Questions

1. What is research? Explain its significance in modern times. Is there any

difference between research methods and research methodology?

2. Distinguish between quantitative research and qualitative research.

3.“Empirical research in Bangladesh in particular creates so many problems

for the researcher”. State the problems that are usually facing by such
researchers.

4. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and

evaluation.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of
your answer.

5. Briefly discuss the different types of research.

6. What are the characteristics of a good research? Narrate in brief.

7. Explain the operational steps followed in general to conduct a research.

8. What is mean by review of literature? Why it is important?

9. Briefly explain the procedure of reviewing the literature and the techniques
of writing up the literature reviewed.

10. How does literature review help you in preparing a research proposal and
writing a report?

11. “Potential research questions may occur to us on a regular basis, but the
process of formulating them in a meaningful way is not at all an easy task.”-
Critically explain this statement by using a hypothetical example.
12. Explain different steps that followed in the formulation of a research
problem.

13. What is research problem? What is the necessity of defining a research

problem? Explain.

14. How do you define a research problem? Give an appropriate example to

illustrate your answer.

15. What is research hypothesis? Write down the functions and characteristics
of a research hypothesis.

16. How can you formulate the research objective? Briefly explain the
characteristics of the wording of objectives in relation to the type of research
study.

17. What is research design? Explain the function of a research design.

18. Classify and illustrate the study designs based on the number of contracts
with the study population, the reference period of the study and the nature of
the investigation.

19. What are the primary considerations in the construction of a

questionnaire? Mention the advantage and disadvantage of open-ended and
closed-ended questions for data collection.

20. Briefly explain various techniques of data collection.

21. How can you differentiate the concepts, indicators, and variable? Classify
and illustrate different type of variables in context of causal model, study
design, and unit of measurement.
22. What is questionnaire? How does it differ from an interview? Distinguish
between open-ended and close-ended questionnaire. Briefly explain the
different ways of administering a questionnaire.

23. What do you mean by „Sample Design‟? How can you determine the
sample size by using a table of random numbers?

24. Distinguish between Stratified sampling and Cluster sampling. Under

what circumstances stratified random sampling design considered
appropriate? How would you select such sample? Explain by means of an
example.

25. Write a short note on American Psychological Association (APA)

formatting basics.

26. What is a research proposal? Briefly explain the different components of a

research proposal. Which component(s) you consider are integral parts of the
proposal?

27. What are the purposes of writing a report? Suggest a general format for a
good report. Which component(s) you consider most important in a report?
Give your argument.
 Research

Submitted by Submitted to

Abu Bakar Muhammad Sadik Md. Shaddam Hossain

ASH1712022M Lecturer
Year: 4, Term: 1 Department of Economics
Session: 2016-17 Noakhali Science and Technology
University

In computer science, garbage in, garbage out (GIGO) is the concept that flawed,
or nonsense (garbage) input data produces nonsense output. Rubbish in, rubbish
out (RIRO) is an alternate wording.

Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has
an equal probability of being chosen. A sample chosen randomly is meant to be
an unbiased representation of the total population.
1. What is research? Explain its significance in modern times. Is there any difference
between research methods and research methodology?

Definition of Research
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former
as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine
closely and carefully, test and try, or probe.
Research means the systematic investigation and the study of sources or material or things so
that the facts can be established or the conclusion can be drawn. So, it is actually about finding
the truth through experiments or investigation using scientific methods.

Significance of research in modern times

➢ All the previous laws and theories made regarding any subject are just the result of
research.
➢ Modern scientific study and experiments are purely basis on research.
➢ Our science books are the result of the research.
➢ It also helps in the writing of research papers or publishing the research being the
scientist. Yes, there is a difference between the research method and research
methodology.

Research method Research methodology

The research method seeks to answer what

did the researcher use to complete his Research methodology seeks to answer how
research. did the researcher complete his study

Research methods are the techniques and Methodology explains and justifies the
tools by which someone researches a subject techniques and tools by which someone may
or a topic. proceed with research.

Research methods involve conducting Research methodology involves learning

experiment tests, surveys, and the like various techniques to conduct research and
utilizing the knowledge and skills learned acquire knowledge to perform tests,
through research methodology. experiment surveys, and critical analysis.
 It aims at finding a solution to the research Ensures the employment of the procedures to
problem. solve problems.

Research methods are the end of any Research methodology paves the way to
scientific or non-scientific research. choose appropriate research methods and thus
is the beginning of any research.

2. Distinguish between quantitative research and qualitative research.

Qualitative research Quantitative research

It is concerned with understanding human It is concerned with discovering facts about

behaviour from the informant's perspective. phenomena.

Assumes a dynamic and negotiated reality. Assumes a fixed and measurable reality.

Data are collected through participant Data are collected by measuring things.
observation and interviews.

Themes from descriptions by informants Data are analyzed through numerical

analyze data. comparisons and statistical inferences.

Data are reported in the language of the Data are reported through statistical analysis.
informant

3. "Empirical research in Bangladesh, in particular, creates so many problems for the

researcher". State the problems that are usually facing by such researchers.
Researchers, particularly those engaged in empirical research, face many problems. Some of the
fundamental problems are as follows:

➢ The lack of scientific training in the research methodology is a significant impediment for
researchers in our country; there is a paucity of complementary researchers. Many researchers
stake a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the
name of research in not methodologically sound.
➢ There is insufficient interaction between the university research Departments on one side and
the business establishment, the government Department and research institutions on the other
side. There is a need for developing some mechanisms of a university.

➢ Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely Secretariat
assistance, including computer assistance, which causes unnecessary delays in completing
research studies. University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this
difficulty.

➢ There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. The researcher also faces the published data
vary significantly because of differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.

➢ At times, there may take place the problem of conceptualization and problems relating to data
collection and related things.

4. "Research is much concerned with proper fact-finding, analysis and evaluation." Do you
agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Yes, research is about finding facts, analyzing them and then evaluating the results.
Research begins with a theory or thesis statement. This statement has to be proven or disproven
as true/false. Given that research is based on proving or disproving a theory, research is
concerned with finding facts, analyzing facts, and evaluating the response to form a conclusion
regarding the research topic.
There have been occasions when research has been called into question. Corporate espionage and
other issues such as; corporations skewing the facts to fit their data have existed. It is a downside
to dishonesty in people; however, the ethical, moral, and scientific belief is that all research must
be based on facts.
This does not mean the facts will not change. Research is conducted with what information and
tools are available at that time. This means that in 100 years, research being conducted now
could be found false, but at the time, it is true because of the limited technology or facts that
could be found.
There is also the human interpretation of the information found. While research is concerned
with these three topics, one also has to realize that the research writer can limit the scope of the
research and therefore change the results based on their viewpoint alone.
5. Briefly discuss the different types of research.
Types of research can be looked at from_
Three different perspectives:
➢ Applications of the findings of the research study.
➢ Objectives of the study.
➢ Mode of Enquiry used in conducting the study.

Types of research: Application perspective:

There are two broad categories of research according to application perspective –
➢ Pure Research
➢ Applied Research

Pure Research:
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have a practical application at present or in the
future. Pure research is also concerned with developing, examining, verifying, and refining
research methods, procedures, techniques, and tools from the research methodology.
Applied research:
Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, the research techniques,
procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to collecting
information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon. There is a
great deal of applied research taking place today in general, no new science principles are
discovered, but existing knowledge is used to develop a new product. An excellent example of
this type of research is the application of X-rays in medicine.
Types of research: objectives perspective:
Form the concept of an objective perspective, and research has four types:
➢ Descriptive research
➢ Correlational research
➢ Explanatory research
➢ Exploratory research

Descriptive research:
Descriptive research attempts to describe a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program
systematically. For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service. It is provided by an
organization, the administrative structure of an organization, the living condition of aboriginal
people in the outbreak. The primary purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent
concerning the issue/problem under study.
Correlational research:
It tries to discover or establish a relationship / Association/interdependence between two or more
aspects of a situation. What is the relationship between stressful living and the incident of a heart
attack? What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between
technology and unemployment? These studies examine whether there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and therefore are called correlational
studies.
Explanatory research:
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects
of a situation or phenomenon.
Explanatory research is conducted for a poorly researched problem before demand priorities,
generates operational definitions, and provides a better-researched model. It is a type of research
design that focuses on explaining the aspects of one study in a detailed manner: for example, a
study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing comminuting channel.
Exploratory research:
Exploratory research is the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. Exploratory
research is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is
known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. It is
conducted to understand the existing problem better but will not provide a conclusive result.
An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction
subject to the revelation of new data or insight.
Types of research: Mode of Enquiry perspective:
There are two approaches to enquiry:
➢ The structured approach
➢ The unstructured approach

The structured approach:

In the structured approach, everything that forms the research process – objectives, design,
sample and the questions that one plan to ask of respondents is predetermined.
The structured approach is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or
phenomenon, for example, to find out how many people have a particular perspective, how many
people have a particular problem or how many people hold a particular view. It is a need for a
structured approach to enquiry.
The unstructured approach:
The unstructured approach allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process. The unstructured
approach is a phenomenon used to explore its nature.
For example, if one wants to research the different perspectives of an issue, the problems
experienced by people living in a community, or the different views people hold towards an
issue, these are better explored using unstructured inquiries.

6. What are the characteristics of good research? Narrate in brief.

The characteristics of good research are-
1. Systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence following the well-defined set of rules. The systematic characterization of the research
does not rule out creative thinking, but it certainly does reject guessing and intuition in arriving
at conclusions.

2. Logical: This implies that the rules of logical reasoning guide research, and the logical process
of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is reasoning
from a part to the whole, whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion that follows from that very premise. Logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of an actual
situation and deals with factual data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

4. Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study
and building a sound basis for decisions.

7. Explain the operational steps followed in general to conduct research.

There are eight steps in the research process. These are-
Formulating a research problem
Formulating a research problem: Conceptualizing a research design
Constructing an instrument for data collection
Selecting a sample
Writing a research proposal
Collecting data
Processing and displaying data
Writing a research report
Formulating a research problem is the first and most crucial step in the research process. A
research problem identifies the researcher
destination. It should tell the researcher, the research supervisor and the readers what the
researcher intend to research.
The primary function of formulating a research problem is deciding what the researcher wants to
find out about. It is essential to evaluate the research problem in the light of the financial
resource, the time available of knowledge in the field of study.
Conceptualizing a research design:
An essential feature of the research is the use of appropriate methods. Research involves
systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous Exploration and description of what is not known and
establishment of an Association. It also involves identifying gaps in knowledge, verifying what
is already known, and identifying past errors and limitations. The main faction of research design
is to explain how the researcher will answer the researcher question. The research design sets out
the specific details of the research enquiry.
Constructing an instrument for data collection:
Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for the study is called a 'research tool'
or a research instrument, for example, observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires
and interview guides. The construction of a research instrument is the first practical step in
carrying out a study.
If someone is using secondary data, he/she will need to identify what information is needed and
then develop a form to extract the required data. Field testing (or pretesting), a research tool, is
an integral part of instrument construction.
Selecting a sample:
The accuracy of research findings largely depends upon the way one Select the sample. The basis
of any objective sampling design is to minimize the gap between the values obtained from
sample and those prevalent in the study population within the limitation of cost.

Writing a research proposal:

Having done all the preparatory work, the next step is to put everything together to provide
adequate information about the research study for the research supervisor and others. This
overall plan, called a research proposal, tells a reader about the research problem.
Collecting data:
Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research
instrument and selected a sample, we collected the data from which we will draw inferences.
And the conclusion for our study. Many methods could be used to gather the required
information.
Processing and displaying data:
The way we analyze the information collected largely depends upon two things –
• The type of information (descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal)
• We want to communicate the findings to our readers; if our study is purely descriptive,
we can write our report based on our field notes. If we want quantitative analysis, it is
also necessary to decide upon the type of analysis required.

Writing a research report:

There are two board categories of reports, quantitative and qualitative. Writing the report is the
last and, for many, the most challenging research process. This report informs they would what
we have done and what conclusions we have drawn from our finding report should be written in
an academic style and be divided into different sections based upon the main themes of our
study.

8. What is meant by a review of literature? Why is it important?

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. A literature
review discusses published information in a particular subject area. It can be just a simple
summary of sources, but it generally summarizes and synthesizes available information.
Literature reviews provide a solid research background. They demonstrate that the author has a
comprehensive knowledge of the field's literature and can serve as a valuable guide to others.
It is a preliminary task when you undertake a research study. The literature review is an integral
part of the research process and makes a valuable contribution to almost every operational step.
It has value even before the first step; when you are merely thinking about a research question,
you may want to find answers through your research journey. In the initial stages of research, it
helps you establish your study's theoretical roots, clarify your ideas, and develop your research
methodology. Later in the process, the literature review enhances and consolidates your
knowledge base and helps you integrate your findings with the existing body of knowledge.
Since an essential responsibility in research is to compare your findings with those of others, it is
here that the literature review plays a vital role. During the write-up of your report, it helps you
to integrate your findings with existing knowledge – that is, to either support or contradict earlier
research. The higher the academic level of your research, the more critical a thorough integration
of your findings with existing literature becomes.
A literature review has the following functions:
• It provides a theoretical background to your study.
• It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
 • It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to your profession's existing
body of knowledge. It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body
of knowledge.

9. Briefly explain the procedure of reviewing the literature and writing up the literature
review.
A literature review is a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge, including
substantive findings and theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review –
➢ Searching for the existing literature in the area of study.
➢ I was reviewing the selected literature.
➢ Developing a theoretical framework.
➢ Developing a conceptual framework.

Developing theoretical and conceptual frameworks is more complicated than the other tasks.
Searching for the existing literature:
To search effectively for the literature in the field of inquiry, it is important that we have at least
some ideas of the board subject area and problem to set parameters for the researcher.
There are three sources that we can use to prepare a bibliography –
➢ Books
➢ Journals
➢ The internet

Books:
Through books are a central part of any bibliography, they have Their disadvantages as well as
advantages.
The main advantage:
The main advantage is that the material published in books is usually essential and of good
quality, and the findings are Integrated with other research.

The main disadvantage:

The main disadvantage is that the material is not entirely up to date, as it can take a few years
between completing work and its publication in the form of a book.
Journals:
Journal provide the researcher with the most up to date information, even though there is often a
gap of two to three years between the completion of a research project. As with books, we need
to prepare a list of the journal. This can be done in several ways.

➢ Locate the hard copies of the journals that are appropriate to our study.
➢ Look at citation or abstract indices to identify.
➢ Search electronic databases.

There are several sources designed to make research for journals easier. They are-
➢ Indices of journals
➢ Abstract of articles
➢ Citation indices

The internet:
In almost every academic discipline and professional field. The internet has become an essential
tool for finding published literature. Through an internet search, we can identify published
material in books, journals and other sources. An internet search is carried out through search
engines, of which there are many. The most commonly used are Google and Yahoo.
Reviewing the selected literature:
Now that we have identified several books and articles as applicable, the next step is to start
reading than critically to pull together themes and issues. Keep in mind that we may need to add
more themes as we go along. While gaining through the literature, we should carefully and
critically examine it concerning the following aspect:
➢ Note whether the knowledge relevant to the theoretical framework has been confirmed
beyond doubt.
➢ Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to another situation.
➢ Where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give an opinion
about the validity of these differences.

Developing a theoretical framework:

Examine the literature can be a never-ending task, but as we have limited time, it is important to
set parameters by reviewing the literature about some themes. Literature deals with several
aspects that have a direct or indirect bearing on the research topic. Use these aspects as a basis
for developing our theoretical framework.
The theoretical framework includes all the theories that have been put forward to explain the
relationship between fertility and mortality. Literature pertinent to our study may deal with two
types of information.
➢ Universal
➢ More specific

Developing a conceptual framework:

The conceptual framework is the basis of our research Problem. The theoretical framework
consists of the theories or issues in which our study is embedded; the conceptual framework
describes the aspects. The conceptual framework is focused on indicators to measures the
success or failure of the strategies to enhance community responsiveness. Hence, the conceptual
framework grows out of the theoretical framework and relates to the specific research problem.
Writing about the literature reviewed:
Two of the board functions of a literature review are
➢ To provide a theoretical background to the study and
➢ To enable to contextualize the findings of the existing body of knowledge in addition to
refining the methodology. In order to fulfil the first proposal, we should identify and
describes various theories relevant to the field and specify gaps in existing knowledge in
the area.

In order to comply with the second function, we should integrate the results from the study with
specific and relevant findings from the existing literature. While reading the literature for
theoretical background of the study, we will realize that specific themes have emerged, list the
main ones, converting them into subheadings, some people write up the entire literature review
in one section, entitled review of the literature, summary of literature but the author strongly
suggests that we write our literature review under subheadings based upon the main themes that
we have discovered and which forms the basis for our theoretical framework.
The subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the themes in question and follow a logical
progression. Under each subheading, record the main findings regarding the theme in question,
highlighting reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identifying gaps and issues.
The second board function of the literature review – contextualizing our study's findings requires
comparing our findings with those made by others. Quote from these studies to show how our
findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places our findings in the context of what others
have found out, providing complete reference in an acceptable format. This function is
undertaken when writing about our findings that are often analysis of data.

10. How does literature review help you in preparing a research proposal and writing a
report?
Literature reviews a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The purpose of a
literature review is to place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the
research problem being studied.
Bringing clarity and focus to research problem:
The literature review involves a paradox on the one hand; I cannot effectively undertake a
literature search without some idea of the problem I wish to investigate. On the other hand, the
literature review can play a significant role in shaping my research problem because reviewing
the literature Helps to understand the subject area better and thus helps to conceptualize the
research problem clearly and precisely and makes it more relevant to my field of enquiry. When
reviewing the literature, I Learn what aspects of my subject area have been examined by others,
what they have identified and what suggestions they have made for further research.
All these will help me gain a greater Insight into my own research question and provide clarity
and focus that are central to a relevant and valid study. In addition, it will help to focus my study
on areas where there are gaps in the existing body of knowledge, thereby enhancing its
relevance. The last step in the research process is writing the research report. Each step of the
process is important for a valid study. Negligence at any stage will affect the quality of not just
that part but the whole study. In a way, this last step is the most crucial as it is through the report
that the study's findings and their implications are communicated to supervision and readers.
Obtaining answers to research questions is comparatively easy, the difficult part is examining
how the findings fit in to existing body of
knowledge. How do answers to the research questions compare with what others have found.
What contribution have you been able to make to the existing body of knowledge? How are your
findings different from those of others? Undertaking a literature review will enable to compare
my findings with those of others and answers these questions, it is important to place the findings
in the context of what is already known in my field of enquiry. This way literature review helps
in preparing a research proposal and writing a report.

11. "Potential research questions may occur to us on a regular basis, but the process of
formulating them in a meaningful way is not at all an easy task". Critically explain this
statement by using a hypothetical example.
Broadly speaking, any question that researcher wants answered and any assumption or assertion
that he wants to challenge or investigates can become a research problem or a research topic for
the study.
However, it is important to remember that not all questions can be transformed into research
problems and some may prove to be extremely difficult to study. As a newcomer it might seem
easy to formulate a problem but it requires considerable knowledge of both the subject area and
research methodology.
Once researcher examines a question more closely, he will soon realize the complexity of
formulating an idea into a problem which is researchable. First identifying and then specifying a
research problem might seem like research tasks that ought to be easy and quickly accomplished.
However, such is often not the case.
It is essential for the problem researcher formulates to be able to withstand scrutiny in terms of
the procedures required to be undertaken. Hence, researcher should spend considerable time in
thinking it through.
For example,
Whether CO2 causes adverse impact on tourism might be a potential research question. But to
formulate it into a meaningful way is not easy. For it, a researcher may go through a number of
steps such as,
➢ Identifying a broad field or subject area
➢ Dissecting the broad area into subareas
➢ Selecting what is of most interest
➢ Raising research questions
➢ Formulating objectives
➢ Assessing objectives
➢ Double-checking
So, it is a long and complicated process to make a research question meaningful.

12. Explain different steps that followed in the formulation of a research problem.
The formulation of a research problem is the most crucial part of the research journey as the
quality and relevance of your research project entirely depends upon it. The process of
formulating a research problem consists of a number of steps. Working through these steps
presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is
to be undertaken and the research methodology itself.
If you do not know what specific research topic, idea, questions or issue you want to research,
first go through the following steps:
Identify a broad field or subject area of
Step 1-Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you: interest to you
Dissect the broad area into subareas
Select what is of most interest to you
Raise research questions
Formulate objectives
Assess your objectives
Double-check
In the author's opinion, it is a good idea to think about the field in which you would like to work
after graduation. This will help you to find an interesting topic, and one which may be of use to
you in the future. For example, if you are a social work student, inclined to work in the area of
youth welfare, refugees or domestic violence after graduation, you might take to research in one
of these areas. Or if you are studying marketing you might be interested in researching consumer
behavior. Or, as a student of public health, intending to work with patients who have HIV/AIDS,
you might like to conduct research on a subject area relating to HIV/AIDS. As far as the research
journey goes, these are the broad research areas. It is imperative that you identify one of interest
to you before undertaking your research journey.
Step 2- Dissect the broad area into subareas:
At the onset, you will realize that all the broad areas mentioned above – youth welfare, refugees,
domestic violence, consumer behavior and HIV/AIDS – have many aspects. You can select any
subject area from other fields such as community health or consumer research and go through
this dissection process. In preparing this list of subareas you should also consult others who have
some knowledge of the area and the literature in your subject area. Once you have developed an
exhaustive list of the subareas from various sources, you proceed to the next stage where you
select what will become the basis of your enquiry.
Step 3-Select what is of most interest to you:
It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all subareas. Out of this list, select issues or subareas
about which you are passionate. This is because your interest should be the most important
determinant for selection, even though there are other considerations which have been discussed
in the previous section, 'Considerations in selecting a research problem'. One way to decide what
interests you most is to start with the process of elimination. Go through your list and delete all
those subareas in which you are not very interested. You will find that towards the end of this
process, it will become very difficult for you to delete anything further. You need to continue
until you are left with something that is manageable considering the time available to you, your
level of expertise and other resources needed to undertake the study. Once you are confident that
you have selected an issue you are passionate about and can manage, you are ready to go to the
next step.
Step 4-Raise research questions:
Make a list of whatever questions come to your mind relating to your chosen subarea and if you
think there are too many to be manageable, go through the process of elimination, as you did in
Step 3.
Step 5-Formulate objectives:
Both your main objectives and your sub objectives now need to be formulated, which grow out
of your research questions. The main difference between objectives and research questions is the
way in which they are written. Research questions are obviously that – questions. Objectives
transform these questions into behavioral aims by using act ion oriented words such as 'to find
out', 'to determine', 'to ascertain' and 'to examine'. Some researchers prefer to reverse the process;
that is, they start from objectives and formulate research questions from them. Some researchers
are satisfied only with research questions, and do not formulate objectives at all. If you prefer to
have only research questions or only objectives, this is fine, but keep in mind the requirements of
your institution for research proposals. For guidance on formulating objectives, see the later
section.
Step 6-Assess your objectives:
Now examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them through your
research endeavor. Consider them in the light of the time, resources (financial and human) and
technical expertise at your disposal.
Step 7-Double-check:
Go back and give final consideration to whether or not you are sufficiently interested in the
study, and have adequate resources to undertake it. Ask yourself, 'Am I really enthusiastic about
this study?' and 'Do I really have enough resources to undertake it?' Answer these questions
thoughtfully and realistically. If your answer to one of them is 'no', reassess your objectives.

13. What is research problem? What is the necessity of defining a research problem?
Explain.
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
The component of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one
wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if
he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

14. How do you define a research problem? Give an appropriate example to illustrate your
answer.
A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that I will
aim to address in my research. I might look for practical problems aimed at contributing to
change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge. Bear in mind that some research
will do both of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on one or the other. The
type of research problem I choose depends on my broad topic of interest and the type of research
I want to do. This article helps me identify and refine a research problem. When writing my
research proposal or introduction, I will have to formulate it as a problem statement and/or
research questions.
After I have identified a research problem for my project, the next step is to write a problem
statement. An effective problem statement is concise and concrete. It should:
➢ Put the problem in context.
➢ Describe the precise issue that the research will address.
➢ Show the relevance of the problem.
➢ Set the objectives of the research.

15. What is research hypothesis? Write down the functions and characteristics of a
research hypothesis.
A research hypothesis is a specific, clear and testable proposition or predictive statement about
the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on a particular property of a population
such as presumed
difference between groups on a particular variable or relationship between variables.
According to Grinnell:
A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid and reliable
data it is in order to obtain these data that we perform our study. Black and champion define a
hypothesis as, a tentative statement about something, the validity of which is usually unknown:
from the above definitions it is apparently that a hypothesis has certain characteristics –
➢ The hypothesis should be clear and precise so as to consider it to be reliable.
➢ If the hypothesis is relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship
between variables.
➢ The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
➢ The way of explanation of hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that simplicity of hypothesis is not related to its significance.

The function of hypothesis:

A hypothesis is important in terms of bringing clarity to the research problem. Specially, a
hypothesis serves the following function –
 ➢ The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells what specific aspects
of a research problem to investigate.
➢ A hypothesis tells what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus to
the study.
➢ As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
➢ A hypothesis may enable to add to the Formulation of theory, it enables to conclude
specially what is true or what is false.

16. How can you formulate the research objective? Briefly explain the characteristics of the
wording of objectives in relation to the type of research study.
To formulate research objective, we should-
➢ Define the focus of your study.
➢ Clearly identify variables to be measured.
➢ Indicate the various steps to be involved.
➢ Establish the limits of the study.
➢ Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly necessary.

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. It's important what you want to
achieve through the study. It is divided into broad categories are:
➢ Main objectives
➢ Sub objectives
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the
main associations are relationship that you seek to discover or establish.
It is considered as the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main
framework of your study.
Sub-objectives should be numerically listed. They should be worded clearly and unambiguously.
It represents only one aspect of study by use of action-oriented words or verbs such as 'to
determine' or 'to find', 'to ascertain', 'to measure' and 'to explore'.

17. What is research design? Explain the function of a research design.

Research Design
According to Kerlinger (1986), a research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation
so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete
scheme or programed of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.
According to Thyer (1993), a traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how a
research study is to be completed—operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting
a sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and
analyzing the results.

The function of a research design:

➢ The first relates to the identification or development of procedures and logistical
arrangements required to undertake a study.
➢ The second emphasis the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure the validity.
Objectivity and accuracy. Hence, through a research design.
➢ Conceptualize an operational plan to undertake the various procedure and tasks required
to complete the study.
➢ Ensure that these procedures are adequate to obtain valid, objective and accurate answers
to the research questions, Kerlinger calls this function the control of variance.

18. Classify and illustrate the study design based on the number of contracts with the study
population, the reference period of the study and the nature of the investigation.
Based on the number of contacts with the study population, designs can be classified into three
groups-
➢ Cross-sectional studies
➢ Before and after studies
➢ Longitudinal studies

Cross-sectional study design:

Cross sectional studies also known as one-shot or status studies, are the most commonly used
design in the social sciences. This design is best suited to studies aims at finding out the
prevalence of a phenomenon, studies, problems, attitude of issue by taking a cross-sectional of
the population. They are useful in obtaining an overall picture as it stands at the time of the
study.
A cross sectional study is extremely simple in design. A cross –sectional design would be the
most appropriate for a study of the following topics:
➢ The attitude of the study population towards uranium mining in Australia.
➢ The socioeconomic – demographic characteristics of immigrants in Western Australia.
➢ The incidence of HIV positive cases in Australia.
➢ The reasons for homelessness among young people.
➢ The quality assurance of a service provided by an organization.
➢ As these studies involve only one contact with the study population, they are
comparatively cheap to undertake and easy to analyze.

The before and after study design:

The main advantage of the before and after design (also known as the pretest/post-test design) is
that it can measure change in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problems or attitude. It is the most
appropriate design for measuring the impact or effectiveness of a program.

The following are examples of topics that can be studied using before and after design -
➢ The impact of administrative restructuring on the quality of services provided by an
organization.
➢ The effectiveness of a marriage counselling service.
➢ The effect of a drug awareness program on the knowledge about and use of drugs among
young people.

The main advantage of before and after design is its ability to measure change in a phenomenon.
There can be disadvantage which may not occur, individually or collectively, in every study.
These disadvantages include the following-
➢ As two sets of data must be collected, involving two contacts with the study population,
the study is more expensive and more difficult to implement. It also requires a longer
time to complete, particularly if we are using an experimental design.
➢ One of the main limitations of this design, in its simplest form, is that as it measures total
change, we cannot ascertain whether independent or extraneous variables are responsible
for producing change in the dependent variable.
➢ Another disadvantage that may occur when we use a research instrument twice to gauge
the attitude of a population towards an issue is a possible shift in attitude between the two
points of data collection.

The longitudinal study design:

To determine the pattern of change in relation to time, a longitudinal design is used, for example,
when we wish to study the proportion of people adopting a program over a period.
Longitudinal studies are also useful when we need to collect factual information on a continuing
basis. One may want to ascertain the trends in the demand for labor immigration, changes in the
incidence of a disease.
Study designs based on the reference period:
The reference period refers to the time frame in which a study is exploring a phenomenon,
situation, event or problem. Studies are categorized from this perspective as-
➢ Retrospective
➢ Prospective
➢ Retrospective – prospective

The retrospective study design:

Retrospective studies investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has happened in
the past. They are usually conducted either on the basis of the data available for that period. For
example, studies conducted on the following topics are classified as retrospective studies-
➢ The living conditions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia in the
early twentieth century.
➢ The utilization of land before the Second World War in Western Australia.
➢ A historical analysis of migratory movements in Eastern Europe between 1915 and 1945.
➢ The relationship between levels of unemployment and street crime.

The prospective study design:

Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or
outcome in the future. Such studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event or what is likely
to happen. The following are classified as prospective studies-
➢ To determine, under field conditions, the impact of maternal and child health services on
the level of infant mortality.
➢ To establish the effects of a counselling service on the extent of marital problems.
➢ To determine the impact of random breath testing on the prevention of road accidents.
➢ To find out the effect of parental involvement on the level of academic achievement of
their children.
➢ To measure the effects of a change in migration policy on the extent of immigration in
Australia.

The retrospective-prospective study design:

Retrospective-prospective studies focus on past trends in a phenomenon and study it into the
future. Part of the data is collected retrospectively from the existing records.
Some examples of retrospective-prospective studies are-
➢ The effect of random breath testing on road accidents.
➢ The impact of maternal and child health services on the infant mortality rate.

Study designs based on the nature of the investigation:

On the basis of the nature of the investigation, study designs in quantitative research can be
classified as _
➢ Experimental
➢ Non-experimental
➢ Quasi or semi-experimental

Experimental study:
Experimental study is a study where a researcher uses an experiment to investigate a relationship
by starting from the cause to determine the [Link] starts from the effects to trace the cause. An
objective of this study to find out the cause of having violent behavior among children.
Quasi or semi-experimental study:
A study that has the properties of both experimental and non-experimental study.
Non-experimental study:
Non experimental is a study where a researcher starts from the effects to trace the cause. An
objective of this study to find out the cause of having violent behavior among children.

19. What are the primary considerations in construction of a questionnaire? Mention the
advantage and disadvantage of open-ended and closed-ended questions for data collection.

Considerations when constructing questionnaire:

Questionnaires are frequently used in quantitative marketing research and social research. They
are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large number of
individuals, often referred to as respondents. What is often referred to as "adequate questionnaire
construction" is critical to the success of a survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of
questions, incorrect scaling, or a bad questionnaire format can make the survey results valueless,
as they may not accurately reflect the views and opinions of the participants.
Different methods can be useful for checking a questionnaire and making sure it is accurately
capturing the intended information. Initial advice may include:
➢ Consulting subject-matter experts.
➢ Using questionnaire construction guidelines to inform drafts.

Empirical tests also provide insight into the quality of the questionnaire. This can be done by:
➢ Conducting cognitive interviewing. By asking a sample of potential-respondents about
their interpretation of the questions and use of the questionnaire.
➢ Carrying out a small pretest of the questionnaire, using a small subset of target
respondents. Results can inform a researcher of errors such as missing questions, or
logical and procedural errors.
➢ Estimating the measurement quality of the questions. This can be done for instance using
test-retest, quasi-simplex, or mutlitrait-multimethod models.
➢ Predicting the measurement quality of the question. This can be done using the software
Survey Quality Predictor (SQP).

Open-ended questions:
Open-ended questions are defined as free-form survey questions that allows a respondent to
answer in open text format such that they can answer based on their complete knowledge,
feeling, and understanding. This means that response to this question is not limited to a set of
options.

Advantages of Open Questions:

➢ Permits an unlimited range of answers.
➢ Reveals how the respondents think about the question.
➢ Responses can be used to expand on and clarify closed responses.

Disadvantages of Open Questions:

➢ Takes more time and effort to respond to the questions.
➢ Literal responses can be difficult for respondents not familiar with expressing own views
and opinions.
➢ Answers may differ in level of details or scope.
➢ Limited control over length of response.
➢ Analysis relies on coding and that may be difficult, costly, and time consuming
Closed ended question:
Closed ended question that leaves survey responses limited and narrow to the given options,
open-ended question allows you to probe deep into the respondent's answers, gaining valuable
information about the subject at hand. The responses to these questions can be used to attain
detailed and descriptive information on a subject.
Advantages of Closed questions:
➢ Easy and quick to answer.
➢ Response choice can clarify the question text for the respondent.
➢ Improves consistency of responses.
➢ Easy to compare with other respondents or questionnaires.
➢ Easier, quick, and less costly to analyze.

Disadvantages of Closed questions:

➢ May not have the exact answer the respondent wants to give.
➢ Can put ideas into respondents' minds.
➢ Respondents may select answers most similar to true response, even though it is different.
➢ Many options may confuse the respondent.
➢ Respondents with no opinion may answer anyway.
➢ Does not give information about whether or not the respondent actually understood the
question being asked.

20. Briefly explain various techniques of data collection.

Data collection is defined as the "process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer queries, stated research
question, text hypotheses and evaluate outcomes".
Some data collection techniques are given below:
➢ Observation: Making direct observations is a simple and unobtrusive way of collecting
data. Gathering firsthand information in the field gives the observer a holistic perspective
that helps them to understand the context in which the item being studied operates or
exists. Observation is an effective method because it is straightforward and efficient.
➢ Surveys/Questionnaires: Questionnaires are a popular means of data collection because
they are inexpensive and can provide a broad perspective. They can be conducted face to
face, by mail, telephone, or internet (in which case, they can include respondents from
anywhere in the world). Surveys are open used when information is sought from a large
number of people or on a wide range of topics.
➢ Interviews: Interviews can be conducted in person or by phone and can be structured or
unstructured. There are also many benefits to interviews. They don't require the literacy
on the part of the respondents, for one thing. One-to-one interviews are one of the most
common qualitative research.
 ➢ Focus grouped: A focus group is simply a group interview of people who all have
something in common. They provide the same type of data as in person interviews, but
add a social element and offer a broader understanding of why a group thinks or behaves
in a particular way. Focus groups are useful when examining cultural values or other
complex issues.
➢ Direct observation: Direct observation is one of the most passive qualitative data
collection methods. Here, the data collector takes a participatory stance, observing the
setting in which the subjects of their observation are while taking down notes, video,
photos and so on.

Collecting data using secondary sources:

Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use secondary sources as method of data
collection. The following section provides some of the many secondary sources grouped into
categories:
➢ Government or semi-government publication: There are many governments and semi-
government organizations that collect data on a regular basis in a variety of areas and
publish it for use by members of the public and interest groups.
➢ Earlier research: For some topics, an enormous number of research studies that have
already been done by others can provide the researcher with the required information.
➢ Personal records: Some people write historical and personal records that may provide
the information we need.
➢ Mass media: Reports published in newspaper in magazines, on the internet and so on
may be another good source of data.

21. How can you differentiate the concepts, indicators and variable? Classify and illustrate
different type of variables in context of causal model, study design and unit of
measurements.
Concepts: Kumar (2000) says that concepts are mental images and therefore their meanings vary
markedly from individual to individual. Concepts are subjective impressions and their
understanding with differ from person to person, which, if measured, would cause problems in
comparing responses.
Indicators: An indicator is a variable that is used to tap a concept.
Variables: Variables are measurable of course, with varying degree of accuracy.

Types of variables:
A variable can be classified in a number of ways. The classification developed here results from
looking at variables in three different ways:
➢ The causal relationship
➢ The study designs
➢ The unit of measurement

From the viewpoint of causal relationship: In studies that attempt to investigate a causal
relationship or association, four sets of variables may operate.
➢ Change variables
➢ Outcome variables
➢ Cause and effect variables
➢ Connecting or linking variables.

Change Variables: Change variables which are responsible for bringing about change in a
phenomenon, situation or circumstance.
Outcome variable: Outcome variables which are the effects, impacts or consequences of a
change variable.
Cause and effect variable: Variables which effect or influence link between cause-and-effect
variables.
Connecting or linking variables: Connecting variables, which in certain situations are
necessary to complete the relationship between cause-and-effect variables.
From the viewpoint of the study design: A study that examines association or causation may
be a controlled experiment, a quasi-experiment or non-experimental study. In these situations,
there are two sets of variables-
➢ Active variables
➢ Attribute variables

Active variables: Those variables that can be manipulated, changed or controlled.

Attribute variables: Those variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled and that
reflect the characteristics of the study population. For example, age, gender, education and
income.
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement: From the viewpoint of the unit of
measurement, there are two ways of categorizing variables:
 ➢ Whether the unit of measurement is categorical (as in nominal and ordinal scales) or
continuous in nature (as in interval and ratio scales).
➢ Whether it is qualitative (as in nominal and ordinal scales) or quantitative in nature 9 as
in interval and ratio scales).

Categorical variables are measured on nominal or ordinal measurement scales, whereas for
continuous variables the measurements are made on either an interval or a ratio scale. There are
3 types of categorical variables
➢ Constant variable
➢ Dichotomous variable
➢ Polytomous variable

Constant variable: Constant variable has only one category or value, for example, taxi, tree, and
water.
Dichotomous variable: Dichotomous variable has only two categories, as in male/female.
Yes/no, good/bad, head/tail, up/down and rich/poor.
Polytomous variable: Polytomous variable can be divided into more than two categories. For
example, religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu), Political parties (Labor, Liberal, Democrat) and
attitudes (strongly, favorable).

22. What is questionnaire? How does it differ from an interview? Distinguish between
open-ended and close-ended questionnaire. Briefly explain the different ways of
administering a questionnaire.

The Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are
recorded by respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is
expected and then write down the answers. The questionnaire was invented by the statistical
society of London in1833.
In the case of a questionnaire, as there is no one to explain the meaning of questions to
respondents, it is important that the questions are clear and easy to understand.
The difference between an interview schedule and a questionnaire is that in the former is the
interviewer who asks the questions and records the respondent replies on an interviewer schedule
and in the latter replies are recorded by the respondents themselves.
 Basis for comparison Questionnaire Interview
Form Written Oral
Nature Objective Subjective
Questions Closed ended Open ended
Information provided Factual Analytical
Order of questions Cannot be changed, as they Can be changed as per need
are written in an appropriate and preference
sequence.
Cost Economical Expensive
Non-response High Low
Identity of respondents Unknown Know
Communication One to many One to one
Time Informant's own time Real time

Distinguish between open ended and closed ended questions:

Closed-ended question Open ended question
Closed-ended questions are those which can Open ended questions are those which
be answered by a simple 'yes', 'no'. required more thought and more than a simple
one-word answer.
Closed-ended questions give limited insight, Open ended questions help to see things from
but can easily be analyzed for quantitative a customer's perspective.
data.
Examples of closed-ended questions are: Examples of open-ended questions:
I. Are you feeling better today? I. What were the most important wars
fought in the history of the United
II. May i use the bathroom?
States?
III. Were you planning on becoming a
II. How will you help the company if you
fireman?
are hired to work for us?
Closed-ended questions stop the conversation The most important benefit of open-ended
and eliminate surprises. questions is that they allow to find more than
we anticipate.
Questionnaires and surveys help companies learn about their employees, customers, vendors and
contractors. Companies can administer questionnaires in a variety of ways including face-to-
face, by phone, online and on paper.
Before creating a questionnaire, companies should analyze their audiences to determine their
preferred method or provide multiple methods of completing the questionnaire for optimal
results. Online and paper questionnaires are best when results should remain anonymous.
Written: The written questionnaire is the simplest method. It requires the user to write responses
to the questions. Companies may distribute written questionnaires at employee trainings, mail
them to recently terminated employees for candid feedback about their work experience. The
written questionnaire is a good option for people who are not comfortable with technology and
who communicate better in writing as opposed to verbally.
Online: Although online questionnaires take more work to set up, their advantage is the ability to
export data to a spreadsheet for further analysis. Several companies like Boomerang Survey
gizmo and Survey Monkey, offer free survey help and customization. Unless the questionnaire
includes fields for the user to enter additional comments, the online questionnaire may produce
the most limited responses.
Face-to-face: Face-to-face questionnaires are the most personal. So, results may not be as candid
or truthful as written or online questionnaires. A successful face-to-face questionnaire must be
conducted like a conservation rather than an interrogation. Face-to-face questionnaires may be
the cheapest in terms of materials used, but they are time consuming.
Phone: Phone surveys may be done in one of two ways. The called may use a toll-free number
and answer questions using a touch-tone phone or the company may call questionnaire
participants to ask them questions. Like a face-to-face questionnaire, a successful phone
questionnaire must be conducted like a conservation rather than an interrogation. Phone surveys
may be the most expensive method for conducting questionnaires.

23. What do you mean by "Sample Design"? How can you determine the sample size by
using a table of random numbers?
Sample Design
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample
design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample.
Determining the Sample Size by using a Table of Random Numbers
We can illustrate the procedure by an example. First of all we reproduce the first thirty sets of
Tippet’s numbers.
 2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126

Suppose we are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a population of 5000 units, bearing
numbers from 3001 to 8000. We shall select 10 such figures from the above random numbers
which are not less than 3001 and not greater than 8000. If we randomly decide to read the table
numbers from left to right, starting from the first row itself, we obtain the following numbers:
6641, 3992, 7979, 5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356, and 7483.
The units bearing the above serial numbers would then constitute our required random sample.

24. Distinguish between Stratified sampling and Cluster sampling. Under what
circumstances stratified random sampling design considered appropriate? How would you
select such sample? Explain by means of an example.

Stratified sampling: In stratified sampling, a sample is drawn from each stratum (using a
random sampling method like simple random sampling or systematic sampling).
Cluster sampling: In cluster sampling, the sampling unit is the whole cluster, instead of
sampling individuals from within each group, a researcher will study whole clusters.

Factors for comparison Cluster sampling Stratified sampling

Definition Members of the sample are Members of this sample are
chosen from naturally divided randomly chosen from non-
groups called clusters, by overlapping homogeneous
randomly selecting elements strata.
to be a part of the sample.
Purpose Cost reduction and increased Enhanced precision and
efficiency. population depiction
Sample selection Selection of the sample is Selection of the sample is
done by randomly selected done by randomly selecting
clusters and including all the members from various
members from these clusters. formed strata.
Selection of elements that Conjointly Distinctively
form a sample
 Division type Naturally formed Depends on the researcher
Homogeneity Externally between various Internally with the strata
clusters

A stratified sampling design is considered appropriate when a population from which a

sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogenous group.

ToForcreate
selectingaastratified
stratified sampling
random design, the population
sample, there are is firstly
seven divided
steps:into(a)
several sub- the
defining
populations that
population; (b)arechoosing
individually more
the homogeneous
relevant than the total
stratification; (c)population
listing the andpopulation;
then we select(d)
items from each stratum to constitute a sample. Since each stratum is more homogeneous than
listing the population according to the chosen stratification; (e) choosing your
the total population, we are able to get more precise estimates for each stream and by estimating
sample size; (f)
more accurately eachcalculating a proportionate
of the component parts, we get a stratification;
better estimate ofand (g) using a simple
the whole.
random or systematic sample to select your sample.
For example, a research team wants to determine the GPA of college students across the U.S.
The research team has difficulty collecting data from all 21 million college students. It decides to
take a random sample of the population by using 4000 students. The team locks at the different
attributes of the sample participants and checked if there are any differences in GPAs and
students majors. It finds that 560 students are English majors, 1135 are science majors, 800 are
computer science majors, 1090 are engineering majors and 415 are math majors. The team wants
to use a proportional stratified random sample where the straits of the sample is proportional to
the random sample in the population. The team researches the demographics of college students
in the U.S and finds the percentage of what students major in 12% major in English, 28% major
in science, 24% major in computer science, 21% major in engineering and 15% major in
mathematics. Thus, five strata are created from the stratified random sampling process. The team
then finds that the stratum of the population and the stratum in the sample are not equal. The
teams again resample 4000 students from the population and randomly select 480 English, 1120
science, 960 computer science, 840 engineering and 600 mathematics students. With those, it has
a proportionate stratified random sample of college students, which provides a better
representation of students, college majors in the U.S. Then the researchers highlight specific
stratum and observe the varying studies of U.S. College students and observe the various grade
point averages.
Suppose, a population is divided into three strata so that N1=5000. N2=2000 and N3=3000.
Respective standard deviations are: Σ1 =15, σ2=18 and σ3=5
How should a sample of size n=84 be allocated to the three strata, if we want optimum allocation
using disproportionate sampling design.
Using the disproportionate sampling design for optimum allocation, the sample sizes for
different strata will be determined as under-
Sample size for strata with N1=5000
 84(5000)15
𝑁1 =
5000(15) + 2000(18) + 3000(5)
=50
Sample size for strata with N2=2000
n2 84 (2000)18
=5000(15)+2000(18)+3000(5)

=24
Sample size for strata with N3= 3000
84(3000)5
N3=
5000(15)+2000(18)+3000(5)

=10
In addition to, differences in stratum size and differences in stratum variability we may have
differences in stratum sampling cost and then we can have cost optimal disproportionate
sampling design by requiring.
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛𝐾
= 𝑁2σ2√c2 = 𝑁𝐾σK√CK
𝑁1σ1√C1

Where c1= cost of sampling in stratum 1

C2= cost of sampling in stratum 2
Ck = cost of sampling in stratum k
And all other term remain the same. The allocation in such a situation results in the following
formula for determining the sample size for different strata.
[Link]√ci
Ni = N1σ1√C1+N2σ2√C2+NKσK√CK

Any research, because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and it misappropriates
interpretations of findings research methodology makes clear the reasons why researcher chose a
particular method or procedure and it explain how the data was collected or generated the
research method is appropriate to the objections of the study.
Therefore, I consider that problem statement and research methodology are the integral parts of
the proposal.

25. Write a short note on American Psychological Association (APA) formatting basics.

APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA) and is
commonly used to cite sources in psychology, education and the social sciences. The APA style
originated in a 1929 article published in psychological Bulletin that laid out the basic guidelines.
These guidelines were eventually expanded into the APA Publication Manual.
By using APA style, researchers and students writing about psychology are able to communicate
information about their ideas and experiments in a consistent format. Sticking to a consistent
style allows readers to know what to look for as they read, journal articles and other forms of
psychological writing. New college students are often surprised to find that after spending years
having another formatting style drilled into their heads, many university level classes instead
require APA style.
The following are the fundamental rules of APA formatting as applied to an academic research
paper
APA Style
Formatting Basics
Paper size: All work should be submitted on 8.5 * 11 inch paper.
Margin: One-inch margins are necessary on every page.
Spacing: Double space at end of every sentence (including references) and typed (not
handwritten) work is necessary. Double-lined space throughout (including references).
Header: Page headers, with numbers flush to the right, should run on each page of the essay and
include a brief version of the essay's title in fewer than 50 characters. This is called a running
head.
Font: Font should be very clear. Times New Roman in 12 point is recommended.
Short quotation: For short quotation, a signal phrase followed by author, year and page number
is sufficient. Smith states, "Further scholarship is called for on this important and timely subject.
Long quotation: Quotations longer than 40 words should be formatted as block quotes. Insert a
space between it and the preceding line and indent. Otherwise, the same rules apply.
Sections: Essays must include four sections title, page, abstract, body and references.
Major Heading: On the title page include a centered (both horizontally and vertically) title. The
author's name should appear underneath the title. Underneath the author's name should be the
institution with which the author is affiliated.
Subheading 1: Flush left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lower case heading.
Subheading 2: Indented, boldface, lowercase, with a period.
Subheading 3: Indented. Boldface, italicized, lowercase with a period.
Subheading 4: Indented, italicized, lowercase with a period.
The abstract should be the second page of the essay. It should consist of 150 to 200 words.
The abstract should be titled with the centered word "Abstract "at the top of the page.
The abstract should include major information the research such as topic , question ,
methodology , analysis , participants and an overall analysis.
Citations in the body of the work should include the author's surname, year of publication and
page number of the citation.

26. What is a research proposal? Briefly explain the different components of a research
proposal. Which component's you consider are integral parts of the proposal?

Research proposal:
A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of our the research
proposed proposal.
research It sets out the
central issues or questions that we intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within
which our research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on
the topic.
A research proposal aims to show why our project is worthwhile. Proposals are evaluated on the
cost and potential impact of the proposed research and on the soundness of the proposed plan for
carrying it out.
Different components of a research proposal
Some main components to a research proposal include title , abstract , table of contents ,
introduction , literature review , method discussion and budget.
I. Title: A title should be thorough enough that it lets the reader know what the project is,
but brief enough that it is not overwhelming or too complex to understood. It should grab
the reader's attention and convince them to read more.
II. Abstract: In the abstract, the writer gives a short summary that contains the problem, the
research will look to solve.
III. Table of contents: This section lets the reader know the main components of the
proposal and the order in which they are presented. For example, it would outline that the
methods section begins on page 18 and the budget section starts on page 21.
IV. Introduction: Perhaps the most important part of an introduction is our statement of the
problem, our purpose and the significance. For example, what is our project, why is it
important, and what will the results are used for? The introduction is also a place to
include any necessary background information, so that our readers are prepared to learn
about our project.
V. Literature review : Shows how our approach builds on existing research, helps us
identify methodological and design issues in studies similar to our own , introduces us to
 measurement tools other have used effectively , helps we interpret findings and ties result
of our work to those who've preceded.
VI. Research design and methods: The objective of this section of the research proposal is
to convince the reader that overall research design and methods of analysis will enable to
solve the research problem we have identified and also enable to accurately and
effectively interpret the results of the research. Consequently it is critical that the research
design and methods section is well-written, clear and logically organized.
VII. Citations and references: As with any scholarly research paper, we must cite the
sources we used in composing our research proposal. In a research proposal, this can take
two forms a reference list or a bibliography. A reference list lists the literature we
referenced in the body of our research proposal. All references in the reference list must
appear in the body of the research proposal. In contrast, a bibliography is a list of
everything we used or cited in research proposal, with additional citations to any key
sources relevant to understanding the research problem.
VIII. Conclusion: The conclusion reiterates the importance and significance of the research
proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire proposed study. Essentially, this
section should only be one or two paragraphs in length. Here is a potential outline for
conclusion.

The components consider are integral parts of the proposal:

Problem statement and research methodology are the integral parts of the proposal.
Problem statement:
Problem statement introduces the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader
is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.
Problem statement places the problem into a particular context and it provides the framework for
reporting the results.
method Research logy:
Research methodology helps the readers to know how the data was obtained and methodology
is crucial.

27. What are the purposes of writing a report? Suggest a general format for a good report.
Which components you consider most important in a report? Give your argument.
Reports communicate information which has been complied as a result of research and analysis
of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus on transmitting
information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience.
Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They should also be well-
written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader's attention and meets their
expectations. The true value of the research may be assessed through a report since the written
report may be the only tangible product of hundreds of hours of work. Rightly or wrongly, the
quality and worth of that work are judged by the quality of the written report-its clarity,
organization and context.
Purposes of writing a report:
I. It provides readers with some background information about the population from which
we collected the information so they can relate the findings to the type of population
studied.
II. It helps to identify the variance within a group, for example , we may want to examine
how the level of satisfaction of the consumers of a service changes with their age , gender
and education.
A general format for a good report
There are numbers formats available for writing a report and it mostly depends on the context of
topic.
The general format of a report means what the research report should contain. A comprehensive
general format of the research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages (B) the main text
and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately_
A. Preliminary pages: In the preliminary pages the report should carry a title and a date,
followed by a acknowledgements in the form of 'Preface or Forward '. Then there should
be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations.
B. Main Text : The main text of the report should have the following sections :
I. Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to
the readers.
II. Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research
report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical
language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned.
III. Reports: The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and
reductions of the data rather than the raw data.
IV. Implications of the results: The researcher should state the implications that
flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the
implications for understanding the human behavior.
V. Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very
brief summary.
 C. End Matter: At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and
the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given.
The component I consider most important in a report:
Introduction is the most important part in a report. The purpose of introduction is to introduce
the research project to the readers. It contains a clear statement of the objectives of research;
enough background had been given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered
worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research also be stated so that the ore sent
study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any and the definitions of major
concepts employed in the study explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. The
methodological adopted in conducting the study is fully explained in information.
Thus, I consider introduction is the most important part in a report.