Sec. 6.

2: Integration By Substitution
Topic 6.9: Integrating Using Substitution

The key to u-substitution is finding a piece of the function whose derivative is also in the function. The
derivative is allowed to be off by a coefficient, but otherwise must appear in the function itself.
The role of substitution in integration is comparable to the role of the Chain Rule in differentiation.

PROCEDURE FOR USING U-SUBSTITUTION:

1. Look for a piece of the function whose derivative is also in the function. If you’re not sure
what to use, try the denominator or something being raised to a power in the function.

2. Set u equal to that piece of the function and take the derivative with respect to the variable.

3. Use your u and du expressions to replace parts of the original integral, and your new integral
will be much easier to solve.

The Substitution Method for Indefinite Integrals

Substitution is a method of integration designed to “undo” the chain rule. It generally involves 3
steps.
Given: ∫ f ( g ( x ) ) ( g′ ( x ) ) dx
STEP 1: = ∫ f ( u ) du Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑥𝑥)
STEP =
2: F (u ) + C Find the antiderivative of f
STEP
= 3: F ( g ( x )) + C Substitute 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) back for 𝑢𝑢

Pattern Recognition:
Outside function

∫ f ( g ( x)) g=
′( x) dx F ( g ( x)) + C
Derivative of
Inside function inside function

THE GENERAL POWER RULE FOR INTEGRATION:

If g is a differentiable function of x, then

𝑛𝑛 ′
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑛𝑛+1
� 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = + 𝐶𝐶 , 𝑛𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛𝑛 + 1
Equivalently, if u = g (x ), then
𝑛𝑛
𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛+1
� 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = + 𝐶𝐶 , 𝑛𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛𝑛 + 1
EX #1: Integrate by u-substitution.

2
A. � 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 2𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. � 4 cos 4𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3
C. � 8𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. � 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑥𝑥
E. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 F. �
3
7 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 4 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 6
EX #2: Some clever trigonometric identities and algebraic methods will rename functions,
then can use u-substitution in order to integrate.

A. ∫ tan x dx B. ∫ cot x dx

C. ∫ sec x dx D. ∫ csc x dx

EX #3: Rewrite or expand before integrating.

2
A. ∫ sin 2 x dx B. ∫ ( sin x + cos x ) dx
 CHANGING THE LIMITS OF INTEGRATION WHEN SOLVING DEFINITE INTEGRALS

When using u-substitution with a definite integral, it is convenient to determine the limits of
integration for the variable u rather than to convert the antiderivative back to the variable x and
evaluate at the original limits.

Substitution in Definite Integrals

When we integrate over an interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], the values of a and b are x-values. The use of
u-substitution requires a change in [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] to 𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏 .
𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔(𝑏𝑏)
′
� 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎)

EX #4: Integrate by u-substitution; change the upper and lower bounds of integration.
𝜋𝜋/4 𝜋𝜋�
A. 2 B.
6 sin 2𝜃𝜃
� tan 𝑥𝑥 � sec 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 3 2𝜃𝜃

2 1
𝑥𝑥
C. � 3𝑥𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0 1 + 5𝑥𝑥 2
Topic 6.10: Integrating Functions Using Long Division and Completing the Square
Two more algebraic technique that can be used in integration is long division and completing the
square. Long division is an effective tool when the numerator has a degree that is greater than or
equal to the denominator. Completing the square will help when the numerator is a constant while
the denominator has both an 𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑥𝑥 term.

EX #5: Use long division to integrate the following.

x3 + 3 x 2 − x − 3 x2 − 4
A.
∫ dx B. ∫ x2 + 1 dx
x +1

EX #6: Complete the square to rewrite the integrand.

5 3
A. ∫ x2 − 8x + 16 dx B. ∫ 2
x + 2x + 2
dx
 Lesson 8: Integration of Transcendental Functions
Topic 6.9: Integrating Using Substitution
Integration of trigonometric functions come in all different formats. In this lesson, we will use trig
identities and rules for integrals involving products of trig functions to integrate combinations of these
functions.
This is a collection of all transcendental functions and their corresponding integration rules:

Trigonometric Functions:

� sin 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − cos 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 � csc 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − ln csc 𝑢𝑢 + cot 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶

� cos 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sin 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 � sec 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ln sec 𝑢𝑢 + tan 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶

� tan 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − ln cos 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 � cot 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ln sin 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶

Logarithmic and Exponential Functions:

Let u be a differentiable function of x.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑢𝑢
� 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 � = ln 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 � 𝑎𝑎𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = + 𝐶𝐶
𝑢𝑢 ln 𝑎𝑎

EX #1: Find the following:

1 sin 𝜃𝜃
A. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥𝑥 3 2 − 3 cos 𝜃𝜃
 𝑥𝑥 3
C. � 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. � 2sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EX #2: Find the definite integral:

𝜋𝜋⁄2 3
1 − sin 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥
A. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. 𝑒𝑒
𝑥𝑥 + cos 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
1 𝑥𝑥 2

3
2𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 1
C. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. 2
0 1 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 5𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
 Let’s explore a few of the more challenging topics of integration that will appear in the BC
curriculum. We will start with inverse trig functions and move on to products of powers.

Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑢𝑢
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = tan−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶 � = arctan + 𝐶𝐶
1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑢𝑢2 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶 � = arcsin + 𝐶𝐶
1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑢𝑢2 𝑎𝑎

−1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑢𝑢
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = cos−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶 � = arcsec + 𝐶𝐶
1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

EX #3: Evaluate the following.

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
A. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. �
2
𝑥𝑥 + 9 5 + 4𝑥𝑥 2

4𝑥𝑥 sin−1 𝑥𝑥
C. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
9 − 4𝑥𝑥 4 1 − 𝑥𝑥 2
 Integration by Completing the Square

Topic 6.10: Integrating Functions Using Long Division and Completing the Square

We will also see another level of difficulty added to integration problems using inverse trigonometric
functions. This occurs when we must “complete the square” in order to rewrite the denominator in a
rational integrand. We will review the method for completing the square in the context of evaluating
a few integrals.

EX #4: Evaluate by completing the square.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
A. � B. �
𝑥𝑥 2 + 12𝑥𝑥 + 37 4x − 𝑥𝑥 2

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
C. � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. �
𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 25 21 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2
 Trigonometric Identities

There are times you might need to rewrite or rearrange integrals involving squared terms.

sin2 𝑥𝑥 + cos2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 1 + tan2 𝑥𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥𝑥 cot 2 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = csc 2 𝑥𝑥

cos 2𝑥𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥𝑥 − sin2 𝑥𝑥

sin 2𝑥𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥

1 − cos 2𝑥𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥𝑥

sin2 𝑥𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥𝑥 =
2 2

Guidelines for Integrals Involving Only Products of Sine and Cosine:

� 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏𝒎𝒎 𝒙𝒙 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Save one sine factor and express the remaining factors in

terms of cosine:
𝑘𝑘
� sin2𝑘𝑘+1 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � sin2 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
a) If m (the power of sine)
is an odd integer, 𝑘𝑘
= � 1 − cos2 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏):

Then substitute 𝑢𝑢 = cos 𝑥𝑥.

Note: If the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, either
(a) or (b) can be used.

Save one cosine factor and express the remaining factors in

terms of sine:
𝑘𝑘
b) If n (the power of cosine) � sin𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 cos 2𝑘𝑘+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � sin𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 cos 2 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is an odd integer
(𝒏𝒏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏): 𝑘𝑘
= � sin𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 1 − sin2 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then substitute 𝑢𝑢 = sin 𝑥𝑥 .

Use the half-angle identities:

1 1
c) If m and n are even: sin2 𝑥𝑥 = 2
(1 − cos 2𝑥𝑥) cos2 𝑥𝑥 = 2
(1 + cos 2𝑥𝑥)
1
Sometimes helpful to use: sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 = 2
sin 2𝑥𝑥
 EX #5: Evaluate

A. � sin2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. � sin5 𝑥𝑥 cos 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

C. � cos3 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 D. � cos 3 𝑥𝑥 sin4 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 Guidelines for integrals involving only products of Tangent and Secant:

� 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒏𝒏𝒎𝒎 𝒙𝒙 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒄𝒄𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Save a factor of 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒙𝒙 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒙𝒙 and express the remaining factors

in terms of secant:
𝑘𝑘
a) If m (the power of tangent) � tan2𝑘𝑘+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � tan2 𝑥𝑥 sec 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 sec 𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is an odd integer,
(𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏): 𝑘𝑘
= � sec 2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 sec 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 sec 𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then substitute 𝑢𝑢 = sec 𝑥𝑥.

Save a factor of 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 and express the remaining factors in

terms of tangent:
𝑘𝑘−1
b) If n (the power of secant) � tan𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐 2𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � tan𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥 sec 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is an even integer
(𝒏𝒏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐): 𝑘𝑘−1
= � tan𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 1 + tan2 𝑥𝑥 sec 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then substitute 𝑢𝑢 = tan 𝑥𝑥 .

EX #6: Evaluate

A. � tan3 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. � tan3 𝑥𝑥 sec 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

C. � tan6 𝑥𝑥 sec 4 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Trigonometric Substitution

Let’s look at another useful tool for transforming complicated integrals involving square roots into
easier integrals.

Table of Trigonometric Substitutions

Expression in Integrand Substitution Identity

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 − ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃
2 2
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 − < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃 = 1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 𝜃𝜃
2 2
𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 < 2 or 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 < 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃 − 1
2

EX #7: Evaluate

A. 9 − 𝑥𝑥 2 Label the associated right triangle:

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2

B. 1 Label the associated right triangle:

�
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +4
 Sec. 6.3: Improper Integrals
Topic 6.13: Evaluating Improper Integrals
In our unit on integration we discovered that a definite integral was defined as a limit of Riemann
Sums. We used the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate definite integrals. Now, we want to
explore some integrals that do not meet the conditions of what we call a proper integral.

Definition of a Proper Integral

b
An integral expression of the form ∫a f 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is considered a proper integral if the limits and
function are bounded. Proper integrals are always well-defined (the limit converges), that is:

 The function is defined and bounded on the interval [a, b];

 The limits of integration are finite (not ±∞); and
 The function has only finitely many discontinuities in the interval.

In this lesson, we investigate what happens when these conditions are not met. Integrals are
𝑏𝑏
considered improper if one of two things occur when defining the definite integral ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
on the interval [a, b].

Type 1: Type 2:

The region defined by 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 has an infinite

Either a or b is ∞.
discontinuity in [a, b].

1
EX #1: Sketch the infinite region R, that lies under the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 , above the x-axis. Then, shade
the area to the right of the line 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and ending to the right at some value 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡.

A. Solve the integral

𝑡𝑡
1
𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2
1

What does the answer tell you about the value of 𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡)?

Find lim 𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡).

𝑡𝑡→∞
 Definition of Improper Integrals - Type I

The improper integral converges, if the limit exists.

Case 1 & 2:
Otherwise, the improper integral diverges.

This improper integral requires BOTH of the integrals to be convergent in

Case 3: order for the integral to also be convergent. If either of the two integrals is
divergent then so is this integral.

∞ 𝑏𝑏
1.) If f is continuous on the interval [𝑎𝑎, ∞), then � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = lim � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏→ ∞ 𝑎𝑎

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
2.) If f is continuous on the interval (− ∞, 𝑏𝑏], then � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = lim � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞ 𝑎𝑎→ −∞ 𝑎𝑎

∞ 𝑐𝑐 ∞
� 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3.) If f is continuous on the interval (− ∞, ∞), then −∞ −∞ 𝑐𝑐
where c is any real number

Helpful Hints:

 Remember that evaluating an improper integral is really two problems. It is an integral problem
and a limit problem. It is best to evaluate them separately.
 When breaking down improper integrals, be sure each integral is improper at only one place.
That one place should be either the lower limit of integration or the upper limit of integration.

∞
1
EX #2: � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑥𝑥
 Theorem:

∞
1
� is convergent when _________________ and divergent when ______________________.
1 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝

∞
0 1
EX #3: � 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 EX #4: � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞ −∞ 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2

1
EX #5: Sketch the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = over [0, 5].
𝑥𝑥−2
5 1
A. Why would ∫2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 be considered
𝑥𝑥−2
improper?

B. Solve the integral:

5
1
𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 − 2

C. Now find 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙+ 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)

𝑡𝑡→2
 Definition of Improper Integrals - Type II

The improper integral converges, if the limit exists.

Case 1 & 2:
Otherwise, the improper integral diverges.

This improper integral requires BOTH of the integrals to be convergent

Case 3: in order for the integral to also be convergent. If either of the two
integrals is divergent then so is this integral.

𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
1) If 𝑓𝑓 is continuous on the interval 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and has an
infinite discontinuity at 𝑏𝑏, then � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙− � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐→ 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
2) If 𝑓𝑓 is continuous on the interval (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] and has an
infinite discontinuity at 𝑎𝑎, then � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙+ � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐→ 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐

3) If 𝑓𝑓 is continuous on the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] except for 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏

some c in (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) at which 𝑓𝑓 has an infinite � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
discontinuity, then 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐

1 3
EX #6: EX #7: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �
0 0 𝑥𝑥 − 1
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6
6
6
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 Section 6.5 Partial Fractions and Long Division
Topic 6.12: Using Linear Partial Fractions
2𝑥𝑥−7
In our unit on integration, we found the integral of rational expressions, such as, ∫ 𝑥𝑥2 −7𝑥𝑥+10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 by
using the technique of u-substitution. Now we need a new approach to integrate rational
expressions such as:
2 𝑥𝑥 − 11 3𝑥𝑥 3 + 8𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 15
� 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 10 𝑥𝑥 + 4

In a proper rational expression, the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator. If the expression is an improper rational expression the degree of the numerator is
greater than the degree of the denominator and we may use long division to obtain the proper form.
Let’s consider a proper rational expression shown in the equation below:
2 −1 1
= +
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 − 1
The expression on the right side of the equation is called the partial fraction decomposition. When
the process is completed correctly, we say that the fraction has been decomposed into partial
fractions.

The denominator is a product of distinct linear factors.

𝐴𝐴
For each distinct factor 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 the sum of partial fractions includes a term of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏
.

NOTE: For AP Calculus BC, you will only be presented with partial fraction integration where
denominators contain non-repeating linear factors.

To begin the process, we will need to split the denominator of the integrand so that each part can be
integrated separately. We simply need to solve the associated equation for A and B.

1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
= +
𝑥𝑥 − 5 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 − 5 𝑥𝑥 − 2

EX #1: Integrate by the method of partial fractions.

1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2 −4
 𝑥𝑥 − 11
EX #2: � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 10

EX #3: � 3𝑥𝑥 + 6 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 EX #4: 𝑥𝑥 2 + 12𝑥𝑥 + 12

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2 +3𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥
 Long Division

Sometimes we need to integrate an improper rational expression with a higher degree in the
numerator or the same degree in both the numerator and denominator. Long division can help reduce
the integrand to a polynomial plus a proper fraction.

EX #5: 3𝑥𝑥 3 + 8𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 15 EX #6: 𝑥𝑥 − 5

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 + 4 2𝑥𝑥 − 2

EX #7: 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 EX #8: 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 2 − 11𝑥𝑥 + 20

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 3
Your Challenge: Find a u-substitution to use partial fraction decomposition.

sin 𝑥𝑥
EX#9: � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
cos 𝑥𝑥 (cos 𝑥𝑥 + 1)

EX #10: 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 − 1
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