12/11/2023 Saugat Prajapati 1
Chlorination of water
• The most common use of chlorine in water treatment is to disinfect
water.
• chlorination is the best way to provide safe water to the end user.
• Other methods of disinfection such as ultraviolet and ozonation are
effective disinfectants but they do not provide a residual to prevent
pathogen re-growth as chlorination does.
• Municipal water providers usually rely on measurements of
“chlorine residual”—the amount of chlorine remaining in the water
after it reaches its destination—as proof of safety.
• Residual requirements vary, but typical residual goal would be for
0.2 to 1 mg/L.
• In addition to disinfection, chlorine can be effectively used to
oxidize iron, manganese and hydrogen sulfide to facilitate their
removal, to reduce color in water, and to aid in such treatment
processes as sedimentation and filtration
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Chlorine and pH
• In general terms, the lower the pH of the water, the more effective
chlorine is as a disinfectant.
• Chlorination raises the pH of water, so overdosing often raises the
pH to levels where chlorine does not work effectively as a
disinfectant.
• More is not always more powerful.
• “free chlorine”—hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions are
functional compounds.
• Hypochlorous acid is the more effective disinfectant and it
dominates at lower pH levels, so a lower pH is preferred for
disinfection.
• Conversely, a higher pH is needed for water treatment strategies
that depend on chlorination to oxidize iron and manganese
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Types of Chlorine Used in Water
Treatment
• Pure chlorine” is seldom used for water
treatment.
• The three most common chlorine-containing
substances used in water treatment are
chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl),
and calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2).
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Chlorine Gas
• Chlorine gas is greenish yellow in color and heavier than air.
• Its high toxicity makes it an excellent disinfectant for water but also
a hazard to humans who handle it.
• Chlorine gas is a deadly weapon when used in chemical warfare.
• It is a respiratory irritant and can irritate skin and mucous
membranes and can cause death with sufficient exposure.
• Because of chemical changes that occur when it is introduced into
water, chlorine gas is no more toxic to humans when used to treat
drinking water than other forms of chlorine.
• Chlorine gas, which is actually sold as an amber-colored
compressed liquid, is the least expensive form of chlorine and is,
consequently, the preferred type for municipal water systems.
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Calcium Hypochlorite
• Calcium hypochlorite is manufactured from
chlorine gas.
• It is best known as chlorine pellets and granules
in residential water treatment.
• It is a white solid with a very pungent odor and it
can create enough heat to explode, so it must not
be stored near wood, cloth or petroleum
products.
• Calcium hypochlorite increases the pH of the
water being treated.
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Sodium Hypochlorite
• Sodium hypochlorite is a chlorine-containing
compound most easily recognized as household
bleach.
• It is a light yellow liquid that has a relatively short shelf
life.
• It is the easiest to handle of all the types of chlorine.
• Sodium hypochlorite also increases the pH of the water
being treated.
• A lower concentration of chlorine in this form is
needed to treat water than with calcium hypochlorite
or chlorine gas.
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Principle of Chlorination of Water
When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine,
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl):
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Methods of Chlorination
The various methods of chlorination in water treatment are:
• Plain Chlorination:
• Pre-Chlorination:
• Post-Chlorination:
• Double or Multiple Chlorinations:
• Break Point Chlorination:
• Super Chlorination:
• Marginal chlorination
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Plain Chlorination:
• The treatment of water with only chlorine is
known as plan chlorination.
• It is free from suspended matter and without any
prior treatment.
• It is typically employed when the water source is
already clear and requires no additional steps for
sediment or particulate removal.
• The main objective of plain chlorination is to
disinfect the water, effectively neutralizing or
deactivating any harmful microorganisms
present.
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Pre-Chlorination:
• Pre-chlorination is the process of introducing
chlorine to untreated raw water before any other
treatment procedures take place.
• This method serves a dual purpose: first, it aids in
enhancing coagulation by oxidizing specific
compounds, facilitating the formation of larger,
settle able flocs during subsequent coagulation
and flocculation processes.
• Second, pre-chlorination assists in eliminating
taste, odor, and color issues by oxidizing organic
compounds responsible for these characteristics.
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Post-Chlorination:
• Post-chlorination involves the addition of chlorine to
treated water after all other treatment stages, such as
coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and initial
disinfection, have been completed.
• Its primary role is to provide a final dose of chlorine to
maintain a residual disinfectant in the water throughout
the distribution system.
• This ensures the destruction of any remaining
microorganisms and safeguards against potential
contamination.
• Post-chlorination typically requires a chlorine dosage in the
range of 0.25-5.0 mg/liter to achieve a combined residual
chlorine concentration of 0.1-0.2 mg/liter.
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Double or Multiple Chlorination:
• Double or multiple chlorination involve both pre-
chlorination and post-chlorination processes.
• This approach is typically employed when the raw
water source is heavily contaminated and contains a
significant concentration of bacterial life.
• By utilizing both pre-chlorination to address initial
contamination and post-chlorination for residual
disinfection.
• This method effectively ensures the comprehensive
treatment of highly polluted water sources.
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Marginal chlorination
• It is the addition of just sufficient chlorine to
water to produce a residual level.
• The residual chlorine may be either free or
combined depending on the amount of
ammonia present in the water.
• This level of chlorination usually destroys
pathogens.
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Break Point Chlorination:
• Break Point chlorination is a technique used to
determine the optimal amount of chlorine
required to achieve the desired level of residual
chlorine in water.
• By identifying the breakpoint, this method helps
water treatment facilities ascertain the precise
quantity of chlorine necessary to ensure effective
disinfection while preventing excessive chlorine
use, which can lead to undesirable disinfection
by-products.
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Super Chlorination:
• Super chlorination involves the deliberate addition of
chlorine to water beyond the breakpoint stage, often
implemented at the conclusion of the filtration process.
• This approach is typically adopted in response to the
outbreak of waterborne diseases or when there is a need
for a heightened level of disinfection.
• However, it is essential to note that after super
chlorination, it becomes imperative to remove excess
chlorine using an appropriate dechlorination method
before the treated water is supplied to consumers.
• This precaution helps prevent any potential adverse effects
associated with elevated chlorine levels in the drinking
water.
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Breakpoint chlorination
• Breakpoint chlorination is a threshold where
free chlorine levels exceed the amount
required to destroy nitrogen-based oxidants.
• Past this threshold, a residual of free available
chlorine (FAC) can build.
• Theoretically, exceeding the “breakpoint”
prevents increased levels of disinfectant
byproducts––namely, combined chlorine,
like chloramines.
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• When chlorine is first added to water, it immediately begins
to oxidize metals like iron and manganese, which reduces
chlorine in what is called a redox reaction.
• This initial reaction wipes out a certain portion of chlorine,
so nothing shows up on the graph until point (A).
• As more chlorine is added to water, it oxidizes other
contaminants—not just germs, but non-living organics and
nitrogen compounds too. These oxidants create
byproducts.
• In particular, we're talking about nitrogen compounds
because chlorine must combine with nitrogen compounds
to destroy them. Hence, the term combined chlorine is
used.
• Inorganic Ammonia (NH3) and more complex nitrogen
compounds (like urea) combine with chlorine and create
byproducts called chloramines.
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Inorganic chloramines
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Chloramines are weak disinfectants
• Referring back to the breakpoint chlorination graph above, the curve rises from
point (A) to (B).
• This happens as chloramines are forming.
• The curve rises because chloramines have some disinfection capability. They count
toward Total Available Chlorine (TAC), which can be read on a total chlorine test.
• Chloramines are much slower and weaker than the active, killing form of free
chlorine, Hypochlorous Acid (HOCl).
• However, their slower reactivity can be considered an advantage in some
circumstances.
• Many drinking water treatment plants deliberately add ammonia to the water to
create chloramines.
• This helps keep the water disinfected for longer as it travels through the water
grid.
• Eventually, as more chlorine is added, it destroys the very chloramines byproducts
it was creating. This begins at threshold (B) on the graph. This is why the line
curves down toward point (C).
• Chlorine continues to destroy until chloramines cannot be oxidized any further.
After this threshold, a free chlorine residual can build. This threshold (C) is
called the breakpoint.
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Beyond the breakpoint
• Breakpoint chlorination is not a single moment in time, Rather, it is a
continual, ongoing process.
• For water quality and disinfection purposes, it's important to keep
chlorination to stay ahead of the breakpoint.
• When chlorine falls behind, superchlorination may be required to get
ahead of the breakpoint again.
• Only after the oxidant demand has been addressed, disinfection can occur.
Therefore, only after breakpoint chlorination has been exceeded, a
residual of free chlorine build.
• Until that point, chlorine has its hands full, oxidizing its way to the
breakpoint and beyond.
• Beyond the breakpoint, free chlorine residual builds. If there are leftover
byproducts that cannot be further oxidized, they remain as combined
chlorine.
• The sum of both free and combined chlorine is total chlorine.
FC + CC = TAC
Free chlorine + combined chlorine = total available chlorine
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• The levels of available chlorine after the
breakpoint should comply with the local
regulations, which usually vary between 0.2 and 1
mg/L.
• Additionally, the chlorine dosage needed to
achieve the residual effect required varies with
the wastewater considered: 2-8 mg/L is common
for an effluent from an activated sludge plant,
and can be about 40 mg/L in the case of septic
wastewater.
• In order to provide sufficient mixing, chlorine
systems must have a chlorine contact time of 15-
30 minutes, after which it must be dechlorinated
prior to discharge.
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Break Point Chlorination
chloroorganic
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Advantages and Disadvantages of
Chlorination
Advantages of Chlorination of Water
• Kills harmful and pathogenic microorganisms.
• Prevents waterborne diseases.
• Maintains water quality during distribution.
• Provides residual protection.
• Cost-effective water treatment method.
Disadvantages of Chlorination of Water
• Unpleasant taste and odour.
• Formation of potentially harmful disinfection byproducts.
• Allergic reactions in some individuals.
• Corrosive to certain materials and equipment.
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Nepal’s Standard for Drinking Water
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