Physics Practical

Experiment 1 : Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on

the current (I) passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plotting a graph
between V and l

Aim

To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and to determine its resistance. Additionally, to plot a graph between and .

Theory

•Ohm's Law: Ohm's Law states that the potential difference (V) across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current (l) passing through it, provided the temperature remains constant.
Mathematically,

V = IR

•Resistance (R): Resistance is the property of a material to oppose the flow of electric current.
Its SI unit is the ohm (Ω). It depends on the material, length, and cross-sectional area of the
conductor.

•V-I Graph: For an ohmic conductor, the graph between and is a straight line passing through
the origin. The slope of this graph gives the resistance of the conductor.

R = slope of the graph = V/I

Materials Required

1. Resistor of known resistance

2. DC power supply or battery

3. Voltmeter (0–10 V range)

4. Ammeter (0–1 A range)

5. Rheostat

6. Connecting wires

7. Switch

Procedure
 Physics Practical

1. Set up the circuit as per the circuit diagram. The resistor is connected in series with the
ammeter and the rheostat, while the voltmeter is connected in parallel across the resistor.

2. Adjust the rheostat to vary the current (I) passing through the resistor.

3. Record the readings of the voltmeter (V) and the ammeter (I) for different settings of the
rheostat.

4. Repeat the experiment 2-3 times to ensure consistency in readings.

5. Calculate the resistance using .

R=V/I

6. Plot a graph with on the y-axis and on the x-axis.

Observations

Current (I) (A) Potential Difference (V) Resistance (R=V/I) (Ω)

0.1 0.5 5

0.2 1.0 5

0.3 1.5 5

0.4 2.0 5

0.5 2.5 5

Graph

•Plot a graph with on the y-axis and on the x-axis.

•The graph should be a straight line passing through the origin.

•The slope of the line gives the resistance (R) of the resistor.
 Physics Practical

Result and Discussion

1. Result:

•The resistance of the given resistor is determined to be (calculated value) .

•The graph between and is a straight line, verifying Ohm’s law.

2. Discussion:

•The linearity of the - graph confirms the proportionality between and for the given resistor.

•Any deviation from linearity could be due to external factors like heating of the resistor,
measurement errors, or imperfect connections.

Precautions

1. Ensure that all connections are tight and secure to avoid errors in measurements.
 Physics Practical

2. Use a low-range voltmeter and ammeter for better accuracy.

3. Avoid prolonged use of the circuit to prevent heating of the resistor.

4. Adjust the rheostat gently to avoid sudden changes in current.

5. Ensure the voltmeter is connected in parallel and the ammeter in series.

Experiment 2 : Determination of the Equivalent Resistance of Two Resistors Connected

in Series and Parallel

Aim

To determine the equivalent resistance of two given resistors when connected in:

1. Series
2. Parallel

Theory

1. Resistance (R): Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of electric current.
It is measured in ohms (Ω).

2. Resistors in Series: When resistors are connected end-to-end, the total or equivalent
resistance is the sum of their individual resistances:

Rseries = R1 + R2

3. Resistors in Parallel: When resistors are connected such that they share the same two
terminals, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of their
individual resistances:

4. Ohm’s Law:

V=I•R

Materials Required

1. Two resistors of known resistances ( and ).

2. A DC power supply or battery eliminator.

 Physics Practical

3. Ammeter (0–3 A).

4. Voltmeter (0–10 V).

5. Connecting wires.

6. Plug key.

7. Rheostat (to vary current if required).

8. Breadboard or setup for connecting resistors.

Procedure

For Resistors in Series:

1. Connect the two resistors (R1 and R2 ) in series using the circuit diagram.

2. Attach the voltmeter across the combined resistors and the ammeter in series.

3. Close the circuit using the plug key.

4. Measure the total current (I) in the circuit and the total voltage (V) across the combination.

5. Calculate the equivalent resistance using:

Rseries=V/I

For Resistors in Parallel:

1. Connect the two resistors (R1 and R2) in parallel using the circuit diagram.

2. Attach the voltmeter across the parallel combination and the ammeter in series with the
power supply.

3. Close the circuit using the plug key.

4. Measure the current (I) through the circuit and the voltage (V) across the combination.

5. Calculate the equivalent resistance using:

Rparallel =V/I

Observation Table
 Physics Practical

Connection Voltage (V) Current (I) Calculated

Resistance (R)

Series 10 V 1A Rseries= 10Ω

Parallel 10 V 2.5 A Rparallel= 4Ω

Result

1. Equivalent resistance in series (Rseries) = 10 Ω.

2. Equivalent resistance in parallel (Rparallel) = 4 Ω.

Discussion

1. The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is greater than the largest individual
resistance since resistances add up.

2. The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is smaller than the smallest individual
resistance since the current divides.

3. Minor experimental errors may arise due to loose connections, resistance of wires, or
inaccuracies in measuring instruments.

Precautions

1. Ensure all connections are tight and correct as per the circuit diagram.

2. Avoid short circuits by connecting the components properly.

3. Do not exceed the voltage/current rating of the resistors or measuring instruments.

4. Take readings carefully to avoid parallax errors in the ammeter and voltmeter.

5. Use a low current to prevent the resistors from overheating.

Experiment 3 :To determine the focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens by
obtaining the image of a distant object.

Aim

To determine the focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens by obtaining the image of a
distant object.
 Physics Practical

Theory

•Concave Mirror: A concave mirror is a spherical mirror in which the reflective surface is curved
inward. The focal length of a concave mirror is determined by the formula:

f = R/2

The image of a distant object formed by a concave mirror is formed at its focus. By measuring
the distance between the mirror and the image, the focal length can be determined.

•Convex Lens: A convex lens is a transparent lens that is thicker in the middle than at the
edges. The focal length of a convex lens can be determined using the lens formula:

1/f = 1/v -1/u

When a distant object is used, the image forms near the focus of the lens, and the focal length
can be measured by finding the distance from the lens to the image.

Materials Required

1. Concave mirror (with known or unknown focal length)

2. Convex lens (with known or unknown focal length)

3. Screen (white)

4. Meter scale or measuring tape

5. Distant object (e.g., a far-off building or a distant lamp)

6. Stand or holder for the mirror and lens

7. Light source (optional for better visibility)

8. Clamp to hold the mirror and lens in position

9. Ruler for precise measurement

Procedure

For Concave Mirror:

1. Set up the concave mirror on a stand. Place a distant object in front of the mirror (such as a
building or tree).
 Physics Practical

2. Position a screen to capture the image formed by the concave mirror.

3. Adjust the position of the screen until a sharp image of the distant object is obtained.

4. Measure the distance between the mirror and the screen. This is the image distance (v).

5. Use the mirror formula f=v/2 to calculate the focal length of the concave mirror.

For Convex Lens:

1. Set up the convex lens on a stand. Place a distant object in front of the lens.

2. Position a screen to capture the image formed by the convex lens.

3. Move the screen to focus the image clearly. The distance between the lens and the screen
gives the image distance (v).

4. Measure the object distance (u) (distance from the object to the lens).

5. Use the lens formula 1/f = 1/v -1/u to calculate the focal length.

Observations

Discussion

•The focal length of the concave mirror can be easily determined using the image formed by a
distant object. Since the image of a distant object is formed at the focus, the focal length is half
the radius of curvature.
 Physics Practical

•For the convex lens, the image distance and object distance must be measured accurately. The
lens formula provides a method to calculate the focal length, and the accuracy of the experiment
depends on the precision of these measurements.

•The focal length of both the concave mirror and convex lens should be positive for converging
instruments. Any deviation from the expected results may be due to measurement errors or
misalignment of the mirror and lens.

Precautions

1. Ensure that the mirror and lens are clean to avoid distortion of the image.

2. The distant object should be as far as possible to approximate an infinite object distance.

3. Take multiple readings for image distance and use the average value for better accuracy.

4. The screen should be placed perpendicular to the axis of the mirror or lens to get a sharp
image.

5. Ensure that the measuring instruments (scale, ruler) are calibrated correctly for accurate
measurement.

6. Avoid parallax errors while measuring distances by keeping the eye in the same plane as the
scale or measuring tape.

Experiment 4 : Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab
for different angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction,
angle of emergence and
interpret the result.

Aim

To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence and measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence, and
interpret the results.

Theory

When a ray of light passes from one medium to another (e.g., from air to glass), it undergoes a
phenomenon called refraction. The change in speed of light as it moves between media of
different optical densities causes the ray to bend. The amount of bending depends on the angle
of incidence (the angle between the incoming ray and the normal to the surface), the refractive
 Physics Practical

index of the glass, and the angle of refraction (the angle between the refracted ray and the
normal).

In the case of a rectangular glass slab, when the light enters, it bends toward the normal (due
to the higher refractive index of glass compared to air). When it emerges from the other side, it
bends away from the normal (as it returns to air, a less dense medium).

Snell's Law explains this refraction mathematically :

Material Required

1. Rectangular Glass Slab: A transparent glass slab.

2. Ray Box or Laser Pointer: To produce a beam of light.

3. Protractor: To measure angles of incidence, refraction, and emergence.

4. Paper: For tracing the light path.

5. Pencil: To mark the light path.

6. Ruler: To draw straight lines (the light path).

7. Cloth or Soft Towel: To clean the slab before use.

8. Sticky Tape or Clamps: To hold the glass slab in place during the experiment.

Procedure

1. Setup: Place the glass slab on a piece of paper. Use a protractor to draw a straight line
representing the normal (perpendicular to the surface of the slab).

2. Incident Ray: Direct a ray of light from the ray box at the surface of the slab at a known angle
of incidence.

3. Mark the Angle of Incidence: Measure the angle between the incident ray and the normal
using a protractor.
 Physics Practical

4. Trace the Path: Observe the refracted ray inside the glass slab. Mark the point where the ray
exits the slab and trace the path of light.

5. Measure the Angle of Refraction: Measure the angle between the refracted ray and the
normal at the point of entry into the glass slab.

6. Angle of Emergence: Measure the angle between the emergent ray (the ray leaving the slab)
and the normal.

7. Repeat for Different Angles of Incidence: Repeat the procedure for various angles of
incidence (e.g., 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°) and record all the corresponding angles of refraction and
emergence.

Observation

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases but at a slower rate
due to the refractive index of the glass.

The angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence for the rays that exit from the
opposite side of the glass slab, assuming the slab's faces are parallel.

The light ray experiences two refractions: one at the entry point and another at the exit point.

Result

The angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence when the slab's faces are parallel.
The angle of refraction increases as the angle of incidence increases, following Snell's Law. The
overall behavior of the light ray shows that the direction of the ray is shifted due to the refraction
at both the entry and exit points.

Discussion

•The experiment confirms that the light ray bends towards the normal as it enters a denser
medium (glass) and away from the normal as it exits into a less dense medium (air).
 Physics Practical

•The phenomenon of refraction is explained by the change in the speed of light in different
media. The refractive index of glass causes the light to slow down, resulting in bending.

•As the angle of incidence increases, the refraction also increases but follows the specific
relationship dictated by Snell's Law. The path inside the glass slab is straight, and only the
direction of the ray changes due to the change in medium.

•The angle of emergence being equal to the angle of incidence is characteristic of the
rectangular glass slab, where the two parallel faces do not alter the light's angular relationship
but only displace the ray.

Precautions

1. Ensure the glass slab is clean and free of fingerprints or dust, as it can distort the light path.

2. Keep the ray box steady and ensure that the light beam is directed accurately.

3. Make sure the slab is held in place securely, as any movement will affect the results.

4. Measure the angles accurately using the protractor.

5. Perform the experiment in a darkened room to clearly observe the light ray's path.