Education

Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits
of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching,
training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of others, but may
also be autodidactic.[1] Any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks,
feels, or acts may be considered educational. Education is commonly divided into stages such
as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then college, university or
apprenticeship.

A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article
13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an education.[2] Although education is compulsory
in most places up to a certain age, attendance at school often isn't, and a minority of parents
choose home-schooling, e-learning or similar for their children.

Etymology
Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin ēducātiō ("A breeding, a
bringing up, a rearing") from ēdūcō ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym
ēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of") and dūcō ("I lead,
I conduct").[3]

Education can take place in formal or informal educational settings.

History
Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young of their society in the
knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. In pre-literate
societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one
generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could
be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at
the time of the Middle Kingdom.[4]

Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe.[5]
The city of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the
intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus;
constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek.
European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of
Rome in AD 476.[6]

In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was China's most influential ancient
philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and
neighbours like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a
ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by
followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.

1
After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship
in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as
centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities
and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.[6] During the High Middle Ages,
Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The
medieval universities of Western

Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of

enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including
Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford,
an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation;[7] and Saint Albert
the Great, a pioneer of biological field research.[8] The University of Bologne is considered
the oldest continually operating university.

Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the
Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in
the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.

The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and
appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg
developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The
European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and
sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas
from other civilisations — as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in
the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating
works from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of
Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular
educational outlook in Europe.

In most countries today, education is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to
this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO
has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all
of human history thus far.[9]

Formal education
Systems of schooling involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a
curriculum, which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools in
the system. School systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them different
curricula.

Preschool

Preschools provide education up to the age of between 4 and 8 when children enter primary
education. Also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the USA, where
kindergarten is a term used for primary education.

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Preschool education is important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world
and education climate.[citation needed] While children who do not receive the fundamentals
during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and
designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already
possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is "to provide a child-centered,
preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the child's
physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."[10]

This period of education is very important in the formative years of the child. Teachers with
special skills and training are needed at this time to nurture the children to develop their
potentials.

Primary

Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5–7 years of formal, structured
education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at
the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries.
Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this
proportion is rising.[11] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most
countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015,
and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The
division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally
occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle
schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around
the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education are mostly referred to as primary
schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior
school.

In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive
elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary
schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India
provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework
designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.

Secondary

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the
formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the
typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective
tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for
adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called
secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational
schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The
exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country
and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling.
Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada

3
and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12
education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can
be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a
profession.

The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused
by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the
emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job
demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that
would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be
beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused
employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled
employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment.

In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form
of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which
themselves have an even longer history.

Community colleges offer nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a
particular area.

Tertiary (higher)

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-
compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary
education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to
include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and
training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.
Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally
results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree

qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%)
now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very
important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a
source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes
both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate
(or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally
composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and
independent like Yale University; public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State
System of Higher Education; or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia.
A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet.

A liberal arts institution can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at

imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast

4
to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum."[12] Although what is known today as
the liberal arts college began in Europe,[13] the term is more commonly associated with
universities in the United States.

Vocational

Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a
specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or
internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering,
medicine, architecture and the arts.

Special

In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children
with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians
(people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today.
They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only
provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been
opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.[14]

Other educational forms

Alternative

While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient
times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century,
some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education
developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education.
A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self
learning, homeschooling and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori
schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill
School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open
classroom schools.

To a greater or lesser degree, ideas from these experiments and challenges to the system may
in time be adopted by the mainstream, as to a large degree has happened with kindergarten,
an experimental approach to early childhood education developed by Friedrich Fröbel in 19th
century Germany. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss
humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson
Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive
education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria
Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman,
Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich.

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Indigenous

Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and
content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context,
the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the
erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism.
Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages
and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."[15]

Informal learning

Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such
as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of
society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, cultural norms and manners.
Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of
places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs.

Informal learning usually takes place outside educational establishments, does not follow a
specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain
occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be
pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously
incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for
life. It is experienced directly in its "natural" function of everyday life and is often
spontaneous.

The concept of 'education through recreation' was applied to childhood development in the
19th century.[16] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young
adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.[17] L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of
lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A master in the art of living draws
no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and
his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply
pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine
whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for
him that he does it well."[18] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a
seamless fashion through all of life's activities.[19] The concept has been revived by the
University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.[19]

Self-directed learning

Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of "learning on

your own" or "by yourself", or as a self-teacher. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time
reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact
at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been informed in a conventional
manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated
areas. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan

6
(mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist),
Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright),
Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer,
scientist, mathematician).

Open education and e-learning

In 2012, e-learning had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.[20] Open education
is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its
efficiency and results compared to traditional methods.[21] Cost of education has been an
issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education
is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases
even free. Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full
courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities
offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn,
U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change
in the way we learn since the printing press.[22] Many people despite favorable studies on
effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural
reasons.[23]

The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is

in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional
degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major
open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open
education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal
"academic value" to traditional degrees.[24] Many open universities are working to have the
ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.

There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to
enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on-campus education,
which is not often directly offered from open education.[citation needed] Examples of this are
people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege.

Development goals
Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world going to school has increased.
Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the
majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school. There are 73 million
children,[clarification needed] mostly female children in poor families, who did not start
elementary school. There are more than 200 million children, mostly females from poor
families, who did not go to secondary school.[25] Universal Primary Education is one of the
eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made
in the past decade, though barriers still remain.[26] Securing charitable funding from
prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas
Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for
education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of

7
evidence and advocacy for the issue.[26] Additionally, Transparency International has
identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving
Universal Primary Education in Africa.[27] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for
improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous
governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved. There is economic pressure
from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work
towards the long-term benefits of education.

A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates
that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important
spill-over effect on the system as a whole.[28] Sustainable capacity development requires
complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be
based on some foundational principles:

 national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;

 strategies must be context relevant and context specific;[clarification needed]
 they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though
implementation may need to proceed in steps;[clarification needed]
 partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while
working towards some short-term achievements;
 outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national
capacities at various levels;
 a certain percentage of students should be removed for improvisation of academics
(usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade).

Internationalization
Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education.

Similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share internationally have led to an
increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program[29]
facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation[30] provides many
opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the
International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The
global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and
lecture files recorded during the actual classes.

Education and technology in developing countries

Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people
living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to
providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials,
for example, the One Laptop per Child project.

The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major
corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational

8
software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away
based on donations.

In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-
school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment,
learning materials and internet access within 10 years.[31] An International Development
Agency project called [Link],[32] started with the support of former American President
Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social
development.

India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet
infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space
Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to
educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced
cost.[33]

Private v public funding in developing countries

Research into low cost private schools found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around
low-cost private schools to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and
finding growing coverage in international policy.[34] The polarisation was due to disputes
around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reaching disadvantaged groups,
provide quality education, supporting or undermining equality, and are financially
sustainable. The report examined the main challenges that development organisations which
support LCPSs have encountered.[34] Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding
across Africa and Asia and is attributed to excess demand. These surveys also found concern
for:

 Equity, widely found in the literature, as the growth in low-cost private schooling
may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing
countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families,
and between girls and boys. The report says findings are that LCPSs see evidence
girls are underrepresented and that they are reaching some low-income families,
often in small numbers compared with higher-income families.
 Quality of provision and educational outcomes: You cannot generalise about the
quality of private schools. While most achieve better results than government
counterparts, even after their social background is taken into account, some studies
find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity
and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in
government schools.
 Choice and affordability for the poor: parents can choose private schools because of
perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language
instruction preference. Nevertheless, the concept of ‘choice’ does not apply in all
contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of limited affordability (which

9
 excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to caste or
social status.
 Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability: Evidence is that private schools
operate at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, but their financial situation may
be precarious where they are reliant on fees from low-income households.

The report said there were some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programmes;
evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread.[34] Addressing
regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of
understanding the political economy of the market for LCPSs, specifically how relationships
of power and accountability between users, government and private providers can produce
better education outcomes for the poor.

Educational theory
Purpose of schools

Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. The understanding of the goals and
means of educational socialization processes may also differ according to the sociological
paradigm used.

In the early years of schooling, the focus is generally around developing basic interpersonal
communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and
subjects. After acquiring these basic abilities, education is commonly focused towards
individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a
livelihood for themselves.[36] Satisfying personal curiosities (education for the sake of itself)
and desire for personal development, to "better oneself" without career based reasons for
doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools.[37]

Education is often understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater

equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners can also be
motivated by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn.
Learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic
to be studied.[38]

Education is often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique
needs and potentialities[39] with the purpose of developing every individual to their full
potential.

Educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the
effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social
psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and
"school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be
identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related
settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the

10
processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as
gifted children and those with specific disabilities.

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other
disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline
analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn
informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design,
educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education
and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to
cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational
psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack
of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks
(Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).

Learning modalities

There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The
most commonly employed learning modalities are:[40]

 Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.

 Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
 Kinesthetic: learning based on movement, e.g. hands-on work and engaging in
activities.

Other commonly employed modalities include musical, interpersonal, verbal, logical, and
intrapersonal.

Dunn and Dunn[41] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and
manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[42]
recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[43] identified a wide range of
modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and
Keirsey Temperament Sorter, based on the works of Jung,[44] focus on understanding how
people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way
individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb
and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator[45] follows a similar but more simplified approach.

Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while
others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily
through visual or kinesthetic experiences.[46] A consequence of the latter theory is that
effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning
modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is
effective for them.[47] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as
VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore
restrict learning.[48][49] Recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to
justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."[50]

Philosophy

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As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its
problems (...) its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy".
[51] "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education
or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the
sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of
educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned
with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."[52] As such, it is both part of the
field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics,
epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or
analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as
well as the process of learning, to name a few.[53] For example, it might study what
constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and
educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline,
and the relation between education theory and practice.

Curriculum

In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or
university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the
course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A
curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies
what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.

An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the

university–or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines
or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of
broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer
science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.[54]

Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within
majors at colleges and universities as electives. The various types of fine arts are music,
dance, and theater.[55]

Instruction

Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary

institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw
on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-
secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the
type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the
United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting
student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have
multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.
[56][57] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers
must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student

12
evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being
counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.[38]

Economics

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve
high levels of economic growth.[58] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical
prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt
cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology
transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new
machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through
imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of
"human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have
stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions[59] and the role of cognitive
skills.[60]

At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of Jacob
Mincer,[61] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital. This work
has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies
revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.[62][63] Some students who have
indicated a high potential for learning, by testing with a high intelligence quotient, may not
achieve their full academic potential, due to financial difficulties.[citation needed]

Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental
conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and
the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.
[64]

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