individual Wavelengths.’
c. By default, λmax should be selected from the previous sample tested. If not, check the box
next to the desired wavelength and uncheck all other boxes.
d. Click to continue.
3. With your first sample still in the cuvette, click and wait for the absorbance
reading at the bottom left of the screen to stabilize, then click . Enter the concentration
of the ion and click .
4. Empty and rinse the cuvette twice with the next sample. Fill the cuvette ¾ full and place in
the holder. Once the reading stabilizes, click . Enter the concentration, then click
. Repeat for all samples. When finished, click to stop data collection. A table
of Concentration and Absorbance values will be displayed on the left side of the screen.
5. Optional: Add a line to the absorbance vs. concentration plot

a. Click ‘Linear Fit’

b. Right click on the graph and click ‘Graphing Options’ to format the graph and line.
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 Instructions for the Vernier Melt Stations

1. Load a small portion of the solid into a capillary tube.

2. Check the control knob on the Melt Station to confirm that it is in the OFF position.
Connect the Melt Station power supply to a powered electrical outlet.
3. Connect the Melt Station sensor cable to the Go! Link USB Computer Interface.
4. Start Logger Pro on the computer. A live temperature reading will be displayed even when
the melt Station control knob is in the OFF position.
5. Carefully place the capillary tube of solid into one of the three slots in the aluminum heating
block of the Melt Station. You can tilt the melt Station toward you slightly for a better look at the
heating block
6. Tilt the Melt Station up or down slightly to get the best view of the solid sample through the
viewing lens.
7. The default is 100 readings per minute for 20 minutes, which is suitable for most tests. If
you want to change the data-collection parameters, choose Data Collection from the Experiment
menu. Click done to proceed.

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59
8. Click Collect to begin data collection. On the Melt station, turn the control know to the
Rapid Heat area. The red LED will come on, indicating the Melt Station is heating. Rapid Heat
will warm your solid sample at a rate of >10oC/min.
9. Observe the temperature vs. time graph. When the temperature is within about 10oC of the
expected melting temperature of your solid sample, turn the control know to that temperature,
slowing the heating rate to ~1.5oC/min.
10. Carefully observe your sample. At the first indication of the solid melting, click Mark (or
press the D key) to mark the temperature on your graph. When the entire solid has melted, click
Mark again to mark the temperature. The two marked points describe the melting temperature
range of your solid sample. Text can be added to label the Data Marks by double-clicking on their
helpers objects.
11. Stop data collection and discard the capillary tube. Choose Store Latest Run from the
Experiment menu. On the Melt Station, turn the control knob to the Fan/Cooling setting. The blue
LED will come on, indicating the Melt Station is cooling.
12. Prepare a second solid sample to test. Observe the temperature of the heating block in the
meter screen of Logger Pro. After the heating block cools to a suitably low temperature, repeat
Steps 8-11.

Note: the narrower the melting point range, the purer the substance.

Precision, Math and Graphing

This section provides information on the following topics: 1) Mistakes and Errors, 2) Precision and
Accuracy, 3) Rounding, 4) Significant Figures, 5) Percent Yield, 6) Percent Error, 7) Standard
Deviation, 8) Linear Regression, and 9) Graphing with Excel

Mistakes and Errors

While efforts are made to minimize mistakes and errors, it is nearly impossible to be
error free. A mistake is an unintentional blunder resulting in undesirable
consequences. This occurs when the wrong two chemicals are mixed or something
is accidentally spilled or broken.

There are two types of errors: systematic and random. A systematic error may
occur due to a faulty measuring device, such as an incorrectly calibrated
thermometer (or other instrument) that provides measurements that are always too
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high or too low by a certain amount. Systematic errors also occur due to the
consistent improper use of a measurement tool. An example of this includes
reading aqueous volumes from the top of the meniscus instead of from the bottom.
These errors are difficult, and sometimes nearly impossible, to discover and often
result in precise, but inaccurate measurements.

Random errors are much easier to discern as they result in low precision. They
include inconsistent methods, as an occasional incorrect volume reading or adding a
little too much of a reactant. These errors can usually be eliminated with care and
experience. Occasionally, several errors counteract one another to provide a fairly
accurate result. Therefore, it is unwise to ever declare that because the correct result
was achieved, the experiment must have been “error-free.”

Precision and Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are terms often included in a laboratory report. Although students
sometimes interchange these terms, they have very different meanings.

Accuracy refers to the closeness of the results to the true value and can only be discussed if the
correct value is known. Precision refers to the closeness of several trials of the identical
measurement to one another, and can only be discussed when the same measurement has been
made more than once. Precision and accuracy are independent from one another as can be seen in
the following example.

Example: assume that the true value for the following measurements is 4.5
1) 4.5, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4 – precise and accurate
2) 4.0, 3.9, 4.0, 3.8 – precise and inaccurate (the values are close, but not close to the true value
3) 4.5, 4.0, 5.2, 4.3 – accurate but imprecise (the mean is 4.5, but the values aren’t close)
4) 4.0, 3.5 3.0. 4.3 – inaccurate and imprecise
5) 4.5 – accurate; precision cannot be discussed as only one measurement was made

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 Rounding

Rounding is a procedure used to eliminate insignificant digits from a measurement. Determine the
final digit that will be kept in number. If the first digit that will be dropped is “0 to 4” simply drop
the digits following the numbers that will be retained. If the first dropped digit is “6 to 9,” raise
the last digit begin kept by one. If the first digit to be dropped is a 5 and there are other numbers
following the 5, raise the number to be kept by one. If there are no other numbers following the 5
that is to be dropped, drop the five if the last number to be kept is even, but increase the last
number to be kept if that digit is odd.

Example: In the following examples, the underlined number in the final significant digit
1) 6251.9935 → 6251.99 (Drop the 3 and 6)
2) 6251.9935 → 6252.0 (In order to increase the underlined 9 by one, the 1 in the one’s place
must also be increased by one)
3) 6251.9935 → 6300 → 6.3 × 103 [The two was rounded to 3, but the resulting 6300 was
unclear on the significance of the zeroes. By converting to scientific (exponential) notation, it is
clear that the only significant numbers are the 6 and 3.]
4) 6251.99353 →6251.994 (Drop the numbers after the underlined 3 and increase it by one.)
5) 6251.9935 → 6250 → 6.25 × 103 (drop all numbers after the underlined 5; convert to
scientific notation.)
6) 6251.9935 → 6251.994 (Increase the 3 to 4 because the 3 is odd)
7) 6251.9945 → 6251.994 (Just drop the five because the 4 is even)

Rules for Significant Figures

These are just some quick, easy rules to remember. More information is given in the appendix of
your text.

▪Measured numbers include mass, temperature, length, volume, energy units (and values that
contain these units such as density). Think of measured numbers as anything that could have
more significant figures if better and more precise equipment were available; i.e. anything that has
been rounded, such as π). We also include those numbers that are estimated rather than being
counted exactly, i.e. number of people in a crowd, pennies in a jar, raindrops on your windshield,
or bricks in the building). The final number in any measured number is considered to be uncertain.
With estimated numbers, it depends on how they were rounded.

▪Non-measured numbers are exact figures. These include anything that’s been counted (rather
than being estimated) and whose count would not change with better equipment; i.e. the number of
students in this room. Many of our conversion factors are exact: all conversions within the metric
system (cm to m to km, etc); 1 inch = exactly 2.54 cm. (Most conversion between the metric and
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English system are not exact.) Exact figures are considered to have an infinite number of
significant figures, since adding zeroes will not affect the accuracy of the count.

1. When multiplying or dividing measured numbers, the answer may have no more
significant figures than the measured number that has the least number of significant figures. (If
measured and non-measured numbers are multiplied or divided, only the measured number
determines the number of significant figures in the answer.)

2. When adding or subtracting, the answer may extend to the number of places equivalent to
the least precise number in the problem.

Examples: (6.18 kJ)____ = 0.729461756 → 0.73 kJ/oC.g (since 2.0 has only 2 sig. fig.)
(2.0oC) (4.236g)

3.2916
112.4
61.93___
117.6326 → 177.6 – must stop at tenths because that’s the last digit contained in each of
the numbers being added.

* If your answer goes from 6232 → 6200 due to only being allowed 2 significant figures, use
scientific notation to show which numbers are significant: 6.2 x 103.

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64
 Percent and Theoretical Yield

Percent yield provides a relationship between the maximum possible yield (theoretical yield)
based on stoichiometric calculations, and the experimental yield obtained in the lab (actual
yield). Rarely, if ever, is it possible to achieve a 100% yield. In many cases a percent yield of
40-50% is the norm. There are three main reasons for less than perfect yields: (1) loss of product
at various points during the experiment, (2) side reactions of either the product or one of the
reactants with other substances in the solution, and (3) reactions which tend to reform reactants
once a certain level of product is forms (equilibrium reactions).

% yield = x 100

Example: In the laboratory, 2.00 grams of potassium chlorate (KClO3) is decomposed to produce
1.03 grams of potassium (KCl) according to the following reaction. Calculate the percent yield.

2 KClO3(s) → 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)

Theoretical yield =
(2.00 g KClO3) (1 mol KClO3/122.6 g KClO3) (2 mol KCl/2 mol KClO3) (74.6 g KCl/1 mol KCl)
= 1.22 g KCl

% yield = (1.03 g/1.22 g) x 100 = 84.4%

Percent Error
The deviation of the experimental value from the accepted or true value is known as percent error.
This is often used when comparing physical constants (density, melting point, boiling point, etc)
determined experimentally to the known values.

% error = x 100

The sign of the percent error merely lets one know whether the experimental value is less than (+
sign) or more than (- sign) the actual value. The absolute value of the percent error is usually
reported.

Example: Although the accepted value for the melting point of cyclohexane is 6.5oC, students
measured the melting point as 5.8oC in the laboratory. Determine the percent error.

% error = x 100 = 11%

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 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is a tool for determining the precision of a number of identical
measurements or calculations. Although a balance may provide two or three decimals places, the
variance in successive measurement may show that not all of the digits are significant. The smaller
the standard deviation with regards to the mean, the more precise is the measurement. Below is an
example of six successive measurements of an identical substance.

Value of Measurement Deviation from mean Squared deviation

xi di2
di = (xi - )

14.32 -0.18 0.0324

14.29 -0.21 0.0441
14.77 0.27 0.0729
14.41 -0.09 0.0081
14.54 0.04 0.0016
14.65 0.15 0.0225
Sum = 86.98 Sum = 0.1816

Mean:

For example: In the problem above, find the sum of the measurements:
14.32 + 14.29 + 14.77 + 14.41 + 14.54 + 14.65 = 86.98
Divide this sum (known as Σ xi) by the total number of measurements (known as N), in this case

“6”: = 14.4966667. Round this to the number of decimal places in the sum of the values:
14.50

The sample standard deviation used in our labs is usually represented by the letter “s” as shown
below.

where N = the number of measurements; xi = each individual measurement; = the mean.

This daunting-looking equation is really quite simple. The first part 1/(N-1) means divide by one
less than the number of data points. In our example this would be 1/(6-1) or 1/5. The second part
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66
directs one to: (1) subtract each individual measurement from the mean as shown in column two of
the table, (2) square each of these differences as shown in column three of the table, and finally (3)
to add all of these squared values together. In our example the sum of the squares of the
differences = 0.1816. The radical sign surrounding these values instructs one to take the “square
root” of the value under it. This is the same as taking the value to the ½ power.

Standard deviation = s = or ( )1/2 = 0.1905

The number of digits in the standard deviation is not important. What is important is the placement
of the first digit. In the case above, the first digit in the standard deviation is in the tenths place.
This means that there is uncertainty in the tenths place of the mean. Recall, that significant figures
contain all certain numbers plus one uncertain number. Therefore, our mean would have
uncertainty in the tenths place which must now become its final digit. We would report this
number as 87.0 or 87.0 ± 0.2 along with the appropriate units. Note that 0.1905 has been rounded
to 0.2.

Applying standard deviation:

If your mean and standard deviation are: then you would report your mean as:
143.10456 ± 0.0307 143.10
143.10456 ± 0.167 143.1
143.10456 ± 1.43 143
143.10456 ± 23.5 1.4 × 102 (change from 140 to show sig figs)
143.10456 ± 121 1 × 102 – start over – there is no correlation
between your values

Note that the size of the standard deviation is not as important as having a very low
percent deviation between your measurements. A very small number (as in
0.001345) would necessarily have a small standard deviation, while a large number
(as in 3,456,789) would have a much larger standard deviation because the number
itself is larger. The percent standard deviation can be found by dividing the standard
deviation by the mean and multiplying by 100.

In the example under “applying a standard deviation” above, a standard deviation of

0.0307 represents a percent standard deviation of 0.02%, while the standard
deviation of 23.7 gives a 16.6% standard deviation. The first is nearly perfect,
while the second is rather high.

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67
 Linear Regression Analysis

In algebra, students learn to find the slope of the line y = mx + b, where m is the slope, by finding
the “change in y” divided by the “change in x,” often seen as Δy/Δx. Linear regression analysis
(also known as the method of least squares) is a better way of finding the slope.

To calculate the slope using linear regression,

m = Σ xy/ Σ x2, where Σ equals the “sum of”.

Note that in Beer’s Law, where A = εbc, the slope is εb, where b = 1. Here k = Σ Ac/ Σ c2, where A
= absorbance and c = concentration.

A sample calculation is shown in the table below:

x y xy x2
0.020 0.051 0.00102 0.0004
0.040 0.102 0.00408 0.0016
0.060 0.148 0.00888 0.0036
0.080 0.203 0.01624 0.0064
0.100 0.246 0.02460 0.0100

um = 0.05482 um = 0.0220

Slope = m = = 2.49

Example: Calculate the concentration of a solution which has a “εb” = 2.49 (the value of the slope,
or “m”) and an Absorbance (A) of 0.469, by dividing A by εb:

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 Concentration of solution = c = = = 0.188 M
Using Excel – Office 2013

Calculations in Excel
One of the powerful features of Excel is the ability to do the same calculation multiple times with
relative ease. For example, let’s say you wanted to multiply the numbers in Column A by the
numbers in Column B. To do a calculation in Excel, all formulas must begin with the equals sign.
In cell C1, you would type =A1*B1, so that Excel knows to multiply the value in A1 and B1
together, and display the result in C1. Alternatively, instead of typing A1 and B1, you could have
typed “=” then clicked on cell A1, then typed “*” and then clicked on B1. Excel will fill in the
formula with the cell locations you clicked on.

When you hit Enter, Excel performs the calculation. To do the same calculation for rows 2-4, you
do not need to enter the formula again. Instead, click on cell C1, then click on the square in the
lower right corner of cell and drag the square down 3 rows. You have now copied the formula to
cells C2-C4.

Now if you click on cell C4, in the formula box, you will see that this cell contains the formula
=A4*B4

Alternatively, when you copy a cell that contains the formula, the formula will be copied into the
new cell.
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Excel can also do other types of calculations; for example finding the sum of a column of numbers.
To find the sum of the numbers in cells C1-C4, in cell C6, type “=sum(C1:C4)” and hit Enter.
Alternatively, you could have typed “=sum(” and then while holding down the left mouse button,
highlight cells C1-C4. Type “)” to finish the formula. Hit Enter and Excel will perform the
calculation.

Other useful functions that could have been performed on cells C1-C4:
=average(C1:C4) to find the average of the set of numbers
=stdev(C1:C4) to find the standard deviation of the set of numbers
=min(C1:C4) to find the minimum value in the set of numbers
=max(C1:C4) to find the maximum value in the set of numbers

Multiplying each number in a column by the same number: For example, if you want Column D to
be the number in column C multiplied by the value in cell F1, the formula should be entered as
“=C1*$F$1”. The dollar signs indicate that this cell is to be unchanged when the formula is
copied to cells D2-D4. For example, after copying the formula to cell D4, the formula in that cell
would be “=D1*$F$1”.

To insert a row (or column) in your worksheet Highlight the row (or column) where you want an
empty row (or column) inserted. Click Home.

Then chose Insert.

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Displaying the correct number of significant digits
To change how many significant digits are displayed in a cell on the worksheet:
A. Right click on the cell (or highlighted group of cells).
B. On the menu that appears, chose Format Cells
C. Under Category, choose Number (or Scientific Notation)
D. Select the number of decimal places to be displayed

Some other useful Excel information:

To enter something in Scientific Notation: 1.3 x 10-5 would be entered as 1.3E-5
In a formula, to multiply use the * symbol, not × or x. To divide, use / rather than ÷.

Graphing Data in Excel

1. Select the Excel program and open a new spreadsheet. In the A1 cell, enter the title for the
x-axis. In the B1 cell, enter a title for the y-axis. Enter your x, y data in the appropriate cell beneath
the respective titles. (This example assumes linear data in the A2-A6 and B2-B6 cells.)

2. To insert a graph in your spreadsheet

A. Highlight the data (including the titles) using the mouse.

B. Click insert

C. Select scatter icon in the charts group

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D. Select the icon corresponding to scatter with markers only from the drop-down menu

E. The chart will appear in the excel worksheet. This can be repositioned by left-clicking on
the chart and dragging to the desired position.

3. To label the chart:

A. Click anywhere on the chart to highlight it

B. Click on the Design menu under Chart Tools.

C. Select Quick Layout under chart tools at the top of the page

D. Select the first quick layout, which will add axes titles, and a chart title to your graph.

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E. Your chart should look like the chart on the left below. Now to format your chart.
a. Click on the Chart Title and replace with an appropriate title for your graph. Do the same for
the Axes Titles. Don’t forget units!
b. If you only have one set of data, the Legend Box (on the right side of your graph) is
unnecessary. Left click on the Legend box and hit the Delete button it so that your chart fills the
entire box.
c. Click on the gridlines, and hit the Delete button. Your graph should now look like the
chart on the right.

4. To format the axes and tick marks:

A. Right Click on the x-axis. Chose Format Axis

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B. A screen will appear at the right of the screen, where you can
change options such as the minimum and maximum data displayed,
and how often Major and Minor tick marks should appear. Make
sure that your data nicely fills the entire graph, not just one corner!

C. Click on the triangle next to Tick Marks

a. For both Major and Minor, choose Outside

D. Click on the triangle next to Number

a. Under Category, choose Number (or Scientific Notation)
b. Select the number of decimal places to be displayed

E. Repeat A-D for the y-axis.

a. Hint: If all of your data is negative, Excel will put the x-axis
at the top of your graph which looks a little stupid. You can change
this by choosing to have the “Horizontal axis crosses” and then
specify a value in the “Axis value” box, to force the axis to be at the
bottom of your graph

5. To add and format a trendline (For this example we will add a

linear trendline to obtain the equation of the line. There are other
functions such as polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, etc.):

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A. Right click on any data point in your chart, and chose Add Trendline..

B. Chose the appropriate trendline (in this case, linear)

C. Check the “Display Equation on Chart” and “Display

R-squared value on chart” options near the bottom of the box.
D. If you want to force the line to pass through the origin
(0,0), check the box: “Set Intercept = 0.0”

E. If you want to extend the line past the points, then

Forecast Forward (to the right) or Backward (to the left) the
distance you want to extend the trendline.

F. Click on the chart when you are finished. The Trendline

and its equation will now be displayed. The equation will
appear in the middle of the graph, but can easily be moved by
holding the left mouse button down and dragging it to the
desired position.

G. To change the number of sig figs displayed on the

trendline, right click on the equation, and chose Format
Trendline Label
a. Under Category, choose Number (or Scientific Notation)
b. Select the number of decimal places to be displayed

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Graphing Two Sets of Data in the Same Graph
Multiple sets of data can be plotted on the same graph, as shown below. It is easiest if the x data is
in the leftmost column, and then the next 2 (or more) columns contains the corresponding y data.
Highlight all of the data, including the titles.

Create and format the graph in the same manner as before.

Some hints:
A. Make sure you have good titles on your y data in the worksheet, as these titles will be used
for identifying the sets of data in the legend.

B. Don’t delete the legend. Instead, move it to some area of the graph where it won’t obscure
the data.

C. Click on the plot area of the graph (but not on a gridline). A box around the plot area will
appear. Click on the upper right hand corner of the plot area, and drag the plot area to fill the entire
chart area.

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D. Clean up your graph (delete gridlines, add tick marks, etc) as instructed before.

Printing and Outputting Excel Graphs and Worksheets

To print a full page graph: click on the graph, and then chose File, and then Print.

To print your worksheet and graph at the same time:

A. Click on Page Layout

B. Under Gridlines, chose the Print option

C. Dotted lines will appear on your worksheet, indicating where the page breaks will appear.
Click and drag your graph so that it is not being broken across multiple pages.
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D. Click anywhere on the worksheet (but not on a graph). Chose File and then Print.

To copy a graph into Word:

A. Right click on the graph outside the plot area. Chose Copy in the menu that appears.

B. Open Word, and then paste it into the document.

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 General Instructions for Labeling and Printing Graphs and Data Tables in
Logger Pro

Labeling the graph:

1) Right click anywhere within the graph and select graph options tab. Type the title of the
graph in the title box.
2) Within the examine section check mouse position and delta.
3) Within the appearance section check point protectors and connect points.
4) Within the grid section select major and minor tick style as solid.

Labeling the axes:

1) Double-click with the left mouse button on the x at the top of the data column to open the
Manual Column Options. Under the column definitions tab, type in the label for the x-axis and
select units.
2) Select the options tab and select the number of decimal places from the drop down menu
(labeled automatic) under displayed precision. Make sure the decimal places box below is
clicked. Click done when finished.
3) Repeat steps 1 and 2 above for the data set y column.

Labeling the curve:

1) Click the Curve Fit icon in the tool bar. Select the correct equation from the list or
define the function, then click try fit. If you have selected the correct function the data points will
be connected with a smooth curve and the equation and RMSE value will be displayed in a text
box. This box can be moved to a convenient place on the graph by left-clicking the mouse and
holding as you drag the box to the desired position. Make sure it doesn't cover the data points or
any other boxes on the graph.
2) (Optional) Under Insert, select text annotation. A text box will open into which you can
type a short note, i.e. to denote an outlier or make a comment. Drag the box close to the curve and
drag the pointer so that it points to the curve. (These must be dragged separately; a hand symbol
will appear when the cursor is correctly placed on the edge of the box or connecting line.)

3) (Optional) Occasionally, you will want information about certain sections of your graph.
Highlight the desired portion of the curve by clicking at the left side of the graph, holding the
mouse button down and dragging to the right. The graph will become gray indicating the portion
selected. When finished with this data set, click anywhere on the graph to de-highlight it.

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Copying the graph:

1) Determine whether you need to print the data tables, the graph, or both. The print selection
under file will automatically print both.
2) Under File, select print, print data table, or print graph. A printing options box will
appear. Make sure print footer box is checked. Type your name and your partner’s name in the
Name box. Select all of the other boxes except file name by placing a check mark in each. Click
OK.
3) The Print box will appear. Select the number of copies needed and click OK.

On certain experiments more detailed labeling and printing instructions may be necessary. These
instructions will be given as specific details within the experimental procedures.

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 Using Word – Office 2013

Subscripts and Superscripts

To properly give the formulas of molecules and compounds, and to write quantities in proper
scientific notation, it is necessary to use subscripts and superscripts. For example, MgSO4.7H2O
and 1.3 × 10^-7 should be written as MgSO4⋅7H2O and 1.3 × 10-7.

To subscript (lower) text as you are typing, you would first type the non-subscripted part of the
formula, in this case, “MgSO”, then click on the Home menu.

Then click on the x2 button. Anything that you type from now on will be subscripted. When you
are finished, click on the x2 button again to remove subscripting.

To superscript (raise) text as you are typing, click on the x2 button. Click it again when you are
finished.

Alternatively, if you have already typed the text that needs to be subscripted/
superscripted, highlight the selected text, and then select the appropriate button.

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Inserting symbols and other useful characters
Click on the Insert menu:

Then select Symbol (it is at the right side of the ribbon). Sometimes you will get lucky, and the
symbol you want will be one of the last 20 used and will show up in the drop down menu. If the
one you want is not there, select More Symbols

From the (normal text) menu, you can find a variety of useful symbols, such as arrows (→, ←), the
symbol for Angstroms (Å), etc. If you need to insert a Greek letter, under Font, select Symbol, and
then scroll around until you find the desired letter. Also under symbol, you can find the raised dot
necessary for hydrates: MgSO4⋅7H2O, the × used in scientific notation, and the ± symbol used to
report uncertainties. Click Insert to insert the desired symbol, and then Close to close the window.

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Note on Greek letters:
In Windows (but not on a Mac) there is an alternative way to insert a single Greek letter without
having to use the mouse to access the menus. If you simultaneously hold down Ctrl+Shift+Q,
after you release the three keys, the next letter you type will be automatically changed to the
equivalent Greek letter. So to type pi (π), the Greek equivalent of the English letter p, you would
do Ctrl+Shift+Q followed by p.

Keyboard Shortcuts
Below are some useful shortcut combinations, which can make typing a lot faster. On a Windows
computer, most shortcuts use the control (Ctrl) button, where on a Mac, most use the command
(⌘) key. Remember, that you must keep holding down each key until all keys in the combination
have been pressed.

indows ac
lect All trl+A +A
opy selection trl+C +C
ut selection trl+X +X
ste selection trl+V +V
lic trl+I +I
old trl+B +B
nderline trl+U +U
ve trl+S +S
eek letter for one character trl+Shift+Q
bscript trl+Shift+= +Shift+=
perscript trl+= +=
turn to Normal formatting trl+<space bar>
ndo an action trl+Z +Z
do an action trl+Y +Y

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Some final notes
To give a chemical reaction, the reaction should appear as a separate line that is indented:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(l) (1)
Chemical reactions should always be balanced, and show the states of matter (s for solid, l for
liquid, aq for aqueous, etc.). The state of matter should appear in parenthesis, with no space
between the formula and the state of matter. States of matter should not be subscripted or
italicized, as these are no longer proper formatting for states of matter. Reactions should also be
numbered sequentially, with the number appearing in parenthesis on the right side of the line
containing the equation.

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