Army Public School Barrackpore

Holiday Homework

Class 10

Complete the write up of the following experiment in your practical file.

Experiment No- 1

Aim

To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles
of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and
interpret the result.

Materials Required

A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale, a
pencil and thumb pins.

Theory

 Refraction of Light: When light passes from one medium to other it deviates/changes its
path, this property of light is called refraction of light.

 Normal Ray: A ray of light which forms an angle of 90° with the refracting surface is said
to be normal. When a ray of light travels along the normal, it does not suffer any
refraction.

 Incident Ray: A ray of light that travels towards the refracting surface is called incident
ray.

 Refracted Ray: A ray of light that changes its path when passes through a refracting
surface is said to be refracted ray.

 Emergent Ray: A ray of light which emerges out into the original medium after refraction
is said to be an emergent ray.

 Lateral Displacement: The perpendicular shift in the path of light, seen when it emerges
out from the refracting medium is called lateral displacement.

1
  Angle of Incidence (i): The angle formed between the normal and incident ray is called
angle of incidence.

 Angle of Refraction (r): The angle formed between the refracted and normal ray is called
angle of refraction.

 Angle of Emergence (e): The angle formed between the normal and emergent ray is
called angle of emergence.

During Refraction:

(i) Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence.

(ii) Incident ray and emergent ray are parallel.

Laws of Refraction:

(i) The incident ray, the normal ray and the refracted ray, all lie in the same plane.

(ii) The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant
quantity for the two given media. This law is also known as Snell’s law. sin i/ sin r

This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.

Observations Table

SL No Angle of Angle of Angle of ∠i – ∠e

incidence ∠i refraction ∠r emergence
∠e

Conclusion

1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.

2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from
rarer to denser optical medium.

3. The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.

4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium

2
 (glass) the light bends towards the normal.

Precautions

1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.

2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.

3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.

4. All pins base should lie in straight line.

5. While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a
distance of about 5 cm between the two pins.

3
 Experiment No-2

Aim

To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required

A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor, drawing board.

Theory

 A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other.

 Refraction of light through a prism

 In the given figure, ABC represents the base of a glass prism. Let PE be the incident ray
of light on face AB of the prism. EF represents the bending of light when it enters the
prism and hence show the refraction of light.

 RS is the emergent ray at face AC of the prism.

 The angle D shows the angle of deviation.

 The ∠BAC of the prism is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by ‘A’.

4
Observations Table

Sl No Angle of Angle of Angle of Angle of ∠A + ∠D ∠i + ∠e

incidence refraction deviation prism ∠A
∠i ∠r ∠D

Conclusion

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets refracted
in the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.

2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It
attains a minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.

Precautions

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.

2. Use soft board and pointed pins.

3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.

4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are removed.

5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance
from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the
four pins can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either side while viewing them.
They all appear to move together.

6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.

5
 Experiment No-3

Aim

To determine the focal length of (i) concave mirror (ii) convex lens by obtaining the
image of a distant object.

Materials Required

A concave mirror, a convex lens,, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror
stand.

Theory

Focal length of Concave Mirror

 A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards
the centre of the sphere, is called a concave mirror.

 A concave mirror, like a plane mirror, obeys the laws of reflection of light.

 The rays of light coming from a distant object such as the sun or a distant tree can
be considered parallel to each other.

 When parallel rays of light fall on a concave mirror along its axis, the rays meet at a
point in front of the mirror and the image formed of the object is real, inverted and
very small in size.

 As the image formed by concave lens is real it can be obtained on a screen.

 The distance between the principal axis P of the concave mirror and the focus F is
the focal length of the concave mirror. It is denoted by letter ‘f’.

6
Focal Length of Convex Lens

 Convex lens is bulge in the centre, i.e,, it is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges.
It is also called converging lens because it converges a beam of light incident on it.

 When a parallel beam of light falls on a convex lens, the rays, after refraction converge at
a point on its other side.

 If the parallel beam of light comes from a distant object, a real, inverted image of very
small size is formed at the focus of the lens.

 The distance between the optical centre of lens ‘O’ and the principal focus ‘F’ of the lens
is called focal length of a lens, ‘f’ is the representation of focal length.

 Since the image formed by the lens is real, it can be obtained on a screen.

Observations Table for Concave Mirror

S.No Position of concave Position of screen (S) Focal length = (M – S)

mirror (M) cm

7
Calculation

Mean value of focal length of concave mirror = sum of focal lengths/no of experiment

Result

The focal length of the given concave mirror =

Precautions

The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.

Always place the concave mirror near an open window.

The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.

There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object,
incident on the concave mirror.

Observation table for convex lens

S. No Position of convex Position of screen (S) Focal length= (L – S)

lens (L) cm

Calculation

Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

Result

The focal length of the given convex lens =

Precautions

1. Convex lens should be placed vertically.

8
2. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object
incident on the common lens.

3. In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distanct
object is well illuminated.

4. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the
measuring scale.

9
 Experiment No-4

Aim

To study the properties of acids and bases (dilute HCl and dilute NaOH) by their reaction with

(a) Litmus solution (Blue/Red) (b) Zinc metal (c) Solid sodium carbonate.

Chemicals required:

Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide, blue litmus solution, red litmus solution, zinc
metal granules or powdered zinc, solid sodium carbonate and freshly prepared lime water.

Theory

Hydrochloric acid

Chemical formula of hydrochloric acid is HCl.

When it is dissolved in water; releases H+(aq) ions, these H+ ions cannot exist alone. Hence, it
combines with water to form H3O+ (aq) ions.

The acidic property is seen due to this H+(aq) ions/H3O+ ions.

Properties of hydrochloric acid

> It turns blue litmus solution red.

> Hydrochloric acid reacts with metals to release hydrogen gas.

Test for H2 gas: When a burning splinter is brought near the mouth of test tube releasing H2
gas, it bums with a ‘pop sound’.

> Hydrochloric acid react with sodium carbonate to release CO2 gas.

10
Test for CO2 gas: When CO2 gas is allowed to pass through freshly prepared lime water, then
the lime water turns milky or when a burning splinter is brought near the mouth of the test tube
releasing CO2 gas then the burning splinter extinguishes.

Sodium hydroxide

> Chemical formula of sodium hydroxide is NaOH.

> When it is dissolved in water releases OH– ions.

Properties of Sodium hydroxide

> It turns red litmus solution blue.

> Not all bases react with zinc metal to release H2 gas but sodium hydroxide solution reacts
with zinc metal to release hydrogen gas.

Sodium hydroxide do not react with solid sodium carbonate.

11
Observation Table

12
13
Precaution

 Use clean test tubes.

 Use very small amount of chemicals.

 Handle hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions very carefully.

 Shake the solutions and reaction mixtures carefully without spilling.

 Always carry out the test for hydrogen with a very small volume of gas.

 For H2 gas test, be careful as H2 catches fire. The flame on test tube can be seen due to
H2 gas.

14
 Experiment No-5

Aim

To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator.

(a) Dilute hydrochloric acid

(b) Dilute NaOH solution

(c) Dilute ethanoic acid solution

(d) Lemon juice

(e) Water

(f) Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution

Theory

● pH is the measure of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] of a solution.

PH = – log10 [H+]

● Acids release H+ ions when dissolved in water.

● Bases release OH ions when dissolved in water.

pH scale: pH is normally measured in a range of 0-14. [Due to mathematical definition and

calculation it is possible to get negative pH and pH above 14]

If pH < 7 then it is acidic solution.

If pH > 7 then it is basic solution.

If pH = 7 then it is neutral.

● Components of Universal Indicator: Universal indicator consists of a mixture of indicators

15
such that there is a continuous colour change on slight change in pH. Some important
constituents of universal indicator are:

• Sodium hydroxide • Thymol blue

• Methyl red • Bromothymol blue

• Phenolphthalein • Propanol

● Acids convert blue litmus paper red. For example, HCl, CH3COOH, etc.

● Bases convert red litmus paper blue. For example, NaOH, NaHCO3, etc.

● Neutral solutions have no affect on either blue or red litmus paper.

Materials Required

Six test tubes, six droppers, white tile, pH paper (with coloured chart strip of pH scale) and test
tube stand.

Chemicals required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of sodium hydroxide, dilute ethanoic
acid, lemon juice, distilled water and dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate.

Observation Table

16
17
Precautions

1. The test sample solutions should be freshly prepared and the firuit juice samples should
also be fresh.

2. Use clean and rinsed droppers.

3. Use clean test tubes and mark them carefully.

4. Rinse the test tubes and droppers with distilled water only.

18
 Experiment No-6

Aim

To perform and observe the following reactions and classify them into:

(a) Combination reaction (b) Decomposition reaction

(c) Displacement reaction (d) Double displacement reaction.

1. Action of water on quick lime.

2. Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals.

3. Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution.

4. Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions.

Theory

Action of water on quick time

> Quick lime is calcium oxide (CaO). It combines with water to form calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
also called as slaked lime.

> Two substances are combining to form one product, hence it is a combination reaction.

> Heat is released in the reaction, hence it is called as exothermic reaction.

> Slaked lime solution turns red litmus blue, hence it is basic in nature.

> The freshly prepared slaked lime is also called as lime water.

> It turns milky when carbon dioxide gas is passed through it.

Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals

> Ferrous sulphate crystals are light green in colour. The colour is due to the water of
crystallization.

19
> On heating the crystals of ferrous sulphate, it undergoes following changes:

The colour changes to brown and gases are released due to the formation of new compounds.

> Single compound decomposes to form three new compounds, hence it is called as
decomposition reaction.

> SO2 and SO3 gas turns moist blue litmus paper into red, hence it is acidic in nature.

> SO2 shows reducing property: It changes the orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate
to green when SO2 gas is allowed to pass through it.

> Water of crystallisation is released by the crystals.

> SO2 gas has choking smell, do not inhale the gas, keep the mouth of the test tube away from
your face.

Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution

Iron nails when kept in blue coloured solution of copper sulphate, shows following changes:

(a) The blue colour solution changes slowly into light green colour.

(b) Fe2+ ions replace Cu2+ ions and form iron sulphate in the solution, hence, this is called as
displacement reaction.

(c) Iron nail gets the deposit of reddish copper ions on it.

(d) Fe atom forms Fe2+ ions by loss of electrons and undergoes oxidation and Cu2+ ions gain
electrons to become Cu atom and undergoes reduction.

Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions

Sodium sulphate solution and barium chloride solution are colourless.

> Mixing of both the solutions gives white colour precipitate due to the formation of barium
sulphate

> The exchange of ions takes place in the reaction and is called as double displacement
reaction.

> Barium sulphate is insoluble in water and hence it forms precipitate.

20
Observation Table

Precautions

1. Do not touch quick lime with hands, use tongs.

21
2. Mixing of quick lime and water releases large amount of heat, so add water drop by drop
and use borosil beaker.

3. For heating, use hard glass tubes.

4. Never inhale any gas, just waft the gas.

5. Do not touch any chemical with hands.

22
 Experiment No-7

Aim

(i) To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:

(a) ZnSO4(aq.)

(b) FeSO4(aq.)

(c) CuSO4 (aq.)

(d) Al2(SO4)3(aq.)

(ii) Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above
result.

Theory

> Reactivity series: The arrangement of metals in decreasing order of their reactivity is called
reactivity series. The most reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its salt solution.

23
Observation Table

Precautions

1. Clean the metals by rubbing them with a piece of sand paper before dipping them in the salt
solutions.

2. Wash the test tubes after every set of observations of interaction of a particular metal with
the four salt solution.

3. Use very little amount of saturated solution of copper sulphate, aluminium sulphate, iron
sulphate and zinc sulphate.

24
 Experiment No-8

Aim

To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

Theory

Ohm’s Law: The potential difference, V across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature is the
same. This is Ohm’s law.

V∝I

.’. V = IR, (Here R = Constant for the given metallic wire)

The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).

One Ohm: If the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is 1 volt and the current
flowing through it is 1 ampere, then the resistance of the conductor R is 1 ohm.

Factors affecting resistance:

The nature of resistor (a conductor having some resistance.)

The length of the resistance. (R ∝ l)

(Resistance increases as the length of the wire is increased)

The area of cross-section of the resistor.

(Resistance decreases with the increase in the cross-section area of the wire)

Circuit Diagram:

In a circuit ammeter is always connected in series and voltmeter is connected in parallel across

25
the points between which potential difference is to be measured.

A straight line graph obtained between V and I verifies the Ohm’s law.

Materials Required

A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a
rheostat, a resistor and a piece of sand paper.

Observation Table

A. Least count of ammeter and voltmeter

S.No Ammeter Voltmeter

1 Range

2 Least count

3 Zero error

B. For reading of ammeter and voltmeter

S. No Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading Resistance

Conclusions

 The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.

 The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.

 The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.

26
Precautions

 The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends
should be removed using the sand paper.

 Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.

 Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the
connections to the teacher to take the readings.

 The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current
enters at the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.

27
 Experiment No-9

Aim

To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid):

(i) odour (smell)

(ii) solubility in water

(iii) effect on litmus

(iv) reaction with sodium bicarbonate

Materials Required

Test tubes, water, litmus paper, test tube stand, a dropper, a beaker, a cork fit in a test tube with
bent tube fixed in it.

Chemicals Required: Acetic acid (ethanoic acid), Distilled water, Sodium bicarbonate and
Freshly prepared lime water.

Theory

Acetic Acid

> The chemical name and formula of acetic acid is ethanoic acid, CH3COOH.

> The functional group — COOH group is responsible for the properties of acetic acid. —COOH is
called carboxyl group.

> It is also called glacial acetic acid, because it freezes at 16.6°C.

> Acetic acid is soluble in water.

> It has vinegar like smell.

> It dissociates in water to form CH3COO and H+ ions. The dissociation is partial and hence it is
called weak acid.

> It turns blue litmus red.

> It reacts with sodium bicarbonate to liberate CO2 gas.

Observation Table

28
29
Precautions

1. Acetic acid should be handled with care.

2. The vapours of the chemicals should not be inhaled.

3. Add only small amount of NaHCO3 to ethanoic acid to control the intensity of CO2 evolved.

4. Use freshly prepared lime water for CO2 test.

30
 Experiment No-10

Aim

To study saponification reaction for preparation of soap.

Theory

Chemically soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid or glycerol.
These carboxylic acids contain 15-18 carbon atoms i.e., long chain of hydrocarbon.

> Hydrophobic end: The end of soap molecule that repels water, it is the hydrocarbon chain.

> Hydrophilic end: The end of soap molecule that is ionic and attracts water.

Saponification: It is the process in which esters are split with the help of an alkali. Esters are
reacted with sodium hydroxide salt to form sodium salt of acid and alcohol.

Chemical reaction of soap

Oil or fat + sodium hydroxide —> soap + glycerol

In the above reaction, esters of fatty acids are hydrolysed and the soap obtained remain in
colloidal form.

> Soap is then precipitated from the solution by adding NaCl.

Materials Required

Beakers, a glass rod, red litmus paper strip, knife, tripod stand, bunsen burner, wire gauze and
pair of tongs.

Chemical required: Sodium hydroxide solution, plant oil (Use castor oil + oleic acid) and
common salt.

Procedure

1. Take a beaker and add 20 mL of castor oil into it. Heat the oil by constant stirring.

2. Take 20 mL of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution in another beaker.

31
3. Add the sodium hydroxide solution into the beaker containing hot castor oil. Heat the mixture
slowly to boil for about 10 minutes.

4. Dip the red litmus paper strip into this reaction mixture. Note and record your observation.

5. Now, add 5 g of sodium chloride into this mixture with constant stirring and then allow it to
cool. Addition of common salt decreases the solubility of soap. The soap molecules get
separated from the solution and floats on the surface. This is called salting out of soap.

6. On cooling the beaker, a crust is formed on the surface of the liquid. This crust is called soap.

7. Remove the soap cake and cut it into desired shapes and sizes.

8. The castor oil will produce a soap molecule named sodium oleate (C17H33COONa).

Observations

1. The heated mixture of oil and caustic soda forms a pale yellow thick liquid.

2. The red litmus turns blue in this soap solution.

Conclusion

The reaction mixture of (oil) carboxylic acid with sodium or potassium hydroxide produces a
soap molecule.

Precautions

1. Be careful while handling concentrated sodium hydroxide as it is corrosive in nature.

2. Do not overheat the beaker while heating.

3. Stir the soap solution carefully so that it does not spill out.

4. Add very small amount of common salt for salting out of soap.

32