PED 6: CHILD and ADOLESCENT LEARNERS and LEARNING PRINCIPLES

● CONCEPTS OF GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, MATURATION AND LEARNING

GROWTH
❑ Quantitative changes
❑ May refer to increase in size, height, or weight and anything can be measured.
DEVELOPMENT
❑ Qualitative changes
❑ Progression towards maturation
MATURATION
-ripening of behavior
LEARNING
- fruit from your experiences.
- change in behavior from one’s experience

● FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

1. NATURE
❑ heredity
2. NURTURE
❑ environmental influences

● Principles of development
1. Follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.
❑ Patterns of Physical Development
✔ Cephalocaudal
✔ Proximodistal
2. Unique in each individual.
3. It involves change.
4. Early development is more critical than later development.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning.
6. There are individual differences in development.
7. Developmental Tasks ( Robert Havighurst) – social expectations

● STAGES OF LIFE
I. Pre-natal Stage
- Before birth; during or relating to pregnancy
3 PERIODS OF PRENATAL STAGE ( GEF)
❑ GERMINAL ❑ FETAL
⮚ First 2 weeks after conception ⮚ 2 months after conception until 9 months.
⮚ zygote
❑ EMBRYONIC
⮚ 2- 8 weeks after conception
⮚ Zygote- Embryo

II. Infancy Stage

❑ Birth to 2 weeks of life
 ❑ Shortest of all developmental periods.
❑ Infant
⮚ “extreme helplessness”
III. Babyhood Stage
❑ 2nd week to 2nd year of life
❑ Decrease of dependency
❑ Babyhood skills: hand skills and leg skills
❑ Form of Communication
⮚ Crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing, and emotional expression
IV. Early Childhood Stage
❑ Ages 2 -6
❑ “preschoolers years”
❑ Years before formal schooling begins.
V. Middle and Late Childhood
❑ Ages 6-12
❑ Fundamental skills (3Rs) are mastered.
❑ Achievement becomes a more central theme.
VI. Adolescence
❑ Transition age from childhood to adulthood.
❑ Begins with rapid physical changes
❑ More logical, abstract and idealistic
VII. Early Adulthood
❑ 19 – 29 years
❑ New patterns of life and new roles
VIII. Middle Adulthood
❑ 30-60 years old
❑ Adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced.
IX. Late Adulthood
❑ 61 years and above
❑ Adjustments to decreasing strength and health
❑ Retirement

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (Sigmund Freud)

- most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about unconscious /
conscious, personality theory, and sexual development

o Topographic Model:
⮚ Unconscious
- large below the surface area which contains thoughts, wishes, feelings and
memories, of which we are unaware.
⮚ Conscious
- All that we are aware
⮚ Subconscious
 - It is right below the surface, but still hidden somewhat unless we search for it.
- Examples: telephone/cellphone number, childhood memories, name of
childhood friend.

Personality Components Characteristics

Id - operates on the pleasure principle
- wants / desire
Ego - operates on the reality principle
- actions
Superego - represents internalized ideals and provides standards for
judgment (the conscious) and for future aspirations
- operates on the morality principle & conscience

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE (OAPhaLaGe)

Important Terms:
-Erogenous zone- pleasure area
- Fixation- results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular stage.

1. Oral Stage (birth – 18 months)

- Oral pleasures (sucking)
- Erogenous zone (pleasure area) mouth
- Fixation
⮚ Oral Receptive
- has a tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat
⮚ Oral Aggressive
- tendency to bite nails, use curse words, gossip

2. Anal Stage (18 months- 3 years)

- The child finds satisfaction in retaining and eliminating feces
- Erogenous zone (pleasure area) :anus
⮚ Anal retentive
- an obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control
⮚ Anal expulsive
- the person becomes messy and disorganized.
3. Phallic Stage (ages 3- 6)
- Erogenous zone (pleasure area) :genitals
- Children become interested in what makes the boys and girls different.
- Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals.

+ Oedipus complex -a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of
jealousy and hatred for the rival father (son to mother)
+ Electra Complex -a girl’s sexual desires toward his father and feelings of
jealousy and hatred for the rival mother (daughter to father)

4. Latency Stage(ages 6- puberty)

- Erogenous zone(pleasure area) : NONE
 - Children focus on the acquisition of physical and academic skills.
- Boys relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
5. Genital Stage(puberty onwards)
- Erogenous zone(pleasure area) : genitals
- Begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are awakened.
- Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex with pleasures centered
on the genitals.

⮚ DEFENSE MECHANISMS
-occur in Latency Stage in which the sexual feelings/urges repressed.

Kinds Characteristic
Repression -A defense mechanism that pushes threatening thoughts into the
unconscious
-P- pinipigilan / pugngan
Denial -A defense mechanism in which one refuses to acknowledge anxiety
provoking stimuli
-Defense mechanism where one returns to an earlier, safer stage of one’s
Regression life
to escape present threats
-G – Gibalik-balikan /Gi-reminisce
Projection -Defense mechanism in which anxiety arousing impulse are externalized by
placing onto others
Displacemen -Defense mechanism in which the target of one’s unconscious fear or desire
t is shifted away from true cause
Sublimation -Defense mechanism where dangerous urges are transformed into positive,
socially acceptable forms

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (Jean Piaget)

Basic Cognitive Definition
Concepts
Schema - cognitive structure/ prior knowledge
Assimilation - fitting new experience into your existing schema
-S for same
Accommodation - The process of creating a new schema because the previous
one doesn’t fit.
- C for change
Equilibration - achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2 yrs.)
- Focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement; sucking, reaching things
-Object permanence – a child knows that an object still exists even when out of sight.

2. Preoperational Stage (2- 7 yrs.)

- Begins to use language
- Egocentric thinking
- Classifying objects
● Symbolic Function - the ability to represent objects and events.
● Egocentrism - tendency to only see his point of view and assumes that everyone else
has the same point of view-selfish
● Centration - tendency to only focus on one thing or event and exclude other aspects
● Lack of Conservation -inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite
looking different.
● Irreversibility - inability to reverse their thinking
● Animism - tendency to attribute human-like traits to inanimate objects
● Realism - believing that psychological events such as dreams are real.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 yrs.)

- Ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects, covers the
elementary years.
● Decentering - perceive the different features of objects and situations
● Reversibility - ability of the child to follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
● Conservation - the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass,
volume or area do not change even when there is a change in appearance.
● Seriation - to arrange things in a series/ order based on one dimension such as weight,
volume, size, etc.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 yrs. and above)

- Thinking becomes more logical.
- Solve abstract problems, and can hypothesize.
● Hypothetical Reasoning - ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem
and can weigh data to make judgment
● Analogical Reasoning - ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers. - analyze
● Deductive reasoning - ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
situation.

KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (Lawrence Kohlberg)

❑ Stages of Moral Development Theory
A. Level 1 – PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
- Doesn’t really understand the rules of society
● Stage 1(Punishment –Obedience Orientation)
- consequences of acts
-punishments

● Stage 2 (Instrumental Relativist Orientation)

- “What’s in it for me?”
-benefit to the individual
B. Level 2 – CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
- Conforms to the rules of a society
- What is accepted to social norm
● Stage 3(Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation)
- concern for the opinion of others
 ● Stage 4 (Law and Order Orientation)
- Doing one’s duty; respect to authority and maintain the given social order.
C. Level 3 – POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL
- underlying moral principles
● Stage 5(Social Contract Orientation)
- Agreements among people about behavior that benefits society
- Rules can be changed when they no longer meet society’s needs.
● Stage 6 (Universal Ethical Principle Orientation)
- ideal stage, self-chosen ethical principles, and universal and consistent

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY ( Erik Erikson)

Terms to Remember Meaning
Psychosocial Crisis - two opposing emotional forces(contrary dispositions)
2 dispositions: Syntonic-positive, for example Trust ; and
Dystonic- negative; for example Mistrust)
Malignancy - too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of
the task
Maladaptation - too much of the positive and too little of the negative

If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain VIRTUE or PSYCHOSOCIAL STRENGTH.

Psychosocial Age Virtue Maladaptation Malignancy

Crisis
(TA4Is)
Trust Infancy Hope Sensory Withdrawal
vs. (birth-18 months) Maladjustment
Mistrust
Autonomy Toddler Willpower/ Impulsiveness Compulsiveness
vs. (2-3 yrs. old) Determination
Shame and
Doubt
Initiative Preschool Purpose/ Ruthlessness Inhibition
vs. (3-5 yrs. old) Courage
Guilt
Industry Elementary (6- Competency Narrow Inertia
vs. 12 yrs. old) Virtuosity
Inferiority
Identity Adolescence Fidelity Fanaticism Repudiation
vs. (12-18 yrs. old)
Role Confusion
Intimacy Early Adulthood Love Promiscuity Exclusion
vs.
Isolation
Generativity Middle Care Rejectivity
vs. Adulthood Overextension
Stagnation
Integrity Late Adulthood Wisdom Presumption Disdain
vs.
Despair
 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS(Abraham Maslow)

GOLEMAN’S EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT ( Daniel Goleman)

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage your own emotions and
feelings, as well those of others.
The 5 Components of Emotional Intelligence: (SESES)
1. Self-awareness: the cornerstone of emotional intelligence–a capacity to recognize your
feelings as they occur
2. Emotional control: an ability to manage your emotional reactions, control impulse, and to
recover from life’s upsets
3. Self-motivation: skill at using your emotions in the service of a goal, staying hopeful despite
setbacks
4. Empathy: emotional sensitivity to others; a talent for tuning into others’ feelings, and reading
their unspoken messages
5. Social Skills: grace in dealing with others–strong social skills are the key to popularity,
leadership, and interpersonal effectiveness

❑ Acalculia -difficulty even in basic math; through injury

❑ Dysnomia - “anomic aphasia”
- difficulty in retrieving the correct words, names, numbers from memory
- “What’s that word?”
❑ Giftedness - abilities are above average/ norm of their age.
❑ Mental Retardation - slow learning of basic motor and language skills; 70 and below IQ
❑ Asperger’s Syndrome - same challenges/ problems with autism but
having no general delay in language or cognitive development.
❑ Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) - impairment of cognitive ability; -extra 21st chromosome
- same faces/ physical appearances
❑ Tourette Syndrome - repetitive, stereotypes, involuntary movements and vocalizations
called “tics”
a. Simple tics – limited number of muscle groups
b. Complex tics – several/ many muscle groups

NCBTS

(National Competency Based Teacher Standards) -an integrated theoretical framework that
defines the different dimensions of teaching. Under DepEd Order 52, s. 2007)
PPST (Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers) - DepEd Order 42, s. 2017
4 Career Stages of a Teacher
1. Beginning Teacher
2. Proficient Teacher
3. Highly Proficient Teacher
4. Distinguished Teacher

Types of Power of a Teacher

1. Expert Power - authority by your skills, knowledge and mastery
2. Referent Power - authority/respect of your students because of your kindness and heart
3. Legitimate Power - authority by just being a teacher
4. Reward Power - rewards
5. Coercive Power - punishment

Learning Style - Refers to the preferred way an individual processes information

PERSPECTIVES ABOUT LEARNING-THINKING STYLES

1. Sensory Preferences
a. Visual Learners - Visual Iconic; Visual Symbolic
b. Auditory Learners – Listener; Talkers
c. Tactile Learners
2. Global-Analytic Continuum
a. Analytic - linear, step by step; details; specific
b. Global - non-linear; whole; general

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.
3. Learning is a consequence of experience.
4. Learning is cooperative and collaborative.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual.
9. The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and individual.

LAW OF LEARNING
1. Law of Freedom
2. Law of Intensity
3. Law of Recency
4. Law of Primary
5. Law of Readiness
6. Law of Exercise
7. Law of Effect

Guiding Principle in Determining and Formulating Objectives

1. Begin with an end in mind.
2. Share lesson objective with students
3. Learning objectives must be in two or three domains- cognitive, psychomotor and affective
4. There should always be alignment of the subject matter, content, assessment and objectives
5. Lesson Objectives must be SMART(Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant. Time
bounded)

BLOOM’S 3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE

● Cognitive – Knowledge
● Affective – Attitudes, Values
● Psychomotor- Skills
TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE OBJECTIVES

KENDAL & MARZANO ’S 3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE

● Information– Declarative Knowledge
● Mental Procedures – Procedural Knowledge
● Psychomotor/ Physical Procedures – Motor Skills

These 3 domains are processed in 6 different levels: (ReCAKMeS)

1. Retrieval
2. Comprehension
3. Analysis
4. Knowledge Utilization
5. Metacognitive System
6. Self System

DAVID KRATHWOLH and LINDA ANDDERSON’S AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (ReResVOC)

1. Receiving – listening; passive
2. Responding - participation
3. Valuing - importance
4. Organization- organizing values
5. Characterization – acting it consistently

ANITA HARLOW’S PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

1. Reflex movements
2. Basic fundamental movement
3. Perceptual abilities
4. Physical activities
5. Skilled movements
6. Non-discursive communication

MOORE’S 3 LEVELS OF LEARNING PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

1. Imitation
2. Manipulation
3. Precision

MAGER’S 3 MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE

1. Performance
2. Condition
3. Acceptable Performance/ Criterion of Success

EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING AND REACTING TECHNIQUES

● Types of Questions that Teachers Ask
1. Convergent
2. Divergent
3. Affective
● Questioning Behavior of Teachers
1. Varying type of questions
2. Asking non-directed questions
3. Calling on non-volunteers
4. Prompting
5. Probing
6. Requiring abstract thinking
7. Asking open-ended questions
8. Allowing sufficient time
9. Involving as many as possible.

● Reacting Behavior of Teachers Nagel’s Proper Use of Materials (PPPF)

1. Providing acceptance feedback - Prepare Yourself
2. Providing corrective feedback - Prepare Your student
3. Giving appropriate and sincere praise - Present the Material
4. Repeating the answer - Follow Up objectives
5. Explaining the answer/ expanding
6. Rephrasing the question
7. Asking follow up questions
8. Redirecting questions
9. Soliciting students questions

DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS

o Examples of Teaching Approaches
1. Teacher-centered approach – teacher is the only reliable source of information; learners are
passive
2. Subject Matter Approach – sticking to course syllabi
3. Constructivist Approach – Students are expected to construct knowledge from their prior
experience
4. Banking Approach - Teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty minds of students”.
5. Integrated Approach - connecting what she teaches to other subjects, fields, or real life
6. Collaborative Approach - group work, team work, etc.
7. Direct Teaching Approach – Teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be
taught

o Methods of Direct Instruction

a. Lecture Method
b. Demonstration Method
c. Deductive Method

o Methods of Indirect Instruction

a. Inductive Method- specific-general
b. Inquiry Method - discovery
c. Problem Solving Method – scientific method
d. Project Method – self-directed study; Application of what they learn
e. Cooperative Learning – group work
f. Peer Tutoring
f1. Instructional tutoring – older to younger
f2. Same age tutoring – More able to assist the less able
f3. Monitorial tutorial – class divided into groups and monitors are
assigned to lead the group
f4. Structured tutoring – trained tutors
f5. Semi-structured tutoring – tutor guides his/her tutee through carefully
planned learning guides.
g. Partner Learning- study buddy
h. Reflective Learning-reflecting from one’s experience
i. Metacognitive Approach – thinking about thinking
j. Constructivist Approach – connecting/ relating new knowledge from prior
knowledge
k. Integrated Approach - connecting what she teaches to other subjects, fields,
or real

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT -
o Principles of Classroom Management
✔ Consistent, proactive
✔ Establish routines
✔ Resolving minor inattention and disruption before they become major
disruption
✔ Making use of every instructional moment.
o Approaches to Classroom Management
1. Assertive approach – Rules of behavior and consequences
2. Behavior Modification Approach – Rewards & punishments
3. Business Academic Approach – Academic Work (clear communication of assignments &
work requirements, etc)
4. Group managerial- Jacob Kounin; responding immediately to group student behavior that
might be inappropriate/ undesirable
a. Ripple Effect – escalating misbehavior
b. Withitness – eyes in the back of one’s head
c. Pygmalion Effect/ Rosenthal Effect
d. Hawthorne Effect – Observer Effect
e. John Henry Effect- research/experiment = extra effort
f. Placebo Effect –
g. Halo Effect – judgment based on physical appearance
o Good Classroom Techniques
1. Withitness – eyes in the back of one’s head
2. Overlapping - multitasking
3. Smoothness- smooth lesson transitions to prevent jerkiness.
Jerkiness - disorderly flow of activities such as:
a. Stimulus-bounded – distracted by stimulus
b. Thrust- bursting into activities without assessing students’ r
eadiness
c. Dangle – drops a topic before it is completed
d. Truncation- ends an activity abruptly
e. Flip-flop – ends one activity, goes to another and then returns
to the previously terminated activity
4. Momentum – force and flow of lesson

5. Group Focus – teacher’s alerting

a. Antiseptic Bouncing
b. Program restructuring
c. Humor effect
d. Proximity Control
e. Touch control
f. Interest Boosting
g. Signal Interference
h. Planned Ignoring
i. Direct Appeal

❖ Student Problem types based on Teacher description

1. Distractible – short attention spans; easily distracted
2. Underachiever – do the “ minimum” to get by; doesn’t value school work
3. Low achiever – have difficulty , low potential even though they may be willing to work.
4. Withdrawn – avoid personal interaction
5. Defiant – resist authority and carry on a power struggle with the teacher.
6. Rejected by Peers – seek peer interaction but are rejected, ignored or excluded
7. Hostile aggressive – express hostility through direct, intense behavior
8. Passive Aggressive – stubborn, subtly oppositional
9. Hyperactive- show excessive and almost constant movement or actions.
10. Failure syndrome- Expect to fail even succeeding
11. Perfectionist- unduly anxious about making mistakes.

❖ 4 Mistaken Goals of Misbehavior by Adler

1. Attention- seeking – Teacher, please notice me.
2. Power-seeking- Teacher, I just want to help.
3. Revenge-getting – Teacher, I am hurt.
4. Inadequacy/ Withdrawal – Teacher, don’t give up on me.

❖ Types of
Classroom Manager
1. Authoritative
2. Authoritarian
3. Permissive/ Laissez
Faire
4. Uninvolved

CONE OF LEARNING
(Edgar Dale)