CHAPTER THREE 1

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND LINE

PARAMETERS
❖ Transmission system components and design
considerations
❖ Resistance of transmission lines
❖ Skin effect and proximity effect
❖ Inductance of transmission lines
❖ Capacitance of transmission lines(reading
assignment)
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND 2

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Transmission system components

• A variety of components are required to successfully deliver electricity

from generating stations to local residential and commercial areas.

• The primary components include:-

• The transmission structures,
• Conductors,
• Insulators, and
• Ground wires.
 3

TRANSMISSION STRUCTURES

• Are the most visible component of transmission lines.

• They support the conductors used to transport electric power from

generation sources to customer load.

• Transmission lines carry electricity over long distances at high voltages,

typically between 115 kV and 765 kV (115,000 volts and 765,000 volts).
 4

….CONT’D

• Transmission structures come in many different designs, but two

common types are:

• Lattice Steel Towers (LST) consist of a steel framework of individual

structural components that are bolted or welded together.
 5

Lattice Steel Towers (LST)

DIFFERENT PARTS OF TOWERS 6
WIRED TOWERS 7
 8

….CONT’D

• Tubular Steel Poles (TSP), which are hollow steel poles fabricated either
as one piece or as several pieces fitted together.
 9

CONT’D

• Both LSTs and TSPs can be designed to carry either one or two
electrical circuits, referred to as single-circuit and double circuit
structures

• Double-circuit structures typically hold the conductors in a vertical or

stacked configuration,
 10

….CONT’D

• Whereas single-circuit structures typically hold the conductors

horizontally.

• Due to the vertical configuration of the conductors, double-circuit

structures are taller than single-circuit structures.
• For example, double-circuit 500-kV LSTs generally range from 150 to
over 200 feet tall, and
• single-circuit 500-kV towers generally range from 80 to 200 feet tall.
 11

220-kV double-circuit LST (Height range: 110-200 ft.)

 12

500-kV double-circuit LST (Height Range: 150-215 ft.)

 13

500-kV single-circuit LST (Height range: 80-200 ft.)

 14

TOWER DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

• Before starting the design of a particular tower, a number of basic

specifications are established. They are:

✓ voltage.

✓number of circuits.

✓ type of conductors.

✓ type of insulators.
 15

….CONT’D

✓Possible future addition of new circuits.

✓Tracing of transmission line.

✓Selection of tower sites.

✓Selection of rigid points.

✓Selection of conductor configuration.

✓Selection of height for each tower.

 16

….CONT’D
• Structure sizes vary depending on :-
• Voltage
• Topography
• Span length, and
• Tower type.

• As voltage increases, the phases must be separated by more distance

to prevent any chance of interference or arcing.

• Thus, higher voltage towers and poles are taller and have wider
horizontal cross arms than lower voltage structures.
 17

CONDUCTORS

• The most common methods for transfer of electric power are:

✓Overhead AC;

✓ Underground AC;

✓Overhead DC;

✓Underground DC

• Hence depending on the methods the types of conductor used

differs.
 18

….CONT’D

• Conductors (“wires”) are comprised of materials that readily conduct

electric current.

• A few examples of a conductor are gold, copper, silver, aluminum,

and iron

• Transmission line conductors are not insulated; insulation is provided by

the air.
 ….CONT’D 19

• In the early days conductor used on transmission lines were usually

Copper, but Aluminium Conductors have Completely replaced
Copper because of:-

✓The much lower cost and

✓Lighter weight of Aluminium conductor compared with a

Copper conductor of the same resistance.

✓The fact that Aluminium conductor has a larger diameter than

a Copper conductor of the same resistance is also an
advantage.

• With a larger diameter the lines of electric flux originating on the

conductor will be farther apart at the conductor surface for the same
 20

….CONT’D

• The symbols identifying different types of Aluminum conductors are as

follows:-

✓ AAC :All Aluminium conductors.

✓AAAC : All Aluminium Alloy conductors

✓ACSR : Aluminium conductors, Steel-Reinforced

✓ACAR : Aluminium conductor, Alloy-Reinforced

 21

AAC :ALL ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS

• (AAC): is made up of one or more strands of hard drawn Aluminium

Wires.
• The EC grade Alloy Conductor has a minimum conductivity of 61.2%
IACS.
Construction
• Aluminum 1350–H19 Wires, concentrically stranded over a central wire
of Aluminum 1350–H19.
 22

FEATURES

• High current carrying capacity.

• Suitable for low and medium voltage lines in urban area Excellent
resistance to corrosion

• Ideal for use in low humid and low corrosive areas.

 23

AAAC : ALL ALUMINIUM ALLOY CONDUCTORS

• This conductor is made from aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloy of

high electrical conductivity containing enough magnesium silicide to
give it better mechanical properties after treatment.

• These conductors are generally made out of aluminium alloy 6201.

• AAAC exhibits excellent corrosion resistance specially in sea coast

areas and in polluted industrial areas due to absence of steel core
 24

….CONT’D
• (AAAC): These are made out of high strength Aluminium-Magnesium-
Silicon alloy.

• As compared to conventional ACSR, AAAC are of

✓ lighter weight,

✓comparable strength & current carrying capacity,

✓ lower electrical losses and

✓ superior corrosion resistance,

• This has given AAAC a wide acceptance in the distribution and

transmission lines.
 25

FEATURES

• High strength to weight ratio

• Better Sag Characteristics

• Improved electrical Properties

• Excellent resistance to corrosion

 26

ACSR : ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS, STEEL-REINFORCED

• (ACSR): These are concentrically stranded conductor with one or

more layers of hard drawn Aluminium wire on galvanized steel wire
core which are coated with zinc with Class A / Class B Coating.

• The core can be single wire or stranded depending on the size of the
conductors

Construction

• Aluminum 1350–H19 Wires, concentrically stranded over a central

wire/core of Galvanized steel
 27

….CONT’D

Features:
• High Tensile strength
• Better sag properties
• Economic design
• Suitable for remote applications
involving long spans
 28

ACAR : ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR, ALLOY-REINFORCED

• (ACAR): is formed by concentrically stranded Wires of Aluminium on
high strength Aluminium-Magnesium-Silicon (AlMgSi) Alloy core.

• ACAR has got a better mechanical and electrical properties as

compared to an equivalent conductors of ACSR,AAC or AAAC.

• A very good balance between the mechanical and electrical

properties therefore makes ACAR the best choice where theampacity
, strength , and light weight are the main consideration of the line
design.

• These conductors are extensively used in overhead transmission and

distribution lines.
 29

FEATURES

• Improved strength to weight ratio

• Improved mechanical properties
• Improved electrical properties
• Excellent resistance to corrosion Specifications
 INSULATORS 30

• Conductors are connected to towers via insulators that support the

conductors on the tower.

• They must withstand normal operating voltage and surges due to

switching and lightning.

• Insulators have commonly been comprised of porcelain or

toughened glass, which need routine cleaning to eliminate dust build-
up that can lead to insulator flashover and noise.

• Newer insulators are composed of polymer or silicon, which are

lightweight and shatter-resistant.
 31

….CONT’D

Types of Insulators
• Following are the main types of insulators used in power transmission
lines
✓Disc insulators
✓Post insulators
✓Pin insulators
✓Strain insulators
 32

….CONT’D

✓Suspension insulators

✓Shakle insulators

✓Stay insulators

✓Polymer insulators

✓Glass insulators

✓Long rod insulators

 DISC INSULATORS 33

• These types of insulators are used in high voltage transmission and

distribution lines.
• Disc insulators are designed to meet the required electro-mechanical
strength In addition, they are a cost-effective solution for medium and
low polluted environments.
• The applications of these insulators include transmission lines, industrial
and commercial as they have high efficient features like low
corrosion, robust design.
• They provide insulation as well as support to line conductors in
suspension and tension systems.
• Also, it is capable of maintaining high voltages within high loads
 POST INSULATORS 34

• It is a high voltage insulator designed to be used in substations

because it is suitable for different voltage levels.
• These are employed because they ensure the safe and stable
distribution of electricity generated in power plants.
• Post insulators are made of ceramic material or of a single piece of
composite material (silicone rubber) and are capable of carrying
power up to 1100KV.
• It is placed in a vertical position and is widely used to protect
transformers, switchgear, and other connecting equipment due to its
excellent mechanical properties
 Pin insulator 35

• The pin insulators are mostly seen in power distribution lines.

• It is a device that insulates a wire from physical support such as a pin
(wooden or metal dowel) on a utility pole.
• It is a single-layer shape made of a non-conducting material, usually
porcelain or glass.
• Single or number of pin insulators can be used on physical support,
depending on the application of voltage.
• The pin insulator is capable of carrying voltages up to 11kV and is
designed with a high mechanical strength material.
• These are arranged in either a vertical or a horizontal position.
 STRAIN INSULATORS 36

• These types of insulators are designed to operate under mechanical

stress to withstand the stretch of a suspended electrical wire or cable.
• It is similar to a suspension insulator as it is used to support radio
antennas and overhead power lines.
• A strain insulator is arranged between two lengths of wire to
electrically separate them from each other while maintaining a
mechanical connection.
• Or used where a wire joins a pole or tower, to deliver the pull of wire to
support while electrically insulating it.
• These insulators have a voltage potential of about 33kV
 SUSPENSION INSULATORS 37

• These types of insulators are generally used as conductors to protect

the overhead transmission lines.
• The suspension insulator is commonly made of porcelain material and
is used in towers.
• They have a number of insulators that are connected in series to a
form string.
• It is hinged on the cross arm of the tower and carries a power
conductor at its lowest end.
• These are used where a higher voltage of about 33 kV is required.
• Pin insulator becomes economical as the size, weight of the insulator
becomes more.
• To overcome these difficulties, a suspension insulator is used
 SHAKLE INSULATORS 38

• Shackle insulators are generally small in size and used in low voltage
distribution systems.
• This type of insulator can be used in both vertical and horizontal
positions.
• The connection of this insulator can be done using a metal strip and is
capable of carrying a voltage of about 33 kV.
• It has a tapered hole that distributes the load force more consistently,
reducing the chance of fracture once heavily loaded.
• The use of insulators has decreased recently after the widespread use
of underground cables for distribution purposes.
 STAY INSULATORS 39

• It is a type of low voltage insulator designed to counterweight and

fasten dead-end poles by combining a stay wire or main grip.
• These insulators are rectangular in shape and are available in smaller
sizes than other types.
• These insulators can be arranged between the line conductor and the
earth.
• In addition, they also act as protection devices that protect against
sudden faults otherwise sudden voltage changes.
• The importance of these insulators is seen when the poles fall to the
ground or when the stay wires are accidentally broken due to
additional mechanical load.
 POLYMER INSULATORS 40

• These are a type of electrical equipment usually made of polymer

materials and metal fittings.
• Furthermore, these insulators are made of fiberglass rods and are
surrounded by polymer weather sheds.
• Weather shades shield the insulator core from the outer environment.
• Polymer insulators are lighter in weight than the porcelain type while
providing better power.
• In general, it is considered a good insulator for both heat and
electricity.
• It is used as an insulator due to its unique electrical, mechanical,
chemical, and thermal properties
 GLASS INSULATORS 41

• These are types of insulators used in power transmission lines that are
usually made of annealed or toughened glass.
• The purpose of this insulator is to insulate the electrical wires, so that
electricity does not leak into all the poles and into the earth.
• Previously, glass insulators were used in telegraph and telephone lines,
which were later replaced by ceramic and porcelain types in the 19th
century.
• To overcome the weakness of the glass, toughened glass types were
introduced, which became popular due to their long life span
 LONG ROD INSULATORS 42

• The long rod insulators are usually hinged on steel towers to insolate the
transmission lines.
• In addition, they also act as protection devices as they supply power safely.
• Depending on the use and requirement, long rod insulators are generally
composed of multiple insulators.
• These are porcelain rods with weather shed and metal end fittings on the
outside.
• The advantage of employing this type of insulator is that they are applicable
for use in both tension and suspension locations.
 43

GROUND WIRE

• Earth wire is made run on the top of the towers in order to protect the
line against lightning.
 44

TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL

• A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from
generating substation to the various distribution units.

• The performance of transmission line depends on the parameters of the

line.

• The transmission line has mainly the following parameters:

✓ Resistance: It is due to the property of conductor that it opposes the

flow of current

✓ Inductance: Due to magnetic field around the conductor

✓ Capacitance: Due to electrostatic field

 45

….CONT’D
 46

RESISTANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE

• The DC resistance of a conductor is given by

• Where l is the length of conductor; A is cross-sectional area, 𝞀 is the resistivity

of the conductor.
• The DC resistance per meter of the conductor is
 47

….CONT’D
 ….CONT’D 48

• The resistivity of a conductor is a property of the material that the

conductor is made from.

• Variations in resistance are caused by

• Frequency effect( skin effect)

• Temperature

• Spiraling of stranded conductors(reading assignment)

• Bundle conductors arrangement(reading assignment)

 49

FREQUENCY EFFECT

• The frequency of the AC voltage produces a second effect on the

conductor resistance due to the nonuniform distribution of the current.

• This phenomenon is known as skin effect.

• As frequency increases, the current tends to go toward the surface of

the conductor and the current density decreases at the center.

• Skin effect reduces the effective cross-section area used by the

current, and thus, the effective resistance increases.
 TEMPERATURE EFFECT 50

• The resistivity of any conductive material varies linearly over an

operating temperature, and therefore, the resistance of any
conductor suffers the same variations.

• As temperature rises, the conductor resistance increases linearly, over

normal operating temperatures, according to the following equation:
 51

….CONT’D

• Where

✓ R2=resistance at second temperature t2

✓R1 = resistance at initial temperature t1

✓T =temperature coefficient for the particular material (𝑜𝐶 )

• Resistivity (r) and temperature coefficient (T) constants depend upon

the particular conductor material.
 52

PROXIMITY EFFECT
• When two or more conductors carrying alternating current are close
to each other, then distribution of current in each conductor is
affected due to the varying magnetic field of each other.

• The varying magnetic field produced by alternating current induces

eddy currents in the adjacent conductors.

• Due to this, when the nearby conductors carrying current in the same
direction, the current is concentrated at the farthest side of the
conductors.
 53

….CONT’D

• When the nearby conductors are carrying current in opposite

direction to each other, the current is concentrated at the nearest
parts of the conductors.
• This effect is called as Proximity effect.
• The proximity effect also increases with increase in the frequency.
• Effective resistance of the conductor is increased due to the proximity
effect.
54
55
 56

INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

• A current-carrying conductor produces concentric magnetic flux lines
around the conductor.

• If the current varies with the time, the magnetic flux changes and a
voltage is induced.

• Therefore, an inductance is present, defined as the ratio of the

magnetic flux linkage and the current.

• The magnetic flux produced by the current in transmission line

conductors produces a total inductance whose magnitude depends
on the line configuration.
 57

….CONT’D

• To determine the inductance of the line, it is necessary to calculate,

as in any magnetic circuit with permeability 𝞵, the following factors:

✓ Magnetic field intensity H.

✓ Magnetic field density B .

✓Flux linkage 𝝺.
 ….CONT’D
58

• The series inductance of a transmission line consists of two

components:

• Internal and external inductances, which are due the magnetic flux
inside and outside the conductor respectively.

• Therefore, the conductor inductance due to internal flux linkage, per

unit length, becomes
 59

….CONT’D

• In general, the total external flux linkage from the surface of the
conductor to any point D, per unit length, is
 ….CONT’D
60

• The summation of the internal and external flux linkage at any point D
permits evaluation of the total inductance of the conductor 𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑡 , per
unit length, as follows:
INDUCTANCE 61
….CONT’D
62
 63

….CONT’D
 64

….CONT’D
65
 66

….CONT’D
….CONT’D
67
 68

….CONT’D
69
Worked example 70
….CONT’D 71
72
 73

….CONT’D
74
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 75
 76

….CONT’D