LECTURE NOTES

EDU 411: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND EMERGING CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

1.1 Meaning of Education and Comparative Education.

Education has been defined by many educationists, philosophers and authors. It is considered the most
significant activity in any society but subject to a number of opinions and assumptions.
Education is the process of training man to fulfill his aim by exercising all the faculties to the fullest
extent as a member of society. Aristotle
Education is every interaction that happens, is every association that occurs between adults with children,
is a field or a state where the educational work in progress. M.J. Langeveld
Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind of every
man. Socrates
Education is defined as a learning process for the individual to attain knowledge and understanding of the
higher specific objects. The knowledge gained formally resulting individual has a pattern of thought and
behavior in accordance with the education they have gained. Big Indonesian Dictionary (1991)
Education is a combination of growth and human development with social legacy. Kohnstamm and
Gunning (1995): Education is the formation of conscience. Education is a process of self-formation and
self-determination ethically, conformed conscience. Stella van Petten Henderson
Education is a conscious and deliberate effort to create an atmosphere of learning and the learning process
so that learners are actively developing the potential for him to have the spiritual strength of religious,
self-control, personality, intelligence, noble character, and the skills needed for themselves and
society. Wikipedia
Education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself. (Education is everything along with
growth; education itself has no final destination behind him). John Dewey (1978)
In the broadest sense, education is the device by which a social group continued existence renew yourself,
and defend his ideas. H.H Horne

Comparative education is a complex field. Scholars are divided on the definition, nature and its purpose
as it is ever testing new ground (Wiseman & Wolhuter 2019).

Adeyinka (1994) gives the following definitions for the concept:

(a) A study of two or more education systems.

 (b) A study of how the philosophy, objectives and aims, policy and practice of education in other
countries influence the general development, policy and practice of education in a particular country.

(c) A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and continents, has
influenced the development of education in particular countries.

(d) A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative machineries set up
to implement or to control the implementation of government policies at various levels of education
systems.

Comparative Education according to Good (1962) is a field of study dealing with the comparison of
current educational theory and practice in different countries for the purpose of broadening and deepening
understanding of educational problems beyond the boundaries of one's own country. From the above
definitions, the study of Comparative education allows the person involved to have a better understanding
of the system of education outside his own country.

To Kandel (1957), Comparative Education is the comparison of various philosophies of education based
not only on theories but the actual practices which prevail. From this above definition, Kandel is of the
opinion that comparative education goes beyond the comparison of education philosophies but also
includes the comparison of the real education practices. Perhaps, from the definition, comparative.
Education can be regarded as being pragmatic.

In his own contribution to the concept of comparative Education, Mallinson (1975) defines the subject as:
a systematic examination of other cultures and other systems of education deriving from those cultures in
order to discover resemblances and differences, and why variant solutions have been attempted (and with
what result) to problems that are often common to all.
1.2 The scope of Comparative Education.

The scope of comparative education means the area or areas covered by the discipline. It also implies the
various subjects or disciplines from where Comparative education draws its information directly or
indirectly.

Comparative education manifests a three-in-one perspective on education (Wolhuter et al. 2018):

• an education system perspective

• a contextual perspective

• comparative perspective.
In the first place, the national specific education system is a subject of study in comparative education.

Secondly, the education system is studied within its societal context, as influenced by societal forces
(geographic, demographic, social, economic, cultural, political and religious). This influence of the
societal context on education is also a subject of study in comparative education. Also it studies the
societal outcomes of education, that is the effect of education on the economy (e.g. the effect of education
on economic growth), or on the social system (e.g. the effect of education on social mobility), etc.

Thirdly, comparative education studies and compares different education systems, as they are the
outcome of forces exerted by their societal contexts, hence the comparative perspective. Because of
changes in both the worlds of scholarship and in education, there has recently been a contention that the
field should have its name modified to comparative and international education.

Comparative education tends to have a global or international perspective in its exploration of education
issues.
A critical look at the various definitions of the discipline no doubt reveals that Comparative Education is
an interdisciplinary subject since it relies on other subjects to be able to accomplish its objectives. As an
interdisciplinary subject, its scope covers the historical development of education right from the Roman
as well as the Greek civilization. It also includes the historical development of non-formal education in
any country of study. The discipline has its scope extended to the purpose or purposes of education
systems of the countries being studied, an investigation into the similarities as well as differences existing
in the educational practices of the countries under investigation. Comparative Education draws its
content from other disciplines which include the following: (a) History of Education (b) Philosophy of
Education (c) Sociology of Education (d) Anthropology(e) Economics (f) Geography (g) Psychology (h)
Statistics (i) Literature (j) Political geography (k) Political science and The International relations. It is a
discipline that relates to other subjects for the accomplishment of its aims and objectives. It may be
reasonably concluded that the interdisciplinary nature of the subject has contributed to the wideness of the
discipline.

1.3 Purpose for the study of Comparative Education.

According to (Wolhuter 2019), the purposes or significance of comparative education are:

1. description of different societies education systems or teaching learning organization.

2. Provides an understanding of different education systems as outcomes of societal forces and how
education systems in turn shape societies.
3. To carry out domestic and a more holistic evaluation of global education systems. The universal or
holistic evaluation of education means evaluating how well the world education systems respond to the
challenges of the 21st century as well as an estimation of potential societal impact of education. Examples
include:

 Can education effect economic modernization?

 Can education stamp out unemployment?
 Can education entrench or secure a democratic culture?
 Can education foster intercultural tolerance and sensitivity in a multicultural society?
 Which country has the best education system in the world?
 What is the place of education in the war against the Covid-19 pandemic?

4. It assists nations to design, plan and reform an education system based on the education experience of
others.

5. It can contribute to the improvement of teaching practice of teachers. An understanding of comparative

education literature aids teachers’ reflection on issues of concern in their classrooms, such as diversity,
conflict/peace, pedagogy, curriculum and classroom organization in a wider global context, and for
learning from the innovations, experiences and practices of other teachers, schools, countries and regions

6. It benefits other fields of educational studies. For instance, Philosophy of Education, where,
comparative education can reveal the benefits and disadvantages of the implementation of particular
philosophies of education in certain locations at certain periods in history.

7. It can be applied as a comparative method of research by researchers of various sub-disciplines of

education. Comparison is a remarkable method applicable in virtually any research project in the social
sciences, humanities and natural sciences (Neuman 2003:402–404).

8. Motivating and teaching students to conduct research particularly by use of the comparative method to
enrich teacher education programmes.

9. It promotes a philanthropic ideal by nurturing a global citizen, with a creative, critical, caring
predisposition towards humanity.

1.4 Historical Development of Comparative Education.

Historical Background
In the beginning, Comparative Education was predominantly descriptive of educational systems of each
country without necessarily making comparisons. However, the 19th Century witnessed an increased
interest in the study of Comparative Education in its Comparative form.

Serious studies in Comparative Education began in the early 19th century after the Napoleonic wars.
Since the Europeans enjoyed peace among themselves, they considered the study of comparative
education to enhance their interaction and unify the youths of various European countries. To this end,
John Griscom visited Europe and on his return, published his findings on educational institutions in Great
Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy and Holland between 1818 and 1819.

In the same vein, Victor Cousin, a representative of the French Minister of education visited Prussia in
1931 and also on return home, published his findings on the Prussian educational institutions and
practices. His findings were later translated to English and enhanced the educational development in
France, England as well as in America.

Another pioneer was Horace Mann of America who after a six-month visit to Europe published his
findings in 1843 on educational institutions and practices in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany
as well as Holland. His report was purely on the comparison of the school organization and methods of
instruction.

Matthew Arnold of England visited both France and Germany in 1859 and 1865. He advised that some
useful aspects of the educational systems of France and Germany should be integrated into England’s.

Sir Michael Sadler in one of his publications; How far can we learn anything of practical value from the
study of Foreign Systems of Education? (1900), went further than other pioneers before him who were
more utilitarian and straight forward in the description of the foreign educational systems.

Kandel observed that: The chief value of a Comparative approach to educational problems lies in an
analysis of their causes, comparison of the differences between the various systems and the reasons
underlying them and finally, in a study of the solutions attempted. In other words, the comparative
approach demands first an appreciation of spiritual and cultural forces which underlie an educational
system.

In the same vein, Friedrich Schneider, a German speaking and Director of the Institute of Comparative
Education, Salzburg started the editing of the international Review of Education in four languages in
1930. In his 1947 publication, he gave the factors that can influence the educational theory and practice of
any country as: (a) National character (b) Geographical space (c) Culture (d) Sciences (e) Philosophy(f)
Economic life and politics (g) Religion (h) History (i) Foreign influences and (j) The development of
pedagogies. He applied historical approach to the problems of education of all the countries he visited.

Sergius Hessen, a Russian Philosopher looked at Comparative Education from a Philosophical Education
perspective. He selected four problems as an educational policy focus: (a) compulsory education (b) The
school and the State (c) The school and the church and (d) The school and economic life. Hessen was
perhaps the first education philosopher to apply philosophical approach.

The Comparative Education Society, introduced by Brickman, started at a conference in New York in
1956. This society assists in the publication of journal called "The Comparative Education Review" and
holds national as well as regional conferences and seminars.

In 1961, a similar society was established in London, Europe. Membership was extended to experts in
Comparative or International Education in the tertiary Institutions or the International organizations. It
holds its conferences every two years and publishes the proceedings.

Similar societies have been established in Canada, Korea, Japan as well as Nigeria. The World congress
on the discipline came into being in 1982 for Cooperation among the people involved in the study of the
subject as well as the general development of Comparative Education. Today, the discipline is one of the
subjects being offered in most of the Universities and Colleges of Education worldwide.

Factors responsible for increased interest in the study of Comparative Education.

Osokoya, P G (1992) gives the following as the other factors responsible for increased interest in the
study of Comparative Education.

(a) The rise of newly independent states and developing countries who wanted good educational systems.
For instance, the 8-4-4 system in Kenya was borrowed from Canada.

(b) Frequent travels to attend conferences, seminars as well as workshops abroad.

(c) The improvement in the modern means of transport and communication.

(d) Scientific and technological achievements in the advanced countries such as Russia and Sputnik.

(e) The socio-economic and political problems facing other countries.

Phases in the Development of Comparative Education

The phases in the historical development of Comparative Education can be divided into three namely:
(a) Descriptive and borrowing stage

(b) Predictive stage

(c) Scientific stage.

First phase: The educational comparativists involved in this stage include: Marc-Anthony Jullien de
Paris, 1817, Mathew Arnold of England, Victor cousin of France, Leo Tolstoy and K.D. Aushinsky
ofRussia, Domingo Sermiento of Argentina, Horace Mann and Henry Barbard of America. At the
borrowing stage, the education data collected would be compared so as to make use of the best
educational practice of the country studied for the purpose of transplanting it to other countries.

Second Phase: It occurred in the first half of the 20th century. It’s regarded as a stage of Prediction
because at this stage the educational comparativists were able to predict the likely success or failure of
adopting the educational practices of the country studied by their own country. The basis of a country's
educational practice may not be the same with that of education comparatives studying the education
system of other countries. The educational comparativists involved in this stage included: Friedrich
Schneider and Franz Hilker of Germany, Isaac Kandel as well as Robert Ulich of America., Nicholas
Hans as well as Joseph Lanwerys of England including Pedro Rosselo of Switzerland. They tried to find
out the reasons behind the educational practices of the country they visited and became more careful in
transplanting the educational practices of another country to their own.

Third Phase: Regarded as the scientific or analytical period, it took place in the second half of the 20th c.
It involved rigorous analysis as well as objectivity in the study of educational practices of other countries.
Before adopting the educational practices of another country, they have to be subjected to a critical
analysis. The comparativists involved in this stage included: Schneider, Kandel as well as Uich.

2.0 Methods Used for Studying Comparative Education

In the various methods of the study of comparative education the following are noteworthy Quantitative,
Descriptive, Sociological, Historical, Analytical and Synthetic.
2.1 The Quantitative or Statistical Method:
The study of comparative education analyses the similarities and factors inherent in the education systems
of various countries. Hence, it is necessary to use the statistical method for finding out the progress or
decline of education in a country.
In this method various type of educational data are collected about a country. For example, the data about
the number of students at a certain stage of education, expenditure on them, the percentages of passes and
failures at various stages of education, expenses on teachers’ salaries, school buildings and other items are
collected, and the same are compared with the identical data of another country. Thus the progress or
decline of education in any country is statistically analyzed.

Limitations of the Statistical Method

1. It is difficult to collect reliable data unless due care is taken. Consequently, many of them are
false.
2. The various educational terms used in different countries do not connote the same sense.
Therefore, their statistical analysis is falsified.
3. It does not provide an understanding the educational characteristics that are the result of social,
cultural, economic, political and religious situations of a country.
4. Evidently the use of the statistical method is very limited.

2.2 The Descriptive Method:

This method was widely used in the 19 th century as the main purpose of comparative education then was
to incorporate the good points of another country. For this, a detailed description of educational affairs of
another country was necessary.

Educationists presented detailed descriptive accounts of educational systems of other lands. For instance,
in 1918-19 John Griscom of U.S.A. visited Great Britain, France, Holland, Switzerland and Italy and
wrote a book entitled “A Year in Europe” describing their educational systems. An attempt was made in
U.S.A to incorporate some of the special characteristics of the educational systems as described in this
book.

In 1831, Victor Cousin of France published a Report on the educational system of France. Some of the
educational characteristics of Prussia as described in this Report were imitated in Great Britain and
France. Victor Cousin did not make a comparative study of educational systems of other lands in his
Report. Therefore, his Report could be evaluated by only those persons who had a good knowledge of
educational systems of other countries. Thus, in the 19 th c only those people were able to understand
comparative education that had a good knowledge of educational system of their own country.

Matthew Arnold of Great Britain and Horace Man of U.S.A did some work in the area of descriptive
method. Mathew Arnold studied the educational systems of France and Germany and published a report
about France in 1859 and about Germany in 1865.
Mathew Arnold in his description drew our attention also to those factors which distinguish the
educational system of one land from that of another. Sir Michael Sadler and Paul Monroe followed
Arnold’s method. Thus, the study of comparative education became better organized.

Horace Man visited Germany, Ireland, Great Britain, France and Holland and in 1843 published a Report
on the educational systems of these countries. Horace Man in this Report pointed out the special
characteristics of the educational systems he had studied and also mentioned the specific element that
should be imitated by others.

Thus in his descriptive method Horace Man paid attention to the evaluation of the characteristics and their
utilities. As a result, the later educationists also paid attention to the evaluation and utilities of
characteristics of educational systems of other countries.

Henry Bernard, between 1856 and 1881, published 31 volumes of “The American Journal of Education”.
In these volumes he described the educational systems of the various states of U.S.A. and of many foreign
countries. And so he placed before us standard data. In this process he also interpreted the historical
background of each educational system he described.

In his study of comparative education, Michael Sadler emphasized the point that we should study all those
national factors that influence the educational system of a land and are responsible for its development
and decline. He considered the study of comparative education as useful for one’s national system of
education.

The above account indicates that the descriptive method of comparative education was advocated by
those educationists who wanted to promote and popularize the study of comparative education.

2.3 The Sociological Method:

In the sociological method the educational problems are studied in a social context. This is done with the
belief that the educational system of a country is conditioned by its social, cultural, economic, political
and religious situations.

Hence the educational problems of a country have their origin in some social problems and they do not
exist by themselves as there is a close relationship between education and society.

The sociological method of the study of comparative education emphasizes the past causative factors as
well as social and cultural aspects which may be responsible for the problem.
It recognizes that the educational system of a country becomes useless when it ignores the social situation
of the country and the aspirations of the people. For instance, the education in Kenya during the British
rule did not satisfy the social needs in the country or the aspirations of the people. Hence the
establishment of independent school movements in the country.

Limitations of the sociological method

It ignores the contributions of individuals towards the growth of education. There exist individuals who
have contributed immensely towards the growth of education in their countries.

2.4 The Historical Method:

In the historical method we study the modern educational problems of a country based on the examination
of its educational historical development. This method reveals the basis on which the modern educational
system is based. This knowledge may help us in eliminating undesirable elements in the system and
further strengthening the desirable ones.

It helps a researcher to know the past, understand the present better and to improve the future by hinting
at those factors which may be more useful.

The historical method considers all those geographical, social, racial, political, religious and linguistic
factors which influence the educational system of a country. Nicholas Hans, Schneider and Kandel have
emphasized this method.

Limitations of the Historical method.

1. The data on which the study is based may be unreliable if its collection does not observe due care.
Therefore, conclusions derived cannot be very useful. The historical materials about educational
systems of various countries are generally not very reliable. This limits the utility of the historical
data. Hence more research is needed for making them reliable.
2. Historians generally are not impartial in their accounts. They conceal undesirable elements about
the history of their own country and look on facts relating to other countries with prejudice. Thus,
the truth is not known hence the right conclusions not reached.
3. The past is unduly emphasized hence the study of comparative education becomes unbalanced.

2.5 The Analytical Method:

This method appreciates the fact that the educational system of a country has a close relationship with its
social, political and economic conditions. It is because of this relationship that a comparative study has
become necessary. In any comparative study we have to use analysis.

Through analysis, the various elements of the educational system are separated and the importance of
each understood independently. Analytical method can be useful only when the social and educational
organizations are compared. For this comparison the following four factors are necessary—

1. To Collect Educational Data:

To collect all the educational information through descriptive and statistical methods is necessary for
analytical method.

2. Interpretation of Social, Political, Economic and Historical Data:

This is necessary in order to understand similarities and differences found in the educational systems of
various countries.

3. Determination of Standard for Comparison:

After finding out the similarities and differences of the various educational systems, a comparison of
same is done according to certain standards. The analytical method formulates these standards of
comparison which may include; Political philosophy, aims of education and the method of control of
education.

Based on these standards, we understand the similarities and differences of educational systems of various
countries. For example, the difference between the political philosophies of India and China, explains
differences in their educational systems.

4. Interpretation and Conclusion:

On the basis of the above three aspects we interpret the collected data and reach certain conclusions on
the basis of comparison.

Limitations of the Analytical Method:

In the process of analysis, no adequate attention is paid to the totality of the educational systems.

2.6 The Synthetic Method.

In the study of comparative education, international point of view is now considered important. The
method of synthesis emphasizes this point of view. In this method the problems of education are studied
on an international plane. Edmund King in his book “World Perspective in Education” has advocated this
method.

When we study the problems of education of various countries, we find some universal truths in their
inherent differences, because there is much similarity in the needs and aspirations of the people of the
world.

The United Nations Organization has contributed much towards the consciousness of this similarity. The
method of synthesis is still in its infancy and needs further development.
2.7 The Philosophical Method Approach
A Russian Philosopher by name Serguis Hessen was the first man to apply philosophical approach to the
study of Comparative Education when he published his book in 1928 which he titled "Kritische
Vergleichung des Schulwesens der Anderen Kuturstaaten". In the book, he chose four main philosophical
problems. The problems chosen by him are:

(a) Compulsory education

(b) The School and the State
(c) The school and the Church and
(d) The School and Economic life.
He analysed the underlying principles and later followed it by giving a critical account of modern
legislation in many countries. Kosemani (1995) believes that philosophical approach is a step forward to
solve the problems in the national character approach. According to him, there are two major problems
involved in the application of philosophical approach to the study of comparative education. The
problems are:

(a) Difference in emphasis as a result of which it may be difficult to use the same criterion (national
ideology) for the comparison.

(b) There are many countries without clear cut national ideologies.

(c) From the above, it could be deduced that with philosophical approach, hypotheses could be
formulated, be tested and could also be empirically validated for better explanation of educational
practices of various countries.

2.8 The comparative method/ The Systematic Area Studies Method Approach.
This method was developed and popularized by G.Z.F. Beredy in his book "Comparative Method in
Education "(1964). He used the interdisciplinary approach to systematically survey and analyzes
education in different countries. The aim is to understand differences and similarities before borrowing
and making any predictions. He argues that, since the study has to make sense out of similarities and
differences among different educational systems, it is possible to seek assistance from other fields of
study such as History, Sociology and Philosophy.

Accordingly, educational facts are so interrelated with other social sciences that comparative education
cannot be studied in isolation. According to Beredy, the following steps are to be followed;

I. Description of aspects of Education - This involves identification of the problem by clearly

describing the problem from eye witness accounts, observations or even reading.
II. Interpretation and explanation using the interdisciplinary approach - This involves
giving explanation of the data collected, of the way things are in each country. Some of the
reasons could be historical, social, cultural or religious.
III. Juxtaposition or classification of data - This involves putting the information into groups in
categories of contrasting and comparable features. In this way similarities and differences can
be easily and clearly seen.
IV. Comparison - This involves comparing features in one system with those of another system.
This helps in the formulation of possible hypotheses.
V. Conclusions and generalization - This involves testing of the hypotheses generated,
drawing of valid conclusions and recommendations while focusing on the causes of
similarities and differences.

2.9 The Problem Solving Method Approach.

This method was developed and popularized by Brian Holmes in (1964) in his look entitled "Problems in
Education: A comparative Approach". He borrowed the ideas of John Dewey ( a famous American
Educator) based on the five stages of reflective or critical thinking which Brian applied to the study of
comparative education to solve educational problems. The stages are;

i) Problem Identification
ii) Problem Analysis
iii) Proposed problem solutions
 iv) Specification of the context - this involves looking at the factors, and conditions that are
likely to influence the outcomes of the proposed solution; such as, conservative mental states
like traditions, morals and beliefs. Also it involves prediction of anticipated results - i.e.
making informed guesses about expected outcomes.
v) Comparison and conclusion; - This involves comparing the predicted outcomes (based on the
proposed policy solutions) with the actual observable practices. It is more of an evaluation
stage (i.e. have things worked out as anticipated?). It also involves making recommendations
and conclusions from the observations, and then new lines of action are made.

According to Brian Holmes, he argued that, in the face of a problematic situation, possible solution may
spring to mind. On further reflection the problem is better formulated. This further directs the solution to
a certain kind of data out of which emerge refined possible solutions, which are then put forward as a
hypothesis, which are then tested one after the other and a solution is arrived at.

2.10 The Scientific Method Approach

This method was developed and population by Harold Noah and Marc Eckstein in 1960, when they wrote
a book entitled "Toward, a Science of Comparative Education". In this approach, they recommended the
following procedure;

i) Problem identification and review of literature

ii) Definitions of central concepts, terms and indicators
iii) Selection/sampling of units of study or cases o be studied
iv) Data collection
v) Data Analysis and manipulation
vi) Interpretation of data -finding & results
vii) Drawing of conclusions and recommendations

Comparative education uses different methodological approaches in its study. For example, some scholars
in the 1980s like Robert Arnove, Edmond King and Philip Altbach also wrote on methodology in
comparative education. They criticized some assumptions on which the scientific methods developed
earlier were based. However, instead of instead of any particular method for comparative study, they
proposed a combination of methods of approach (an eclectic). Their argument was that the method of use
should largely depend on the purpose and design of each study. They were skeptical about the possibility
of developing an exact science that would allow accurate predictions as suggested by scholars of
scientific method approach (i.e. Noah and Eckstein). It is thus important to note that methodological
debate goes on to date, an indicator of a continued change and development of a dynamic discipline that
deals with an equally ever changing and complex field of education i.e. the study of comparative
education discipline.

3.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION.

A national system of education is defined from the perspective of formal education system which includes
institutionalized early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, tertiary education
Adult Education and university education. It’s imperative however for an education system to be wholly
inclusive that is, formal, informal and non-formal education.

National education systems are determined by several factors some of which may dominate a particular
system yet have little influence in another. They include geographical, economic, social, cultural,
historical, religions, political, language and technological. In this chapter we shall study some such
factors;

1) Geographical Factors.

Man is influenced by the geography of a particular place. Similarly, the education system is determined
by the geography of the particular region. The geography of a particular area dictates the type of building
and equipment, means and methods of transporting children to school, school going age of pupils among
others. Three major geographical aspects influence the educational system directly. a) climate b)
population distribution and c) land configuration.

Climate

Climatic conditions influence Education systems in a variety of ways. The content of education depends
on the continental climate, for example, training of doctors in the tropics is likely to emphasize more on
tropical disease like malaria. Extreme low temperatures in Continental Europe, affects accessibility to
school by young children. Temperatures also affect the school routine and timetable. In Norway, for
example, the sun does not rise during winter until ten o'clock in the morning and often temperatures fall to
negative 20 degrees. Thus in the Scandinavian countries there are no infant schools or early childhood
education departments in some schools because of extreme temperatures. Climatic conditions also
influence the education system in relation to time of vacations. In North America and many countries in
Europe take school vacations during cold winter and others during hot summer. In hot climatic conditions
especially in arid and semi-arid areas, learning occurs in morning when it is cool. Due to excessive heat in
the afternoon very little learning takes place.
Population distribution

In most countries, population is either concentrated in the urban centers, or scattered in the country side.
Australia has two systems of education, that is, one for the urban areas and the other for rural areas.
Urban areas have well-equipped schools with qualified teachers and administrative personnel. In the rural
areas, schools are small with less teacher for ten up to forty students. This is because farms are far from
the nearest schools and daily attendance is difficult. Therefore, the central government is responsible for
their administration and financing. The government also provides the means and organization of
correspondence, tuition and travelling teachers. Most students receive education through correspondence
and occasional visits by the travelling education inspectors.

Land configuration/Terrain.

Land configuration determines settlement and location of schools. It influences the education system in
terms of architectural designs school buildings, village location and also the culture and thinking of
people. In some cases, due to close family ties, boarding schools for children are non-exist, except for the
few who come from far and inaccessible places daily.

2) Economic Factors.

The economic factor determines the content and method of an education system. Formal education is
possible where production exceeds consumption. In indigenous traditional education people were trained
depending on the economic conditions and community needs. From an economic perspective, expenditure
on education refers to the amount or percentage of national revenue spent on education by both
individuals and the government. In countries with weak economies education is backward while in those
with strong economies educational aims and the curriculum are given a special direction to make the
country prosperous. For example, in the USA and Japan, education system graduates self-reliant
individuals. On the contrary, in India, college and university graduates face educated - unemployment.

The poor people content with minimum education for their children, while the rich keep their children
longest at school as they can meet the costs.

In a subsistence economy, educational systems are informal occurring on the job. Conversely, where there
are enough grants in systems of education, minimum requirements are met and the quality of education is
often high. For example, Britain, France, Japan and the USA among other strong economy countries,
provide enough grants that are allocated to their systems of education. In developing countries, where
funds are very scarce, even payment of teachers’ salaries, essential resource materials such as textbooks
are inadequate and in some cases unavailable. This greatly affects the content and methods in learning
institutions and in essence the whole system of education.

3) The Social and Cultural Factor.

Schools often reflect the social patterns prevailing in a particular country. The education system is a
social factor which reflects the ethos of the people it serves. In this regard, education aims to ensure
cultural continuity by fostering the growth and development of national characteristics that act as forces
of stability. In its simplest definition a culture of a society is the total way of life of the society. The
education of the society strives to perpetuate and protect its traditions and aspirations. A close study and
analysis of each education system reveals the cultural concept and pattern of the community. Also the
social patterns of the people in any community or country are reflected in its system of education.

4) The Historical Factor.

Each country has its own history that shapes its aims, aspirations, activities and destiny. This is often
reflected in its educational system. Colonialism is an important historical factor that shaped the education
system of many African countries and others in the world. The colonial powers influenced features
education systems in colonies even after gaining independence such as language of instruction, structure
of education, curriculum and assessment. The present systems of education in many countries of Africa,
Asia, North and South America are actual products of past colonial influence.

The missionary factor also contributed greatly in shaping the systems of education in most African
countries. Christian missionaries in particular from Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Switzerland and
USA have largely influenced the development of the education system in Africa.

5. Political Factor

The dominant political philosophy which controls the government of a country often impacts education.
The political factor dictates the kind of administration of the system of education. They also underlie the
features in education system and its functioning. For example, socialism advocates for the nationalization
of the means of production. To achieve change of such a social order, require reform in education through
full state control of education and the curriculum and this means that the citizens must be trained by the
state, for the state and in state institutions. The details of the curriculum are decided by the state
authorities and involve functional training of citizens. The curriculum may also involve scientific training
for social utilization purposes.

Good examples of countries that have introduced a socialist system of education are Mexico, Bulgaria
and Cuba. The common features of their education system include monopoly of the state control on
education, secularism, physical and military training political indoctrination in and out of school and also
more emphasis on science subjects. In these states, freedom of individuals and the idea of tolerance are
not accepted. Unlike these countries, France has a centralized system of education based on its political
philosophy. In France, everything to do with education is controlled from the centre (metropole) which is
the central government. In the case of USA and Japan, their education systems are highly decentralized,
and are often based on the democratic influence and the capitalistic political philosophy of these
countries.

There is also a close relationship between the national character and the national system of education. For
example, due to the democratic national character of USA its education system is democratic in most
aspects. Nationalism also as a political ideology influences the system of education in a country.
Nationalism could be defined as a psychological feeling within a group which believes they have
common outlook and traditions based on myth of common ancestry. These common ancestries include
race, language, religion and territory and often strengthen the consciousness of nationality. The racial
aspect which is often within the political ideology of a country may play a significant role in determining
features in the education system. Race refers to a tribe, a nation or a group of nations. Modern population
includes people of different racial origins. The British colonial policy was based on the principle of
decentralization and on the building up of a commonwealth of nations each of which should be free to
develop its own culture and national character. Hence there is a close relationship between national
character and national system of education and the former has been universally accepted as an important
basis of national system of education. Thus the political system of a country is closely related with its
educational programme.

6) Language Factor

Many languages may be spoken in a country, but only one enjoys the status of a national language. In
every country the national language occupies a special place. Also every government tries to ensure that
every one acquires the capacity to express himself through the national language.

In East Africa, Kiswahili has influenced features in the education systems in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,
Rwanda and Burundi. Kiswahili is a compulsory subject in schools in Kenya and Tanzania. In Tanzania
Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction in all primary schools.

In South Africa, there are two linguistic groups, the English speaking and the Afrikaans speaking groups.
After the colonization by the British, English was enacted as a medium of instruction in schools. The
inhabitants spoke Afrikaans and had been used to the Dutch school system. The use of English failed and
in 1914 Afrikaans was recognized also as a medium of instruction in school for Afrikaan speaking
children. As such, in a South Africa, a bilingual system of education came into being, where some schools
use English, while others use Afrikaans or even both.

French as a language is also used in former French colonies like Cameroon, Tunisia, Madagascar,
Senegal, Rwanda and Burundi. Cameroon also emerges as a bilingual country with two official languages
and two systems of education, that is, the Anglophone to the West and Francophone to the East. Although
the Cameroon government has been trying to put the two zones together it has proved to remain difficult.
Interestingly the ex-British Anglophone system of education continues to produce local syllabuses with
the aim of making secondary school examination; the ex-French francophone system still clings firmly on
the old and move formal baccalaureate.

By and large in Africa colonialism influenced the language of instruction in schools. In the former British
colonies, pupils were taught in their vernacular in the lower elementary or primary school curriculum.
The French colonies put more emphasis on French as a medium of instruction. To date most of the
inherited systems of education still suffer from the effect of the colonial masters in the school system and
at large in the education system. Thus the place of national language in the development of a national
feeling cannot be over-emphasized. As such in a national system of education, special emphasis is placed
on the study of national language.

7) Religious Factor

Religious loyalties also dictate aims, content and even methods of instruction in education. Indeed,
religion and beliefs influence and shape aspects in education system.

In Africa, European Christian Missionaries continue to influence the education system. The initiative by
the Christian churches to extend education and their power to control development explains many of the
common elements inherent in education systems in countries that were colonized by the Europeans. For
examples school days are from Monday to Friday and resting days are Saturday and Sunday. This is so as
some people worship on Saturday and others on Sunday.

Religious organizations are involved in educational development through building of educational

institutions. For example, the catholic Jesuits succeeded in building up some of the greatest systems of
secondary and higher education institution known in history. There is currently a catholic university
established in Kenya besides many catholic sponsored primary and secondary schools. The Muslim
faithful also have their own established institutions of learning as well as other religious groups such as
the Hindus, Buddhists.
In Africa, the present systems of education have been influenced by the work initiated by European
Christian missionaries who included Catholics, Protestant and Muslim. All these have influenced features
in the education system in the areas, they occupied. Most important to note is that the primary and
secondary curricula have religious subjects being taught in schools in Kenya.

8) Technological Factors

Technological changes and especially modern technology influence the education system of the country.
Historically, emphasis on industrial and technical education followed the industrial revolution.
Technology affects the type of education and the means of instruction.

The emergence of computer technology, the internet, has revolutionized the whole education system
especially in the developed countries. Through information communication technology, home learning
has been made possible. Universities are also adopting projects like AUV and e-learning. Today the
influence of technology in education cannot be ignored. The challenge is for the educational
administrators and policy makers to ensure that the right infrastructure is in place to allow the full use of
information communication technology and reap its maximum benefits in the education system especially
in the developing world.
9) The Ethnic or Racial Factor

This simply means a group of people from the same geographical location see themselves as one and
begin to discriminate against others who are not from their geographical location. These people have a
profound influence on the school operation which affects the education system of a country. Similarly, the
policy makers design a system of the country to counter the negative effect of ethnicity or racism in the
education systems. This is very common in Kenya. There are many schools being dominated by the
people from within the school’s location. In order to overcome this problem of ethnicity or racial
influence, the government of Kenya introduced national schools which enrol students across the country.
In South Africa, the Africans who were the sons of the land were heavily discriminated against by the
whites. The schools being attended by the children of the whites were superior to the schools being
attended by the children of the blacks. Also, the Negroes in the United States of America despite the fact
that they are Americans culturally, religiously and linguistically experience discrimination as they are
regarded as people who are inferior in every respect. Because of this view about the Negroes, separate
schools were designed for the Americans as well as the Negroes and this was constitutionally supported
by the government. In everything, they are discriminated against and they receive things that are inferior
when compared with the Americans. In the same vein, the French policy even in Africa was aimed at
transforming the Africans into Black Frenchmen. The reason behind this was that the African culture was
seen as being inferior to that of the French people.

10) The Academic or Professional Associations

There are academic associations which directly influence the development of national educational
systems. Such academic associations in Kenya include: (a) University Academic Staff Union (UASU)
(b)various teacher unions i.e. KNUT, KUPPET, KUSNET etc. c) Kenya Secondary Schools Heads
Association (KESSHA), d) Kenya Primary School Heads Association (KEPSHA), e) Kenya Private
Schools Association KEPSA). They are important stake holders whose provide input in the government
decisions on the education developments in the country. Although they mainly advance welfare issues of
their members they also assist in research, improvement, seminars, workshops as well as conferences for
the teachers of various subjects.

Review Questions
i) Identify factors that shape and influence education systems of the world.
ii) Explain how any of these factors have shaped the education system of your country

4.0 THE FUTURE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

4.1 Sustaining the teaching and learning of Comparative Education.
For comparative education to have its status enhanced, the following suggestions have to be taken into
consideration.

(a) It should be possible to establish through Comparative Education, educational theories that will give
predictive power.

(b) The research techniques being used by the Sociologist, Economics, Psychologists and Philosophers
among others should be integrated into the approaches to the study of comparative education even though
their data may not necessarily be the same thing for the purpose of building up a theory.

(c) Highly qualified and experienced people from different geographical areas should be involved in the
study of Comparative Education.
(d) Education Comparativists should extend their cooperation to the philosophers, sociologists, historians,
economics, natural scientists, statisticians, linguistics as well as political scientists even though they work
in different fields, their contributions differently when integrated together build up the body of
Comparative Education information.

(e) Efforts should be made to classify educational courses at various levels as well as define the important
terminologies in Comparative Education.

(f) A comparative education research should be carried out before conclusion and recommendations on
educational policies.

(g) Efforts should be made to encourage applied research in the study of Comparative Education.

(h) In comparative education research, philanthropists, national governments as well as international

agencies should assist financially.

(i) The people involved in the formulation of educational policies should work hand in hand with the
educational comparativists for a better and workable educational formulation.

Engagements in Comparative Education Study

After identifying the countries or locations to be studied and methods to be adopted in carrying out this, a
number of considerations have to be made, focusing on which aspect(s) of education the study would be
directed.

Taking Kenya for example, the study has to be carried out, based on the following headings that will
reflect characteristic features of a chosen study area:

a. Background Information
i. Country’s/Study Area’s Name
ii. Land and people (tribal/ethnic composition)
iii. Geographical Location (latitude & longitude continent, region), population density,
iv. Political Information (date of independence, president, capital, number of states,)
v. Climatic Details (vegetation, seasons, relief & drainages etc.)
vi. Brief historical details (languages, traditional occupations, religious practices etc.)
b. Educational Structures
i. Pre-Primary- Early Childhood Education (nursery, kindergarten, crèche,)
ii. Primary
iii. Post-Primary (secondary)
iv. Post-Secondary – technical and vocational education, Higher School Certificate (HSC)
v. Tertiary (colleges of education, mono/polytechnics, universities)
c. Educational Elements
i. Technical and vocational education
ii. Teacher education
iii. Special education
iv. Adult Education
v. Curriculum
vi. Teaching methodology
vii. School administration.
viii. Pattern of school building
ix. Forms of discipline
x. School calendar
d. Control of Education
i. Government-centralized control
ii. Government-decentralised control
iii. Other forms devolution in control
iv. Church/Mission or Religious body
v. Individuals
e. Educational Financing
i. Government (public)
ii. Private individuals
iii. Corporate organisations
iv. Donor Agencies
f. Contemporary Educational Issues
i. Education for All (EFA)
ii. Sustaible Development Goals (SDGs)
iii. Globalisation and education
iv. Inclusive education
v. Homeschooling etc.
g. International Multilateral Organisations’ Interventions
i. UN and other global agencies – UNICEF, UNESCO, UNDP, IBRD, WHO
ii. Organisations and Foundations of U.S. Origin – USAID, Ford, MacArthur Carnegie & Rockefeller
iii. Organisations and Foundations of British Origin – Commonwealth, British Council, DFID
Having provided the background information, any item or sub-item as provided above can be
comprehensively treated and comparatively examine the situations in two or more different places;
bringing out the similarities and differences that will give the study a comparative value. For instance,
comparative study can be carried out, focusing on primary education in Nigeria and Ghana, Gender
education in Northern and Southern parts of Nigeria. Inclusive education in Latin America and Sub-
Saharan Africa etc may be a focus for Comparative Education studies.

4.2 The Qualities of a Good Educational Comparativist.

Comparative Education is to set out provide reliable information about educational systems, ideals,
challenges and activities aimed at improving educational ideas, methods and organizations among the
various educational systems of the world. This being the case, there is the need for the Educational
Comparativist to possess certain qualities that will give credibility to his/her findings and conclusions.
These qualities according to Lawal (2004) include the following:

(a) Objectivity

(b) Readiness to visit foreign places

(c) Interest in reading education books widely and vastly.

(d) Good qualification in the subject.

(e) He/she must be honest.

f) Should Be Computer/Internet Friendly.

Objectivity

The first quality of a good education comparativist is objectivity. This means that the person researching
into other people's education theories and practices will not be biased against them regardless of their
population, race, size, and complexion. It is what is found on the ground about their education theories
and practices that will be reported and nothing more.

Visiting other Countries

Anybody willing to engage in the study of foreign educational theories and practices should not always
stay at home relying on information gathered from books alone. He should go beyond this by visiting the
place whose educational theories and practices he is studying. If this is done, the objective report of the
study will be enhanced as he will be in the position to know which of the information already gathered is
correct about the educational theories and practices of the place being studied. He must not be an arm-
chair researcher.

Interest in reading education books widely and vastly

A good Educational Comparativist should have special interest in reading books on foreign education
systems as he/she ought not to be ignorant of educational theories and practices not only in his/her
country but also outside his/her country. He/she read vast and widely to enable him/her make valid
comparison.

Having Good Qualification

Good qualification in Comparative Education or related subject is very important for anybody who wants
to engage in the teaching of Comparative Education. Having a good qualification will not only enhance
the quality of such a teacher but will also enhance his personality.

He/She must be Honest

This is needed for the Educational Comparativist to arrive at an objective, acceptable, valid and reliable
conclusion that can stand the test of time.

Should Be Computer/Internet Friendly.

In addition to the above qualities listed by Lawal (2004), there’s the need for an Educational
Comparativist his salt to be a friend of both the computer and the internet as they needed to make him/her
be in tune with current trends in the field. This is to enhance the gathering up-to-date pieces of
information concerning the issues under his/her consideration. The internet has made the sourcing of
authentic information a lot more easier as the Educational Comparativist only need to make online
contacts to any of the internet service providers such as Skype, Google talk , g-mail yahoo group and
several social networks), through telephoning, internet means etc. These were not available in the past,
but are in full utilization today for sourcing audio, video and textual information by the Educational
Comparativist.

EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES

An educational system refers to a structure of operation for the provision of education. Educational
systems are influenced by philosophies of policymakers. Educational systems are normally classified
around countries, e.g. the Kenyan education system, Zambian education system, Zimbabwean education
system, and Ugandan Education System; or levels of education, e.g. primary education, secondary
education, and tertiary education; or around regions, e.g. African educational system, Asian educational
system, European educational system, and American education system.

For the purpose of this course we shall analyze the education systems of the following countries:

a) Technologically advanced countries of Japan, United states of America and Finland.

b) Middle Economy country of Singapore.
c) Developing countries of Cuba, Brazil, South Africa and Tanzania.

Education in the United States of America

The U.S. is a large federal republic located in North America between Canada to the north and Mexico,
the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea to the south. Federalism is a critical feature of American
government and politics. Compared with many countries in Europe, for instance, the U.S. has a weak
federal government and lacks a tradition of vigorous government intervention.

There are 50 states and one federal district, the District of Columbia or Washington, D.C., home of the
nation’s capital. The last two states to be admitted to the Union (a moniker for the union of the states that
forms the nation) are separated geographically from the others: Alaska shares a border with Canada and is
otherwise surrounded by the Pacific and Arctic Oceans; and the state of Hawaii is composed of a group of
islands in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The remaining 48 states, all contiguous, are often collectively called the
Continental United States.

Features of Education System of United States of America

A. Education as a Conserving Force

 The main function of schools is to teach the attitudes, values, roles, information, and training
necessary for the maintenance of society.
 There is an assumption in U.S. schools that the American way is the only right way.
 School texts rarely discuss internal struggles or the racist history of the U.S.

B. Mass Education
  People in the U.S. have a basic faith in education.
 A democratic society requires an educated citizenry so that individuals can participate in the
decisions of public policy.
 As a result of the goal of mass education, an increasing proportion of people have received an
education throughout U.S. history.

C. Local Control of Education

 The majority of money and control for education comes from local communities.
 There is a general fear of centralization of education.
 Local school boards believe they know best the special needs of their children.
 There are several problems with having a system of local boards:

a. Local tax monies that finance schools are dependent on local tax bases that vary by class.

b. People who are dissatisfied with high taxes will vote down taxes to help schools.

c. Typically local school boards do not represent all segments of their community.

d. School boards may be controlled by the religious views of the majority.

e. There is a lack of curriculum standardization across the nation’s school districts. This leads to a wide
variation in the preparation of students. There is also a wide variation of requirements when a child
moves from one school district to another. On average, people move once every five years.

f. Vouchers are also a problem because they set up an educational “free market” that creates competition
for students.

D. Competitive Nature of U.S. Education

 Schools in a highly competitive society are likely to be highly competitive themselves.

 Throughout different aspects of school, such as academics, clubs, and sports, students learn two
lessons:
a. Your classmates are enemies because if they succeed, it is at your expense.
b. You had better not fail. Fear of failure becomes a greater motivator than intellectual curiosity or love
of knowledge.

E. “Sifting and Sorting” Functions of Schools

  School performance sorts out those who will occupy the higher and lower ranks in the
occupational-prestige ladder.
 Sorting is done with respect to two criteria: a child’s ability and her/his social class background.
 “Tracking” is the placing of students in curricula consistent with expectations for occupations.

F. Preoccupation with Order and Control

 Schools are organized around constraints of individual freedom.

 The clock controls the school day.
 Some schools demand conformity in dress codes (Uniform).
 Teachers are rated on how quiet and orderly their classrooms are.
 Some profound paradoxes are created based on order and control in education:

G. Hidden Curriculum

 Non-academic values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes.

 Teaches children discipline, order, cooperativeness, and conformity.
 Skills thought necessary to assist students to fit into modern bureaucratic society.
 Children learning “their place” in the larger work-a-day world.

The structure of Education in the United States

The education levels in the United States include the following:

• Nursery (pre-school) education

• Elementary (primary) education

• Secondary education

• Adult education (which may or may not include university credits)

• Higher education (university or college, including teacher education and other specialized fields)

• Graduate schools and postgraduate studies (extended college studies for specialized fields such as
medical school, law school, and other areas).

Nursery education

Initially (around 1868–1873), nursery education was part of primary school. By 1888, nursery school had
spread to many places in the United States. The Lanham Education Act of 1940 also enhanced the
development of nursery education in America by providing subventions (grants) from the federal
government. Later, individuals who had an interest in the education of children started to take part in the
running of nursery schools. Also, churches have participated in establishing them. Currently, American
parents may choose to send their children to nursery school as early as the age of one year, and children
may attend until they are old enough for primary school. Most parents must pay for nursery education
privately. Programmes for infants through year three or four are play oriented. Many programmes for
three and four-year olds begin to introduce some work, such as recognition of colours, letters of the
alphabet, and the like.

Primary (elementary) education

Primary education in the United States varies in length, generally running from kindergarten (usually for
five- or six-year-old children) through either fifth or eighth grade. Some areas include ‘junior high
school’ or ‘middle school’ (grades 6–8) in the primary school; others keep those grades separate. The
purposes of American primary education include:

• turning out well-adjusted and well-informed citizens.

• helping the children to be active participants in the building of their own lives.

• assisting them in understanding the roles expected of them in establishing a better American society.
Primary school subjects include Mathematics, Science, Geography, History, Social Studies, English
language and literature, usually Physical Education, and in some schools, a selection of foreign languages
(most often Latin, French, German, and Spanish), Art, and Music. However, religious subjects are not
included in the public school curriculum because the United States has constitutionally protected freedom
of worship.

In the primary schools, the promotion of the pupils is based on continuous assessment and not on specific
promotion examinations. Since the enactment of the No Child Left Behind laws in 2001, more emphasis
has been placed on the primary school’s role in helping children acquire basic skills in reading and
arithmetic in order to pass benchmark assessments. States are required to develop and administer these
assessments at all grade levels if they are to receive federal funds for schools. It is the duty of the local
school board to provide basic texts and some other school materials.

A public primary school is headed by the principal, who is the administrative head of the school. While a
primary school teacher is expected to have a university degree, a principal is generally expected to have
master’s degree in educational administration and supervision, and must be certified by the state. Because
the federal government by law does not include religious instruction in school curricula, some Christian
groups (notably Catholics), as well as other religious groups, have established their own schools where
religious instruction may be added to the secular curricula. There are also other types of accredited private
schools, such as schools for gifted students or disabled students, or boarding schools that start preparing
students early for college. Thus, there are both private and public primary schools in the United States.

Secondary (high school) education

Secondary education, or high school, in the United States usually lasts for four years, from about age 14
to 18. A primary goal of secondary education is to prepare students to be full participants in a democratic
society where everyone will have equal opportunity. A high school diploma may be terminal or it may be
preparation for college. That is, some schools offer tracks that prepare students to enter the job market
upon completion of high school. In large cities, vocational schools often perform this function. Other
schools offer college preparation courses that fulfil admission criteria for most colleges and universities.
Some students take advanced placement courses that give them academic credit in a college or university
while they fulfil their high school diploma requirements.

States provide free secondary education and usually free textbooks for students up to the age of about 18
years, though some states only require students to attend school to the age of 16. Graduates of primary
schools are always admitted into public secondary schools.

There are both public and private secondary schools in America. Public senior high schools are tuition-
free. Provision of learning materials for schools and the general financing of schools are responsibilities
of the local school districts. In the United States, private high schools or secondary schools are also
allowed by the Constitution. However, unlike the public high schools, tuition is not free and religious
education is allowed as an addition to the secular topics.

Homeschooling

Homeschooling is legally recognized nationwide and regulated by the states. In the majority of cases,
parents do the teaching, but sometimes a teacher or tutor is hired. There are a variety of reasons why
parents choose to homeschool. Among the most common reasons are concerns about the quality, safety,
or social environment of local public schools; as well as the desire to provide instruction at a pace
appropriate for the student; and, often, the desire to provide a religious-based instruction.

State policies regarding homeschooling vary greatly in terms of everything from “notification of intent to
homeschool” to the required qualifications of homeschool teachers, recording attendance, or student
assessment. Many states allow homeschooled students to attend some public school classes or to
participate in co-curricular or extracurricular activities, such as sports. An increasing number are
participating in online education.

Special Education

Education provided to children with disabilities—including physical, mental, emotional, and

developmental disabilities—is known in the U.S. as special education and is guaranteed by federal law to
children in the K-12 public school system. Students can receive special education in both school and non-
school settings, such as medical institutions. The primary federal law guaranteeing special education is
the “Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)”. Special education must generally meet
[students’] individual needs (that result from having a disability); and help the child learn the information
and skills that other children at the school are learning.

IDEA denotes 14 categories of disabilities for which students may receive special education: Autism,
Deaf-Blindness, Deafness, Developmental Delay, Emotional Disturbance, Hearing Impairment, Mental
Retardation, Multiple Disabilities, Orthopedic Impairment, Other Health Impairment, Specific Learning
Disability, Speech or Language Impairment, Traumatic Brain Injury, Visual Impairment Including
Blindness

Most special education students are schooled in regular public schools, as opposed to special institutions,
and most learn in mainstream classrooms, often with classroom aids. Some see special education teachers
during at least part of their day. In some cases, at the secondary level, special education for some students
may be its own track.

Teacher education

Teacher education in the United States, as in other places, refers to the professional training given to
would-be teachers. It is considered a part of college or university education. The aims and objectives of
American teacher education include the following:

• preparing teachers for the needs and aspirations of the United States as a democratic nation

• preparing teachers to assist in the education of children and/or adults.

The preparation of primary and secondary school teachers is done by teachers’ colleges (formerly known
as normal schools) or at universities. There are several models of teacher preparation. The predominant
model is four years of undergraduate preparation. Many states require an undergraduate liberal arts or
social sciences degree as a prerequisite to teacher preparation. Teacher preparation is done at a graduate
school of education in those states. Undergraduate programmes continue to exist in these states and
Student Teachers who graduate from them are required to complete their M.A. within five years
following graduation in order to be certified as a teacher. Other states require five years of undergraduate
work. Teachers earn a B.A. degree after four years, but the fifth year must be completed within the first
five years after graduation.

The subjects being offered in teachers’ colleges include coursework in subject or content areas, methods
of teaching, and foundations courses. The programme for primary and secondary school teachers is
equally rigorous. Primary school teaching candidates are prepared to be generalists. Secondary school
teaching candidates must specialize in a subject or content area such as Mathematics, History, Music, or
Science. Programmes in school administration, psychology, and health are frequently offered by teacher
education institutions as well.

In most cases, a teacher’s appointment is on a contract basis and it is renewable yearly. Public schools
typically award tenure to a teacher after a two- to three-year period. The school district board of education
has the constitutional power to terminate the contract appointment of any of its teachers. A teacher with
tenure may be terminated if they do not continue to perform their professional duties, but careful attention
must be paid to procedures outlined by the school district and teachers’ union or professional
organization.

University and college education

In the United States, higher education is provided in colleges, higher technical institutes, and universities.
Teacher education is considered a part of university or college education. In 1862, the American
government passed the Morrill Act, which made it compulsory to make land available to the federal
government for the development of universities and higher institutions of learning. Two major sources of
higher education in the United States are:

• state universities and colleges, which are maintained by the state; limited tuition is charged to state
residents while out-of-state students pay tuition to attend

• independent universities and colleges, which are run by various private for-profit or non-profit
organizations.
In these private colleges and universities, school tuition and other fees are charged, although limited
scholarship funding is sometimes available. A basic degree programme usually lasts for four years, but
there are certain two-year degrees and many types of advanced (graduate) degrees as well.

Adult education (continuing education) in the United States

Adult education is offered by colleges, high schools, and private groups or individuals, and may be for the
purpose of gaining college credits or degrees, or simply for self-culture, community instruction, and
mutual discussion of matters of common public interest. Most colleges and universities have extension
classes that offer both credit-bearing and non-credit-bearing courses.

Technical education (vocational training)

There have been technical or vocational training institutions in the United States since at least the middle
of the 19th century. Institutions that provide technical education require a high school diploma for
admission and focus on preparing graduates in specialized fields. Some are two-year programmes offered
by specialized institutes or affiliated with two-year colleges. These programmes are more advanced than
high school vocational education, but may offer similar training. Other programmes are housed at
universities or colleges, and lead to a bachelor’s degree or to M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. Students in four-
year undergraduate programmes take foundations courses as well as technical courses in order to meet
broader university requirements. Programmes in agriculture, engineering, and computer technology are
examples of technical education.

Administration of education in the United States

Education in the United States is decentralized. Therefore, it is the responsibility of each state, as well as
private individuals, to take care of their schools. In 1867, the National Office of Education was set up,
headed by the Education Commissioner, an appointee of the American president. Since the enactment of
the No Child Left Behind law, states may not qualify for federal funds without meeting the requirements
of the law. The federal government assists the state governments in the funding of technical and
vocational education. The state universities are financially aided by the federal government. At the state
level, there is a state Department of Education under the leadership of an Education Director, who is
elected by the people within the state or appointed by the governor of the state and approved by the state
legislature for a period of two to four years.

The Role of the States

According to the U.S. Department of Education, state governments are generally responsible for the
following:

 Developing curriculum guidelines and performance standards

 Providing technical assistance to school districts and schools
 Licensing private elementary and secondary schools to operate within their jurisdictions
 Licensing or certifying schoolteachers and administrators
 Administering state-wide student achievement tests
 Developing accountability plans and reporting on student performance to the U.S. Department of
Education
 Defining minimum requirements for high school graduation
 Distributing state and federal funding to school districts
 Establishing the minimum number of school days per year.

Locally, each local government has a board of education, usually headed by a Superintendent of Schools
in the district. His or her duties include supervising the appointment of teachers and other personnel who
will be working in the district. In larger school districts, the superintendent supervises heads of various
departments such as personnel, curriculum, elementary schools, and secondary schools. The
superintendent is also responsible for budget and finance. The superintendent meets with the local board
of education and is responsible for presenting school matters to the public through the media or called
meetings.

The head of each individual school at the K-12 level is known as a principal, though the name of this
position may vary some among private schools.

Financing of Education in United States

In private schools, starting from nursery school and continuing to university, parents of students pay
school tuition and fees in addition to the normal governmental taxes for which they are responsible. These
fees support the operations of the schools, although many well-to-do individuals also donate funds to
support various schools. Private schools also depend on annual fundraising events and periodic capital
campaigns designed to raise significant amounts of money for school improvements.

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN FINLAND

The European Semester Country Report 2020 states that education in Finland remains among the best in
the European Union as measured by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)2018
survey. The country was ranked the best in the world in previous Surveys. With a rich intellectual and
educational reform, Finland has initiated over the years a number of novel and simple changes that have
completely revolutionized their educational system. They outrank the United States and are gaining on
Eastern Asian countries.

Salient features of the education system

Leveraging on its high-quality teacher force, the Finnish education system is characterized by free,
equitable and quality education, extensive student support, test-free learning environment, and flexible
pathways for students. It distinguishes itself from many other education systems in developed economies
where privatization, standardization of student performance, and test-based accountability tend to
dominate.

Free and equitable education at all levels

In order to provide people an equal access to schooling, the Finnish education features a free and
equitable system under which education is free from pre-primary level to higher education. In addition to
tuition-free education, students in pre-primary and basic education are also entitled to free textbooks,
daily meal and transport.

To further ensure the opportunities to study for everyone, there is a well-developed system of study
grants and loans. All in all, the Finnish system emphasizes that the same education opportunities are made
available to all Finns irrespective of their ethnic origin, age, wealth or domicile. Furthermore, Finland has
a predominately publicly-funded school system with very few private schools in operation. Even for those
private schools, they are funded largely by the government and have the same admission standards as
their counterparts. They also follow the national core curriculum and qualification requirements, which
have applied to all schools in Finland since 1994. The above arrangements help Finland maintain an
equitable education system, as school privatization policy in other developed economies usually increases
segregation among students.

Quality education at the Finnish schools

Finland is committed to providing its students with quality education and maximizing the potential of
each student in order to promote their development, health and well-being and maintain the
competitiveness of its economy. Indeed, the Finnish schools offer not only education, but also affiliated
services such as education guidance, psychological counselling, as well as health care, dental services and
mental health services to address the nutrition, physical health and psychological needs of students. At
comprehensive schools, the average class size is small with about 20 students. Instruction is usually given
by the same class teachers in most subjects in the first six years of classes and by subject specialists in the
last three years. Under such supportive learning environment, teachers get to know students better and are
able to develop the tuition that best fits the individual needs of students.

The Finnish quality education is also characterized by the time spent on instruction. A Finnish student of
comprehensive school typically receives about 4-5 hours of tuition per day or about 20 hours per week.
An average Finnish teacher teaches 600 hours per year as compared to some 1 080 hours of in-class
instruction given by teachers in some developed economies.

With fewer lesson hours, the Finnish students can make use of the longer after-school hours to take part in
the activities organized by the schools, educational or recreational clubs, or youth and sport associations,
which are beneficial to their overall learning and growth. For teachers, less classroom teaching time
means that they can devote more time to other job duties such as developing lesson plans, improving
teaching methods, assessing students' performance and communicating with parents.

Extensive student support

To maximize the potential of every individual, educational support in the form of guidance and
counselling is provided at comprehensive schools to those students who need it. The purpose of guidance
and counselling is to help and guide students to perform well in their studies, thereby reducing grade
repetition and drop-out rates at comprehensive schools. 3.9 Special education is also provided to those
students with special educational needs ("SEN"), who include not only students with disabling conditions
(such as sensory impairments and intellectual disabilities), but also students with difficulties in reading,
writing, mathematics and foreign languages.

Special education is provided in the following three different forms based on the students' needs:

(a) general support to provide students with individual pedagogical solutions as well as guidance and
early intervention support measures as part of daily school life. It is given in general education classroom
(e.g. differentiating instructions to cope with student diversity) and co-taught lessons by the classroom
teacher and a special education teacher. Should the need for support grow, the students will be offered
intensified support;

(b) intensified support (also known as "enhanced support") to help students who need regular support
measures or several forms of support at the same time. It is based on a personalized plan for learning
drawn up individually for each student in need. Intensified support aims at preventing existing problems
from becoming more serious; and

(c) special support to help students who cannot adequately cope with mainstream education in spite of
general and intensified support. The main purpose of special support is to provide students with broad-
based and systematic help so that they can complete the compulsory basic education and be eligible for
upper secondary education.

In 2018, 11% of comprehensive school students had received intensified support and 8% special support.
In addition, under the broad definition of SEN students, up to half of the students completing their basic
compulsory education had received special education at some points in their schooling as at end-2015.
This significantly reduces the negative stigma often associated with special education.

Standardized test-free learning environment

Finland does not consider standardized tests a key to raise students' achievement. There is no
standardized, high-stakes test prior to the national matriculation examination, and teachers can focus on
teaching without being disturbed by the frequent tests. More importantly, the arrangement helps minimize
the tendency for teachers to give higher priority to those subjects that are tested and adjust teaching
methods to drilling and memorizing information rather than understanding knowledge.

Instead of relying on external standardized tests, the Finnish education system makes use of (a)
continuous classroom assessments conducted by teachers, and (b) school-based national evaluation to
ensure the teaching quality and accountability. The national evaluation does not rank the performance of
participating schools, as the evaluation findings are only used in the development of the education system
and the core curricula and instruction.

Alternative pathway for the more technically inclined students

After completion of compulsory basic education, students may pursue their study at general upper
secondary schools for academically-oriented subjects. Alternatively, the more technically inclined
students have the option of studying at vocational institutions. The programme offered at vocational
institutions combines school-based coursework and at least six months on-the-job learning in workplaces.
As for the coursework, about 75% of the course contains vocational elements in the students' field of
choice and the remaining 25% is in the core curriculum subjects, which are common to all upper
secondary education. The design of vocational education curriculum enables the students to develop
extensive knowledge in a particular field.
Students who have completed vocational upper secondary education may continue their study at
universities or universities of applied sciences after obtaining some work experience. Likewise, those
general upper secondary school graduates can apply for places in both universities and universities of
applied sciences. After all, students who have completed either track can study at universities and
universities of applied sciences. This flexible admission arrangement renders vocational training not a
"dead-end" route but an appealing option for the more technically inclined students.

Professional teacher force with a high level of public trust

A professional teacher force is one of the contributory factors leading to the high level of students'
performance across the Finnish schools. In Finland, teaching is an attractive career choice and enjoys
great respect and trust. The teacher education institutions select those applicants most suitable for the
teaching profession. For example, the admission rate of primary teacher education was only 11% in 2016.
For kindergarten teacher education and vocational teacher education, the admission rate was 16% and
41% respectively.

Moreover, the Finnish teachers are renowned for their high qualifications. Teaching and guidance staff in
early education and pre-primary education generally have a bachelor's degree. A master's degree is the
prerequisite for teachers engaged in basic and upper secondary education. Teachers in vocational
education and training are required to hold an appropriate degree, plus at least three years of relevant
work experience and completion of pedagogical studies.

Building on the competitive admission process and high teacher qualifications, Finland has cultivated a
culture of trust in teachers reflected by the following measures implemented over the years:

(a) the school inspection system as an external accountability measure was abolished in the 1990s. The
education authorities have since then relied on school-based evaluation to monitor students' performance.

(b) teachers are given extensive freedom in developing their own work and plan their tuition
independently based on the national and local curricula.

(c) teachers have the power to decide which teaching methods and learning materials they would like to
use; and

(d) no national evaluation or registration of teachers is required in Finland.

The structure of education in Finland

The education system in Finland is made up of early childhood education, basic education, upper
secondary education and higher education. It also provides adult education which includes a multitude of
alternatives from basic to higher education as well as vocational training.

Early childhood education in Finland

The Early Childhood Education comprises voluntary Early Childhood Education and Care ("ECEC")
and compulsory pre-primary education. All children aged 0-5 are entitled to ECEC should their parents so
decide. ECEC is provided or arranged by municipalities and/or private service providers as Centre-based
early education activities and family-based day care activities. A client fee is charged for the ECEC
services organized by local authorities, which depends on family size, family income and the number of
hours that the child takes part in ECEC. Families are subsidized by local authorities and they are required
to pay 14% of the costs on average. The fee for private ECEC services is determined by the service
provider concerned, and a family may apply for child care allowances from the government to help cover
these costs.

ECEC comprises the intertwining dimensions of care, education and teaching, and these dimensions
receive a different emphasis according to the age of the child and the situation. ECEC also places high
importance in encouraging children to play outside, as outdoor activities are strongly valued for the
positive effects they have on children's well-being. In Finland, the universal entitlement to ECEC is 20
hours per week. Yet families may apply for full-time early education if:

(a) both parents are working or studying;

(b) the children need special support with learning Finnish; or

(c) there is a difficult family situation.

While ECEC is not compulsory, the enrolment rate for children aged 3-5 stood at a high of some 80% in
2016.

When the children turn six, they will receive free and compulsory one-year pre-primary education
before they are due to begin their basic education. Pre-primary education is usually organized from
Monday to Friday, four hours a day. The children start to learn useful skills in school, such as letters, in
addition to considerable amount of outdoor activities.

Basic education in Finland

In Finland, free and compulsory basic education is provided for students aged 7-16 by "comprehensive
schools". A comprehensive school provides primary education in Grades 1-6 and lower secondary
education in Grade 7-9. Local authorities are responsible for organizing basic education based on both
national and local curricula.

Basic education schooling begins in August and ends in late May or early June, with the summer vacation
in June and July. Students are required to attend about 20 hours of tuition per week. Individual lessons
usually take 45 minutes. To provide refreshment and aid in concentration, there are 15-minute recesses in
between lessons. Students can go outside into the school yard during recesses to spend time together, play
and move around.

Within the framework of the national core curriculum, the local authorities or the schools themselves are
free to decide on the allocation of lessons for individual subjects each year. In Grades 1-6, every student
should basically receive the same education, but schools may focus on different subjects in different ways
due to the flexible time allocation. In Grades 7-9, both common and elective subjects are included. 13
After the nine-year schooling, students may opt for an extra year of education voluntarily to better prepare
for their studies at the upper secondary level.

The Finnish school system provides immigrant children with one-year free preparatory education
programme before receiving basic education. Preparatory teaching is supposed to enhance immigrant
children's socialization as it aims to promote students' skills they need for studying at basic education.
Furthermore, preparatory teaching enhances the students' development in the Finnish language and further
on, the possibility to become equal members of the Finnish society.

Upper secondary education

After completing the compulsory basic education, students are eligible to receive the highly publicly-
funded general upper secondary education or vocational education and training. Although the upper
secondary education is not compulsory, over 90% of comprehensive school graduates enroll for upper
secondary studies.

General upper secondary education

General upper secondary schools provide all-round education for students preparing to sit for the national
matriculation examination. The scope of the syllabus is three years and teaching is organized in modular
form and not tied to year classes. Students can complete the studies in two, three or four years. Each
course is assessed on completion. When a student has completed the required number of courses, he or
she will receive a general upper secondary school certificate and sit for the national matriculation
examination. Upon passing the examination, they are eligible for further studies at universities or
universities of applied sciences.
Vocational education and training

Comprehensive school leavers may choose to receive vocational education and training as an alternative
to pursuing general upper secondary education. They will spend three years in (a) full-time studies in a
vocational institution, including at least half a year of on-the-job learning in workplaces; or (b)
apprenticeship training. Education and training offered in vocational institutions are very practical and
designed to satisfy the needs of the labour market.

The holders of vocational qualifications have general eligibility for universities and universities of applied
sciences. Universities may admit them based on the assessment of whether they possess the necessary
skills and knowledge to complete the degree programme.

Higher education

Free higher education is offered by universities and universities of applied sciences to the Finnish
students. Universities engage in both education and research. Universities of applied sciences, however,
adopt a more practical approach that often includes practical training or work placements to educate
students for professional work life. Both universities and universities of applied sciences award bachelor's
and master's degrees. Licentiate and doctoral degrees are only awarded by universities. A bachelor's
degree at universities generally takes three years to complete, while a master's degree takes two years on
top. The completion of a bachelor's degree awarded by universities of applied sciences usually takes 3.5-4
years. After graduation, a candidate is required to obtain at least three years of work experience before
applying for a master's degree programme, which lasts for 1-1.5 years in the universities of applied
sciences.

Adult education and training

The Finnish education system allows Adult learners to pursue their upper secondary school studies in
upper secondary schools for adults. They may sit for the national matriculation examination after taking
individual subjects or completing the entire upper secondary school syllabus. Tuition may include contact
teaching, distance education, online education and independent studies. Alternatively, they can study at
adult education centres which are the biggest adult education institution by the number of students in
Finland. Teaching is offered in all municipalities which provide basic and general and interest-oriented
education, including courses on arts, music, language and literature, home economics, sports, information
and communication technologies, and social studies.

Teacher Education and Training.

For Finnish people, teaching is an attractive career choice. For men, being teacher is the best choice while
for women this option arrives in third position after being doctor and veterinary surgeon. Social prestige
and not good salaries – which are at the national average – motivate young people to become teachers.
Teaching personnel is highly educated and respected in the society like professionals – doctors, lawyers.
A master degree is required for teachers and the qualification includes preparation in special subjects as
well as pedagogical studies.

Thus, teachers are trained in the Department of Behaviour Sciences – psychology, educational and speech
sciences, in the Department of Teacher Education – home economics, craft and educational sciences,
kindergarten, special education – or in different Teachers Training Schools.

Competition is tight and entrance exam comports a written exam and an interview. For teachers in
primary education, there are more than 10 applicants for a place. For the secondary level, there are less
candidates and the entrance exam consists only of an interview. In primary school, teachers are
generalists and teach all 13 subjects. In secondary school, they are subject specialists and teach
principally a major subject and a minor one. School principals need - apart from academic degree and
teacher qualification – a certificate in educational administration and work experience.

Teaching training aims to empower teachers with thinking skills necessary to organize pedagogical
experimentations in accordance with changing society and learning practices. Moreover, each year
teachers participate in in-service trainings as part of lifelong learning according to personal needs and
willingness.

Financing of Education in Finland

Most education is publicly funded. Most institutions providing basic and upper secondary level education
are maintained by local authorities or joint municipal consortia. Responsibility for educational funding is
divided between the State and the local authorities. Most private institutions do not differ from those that
are publicly maintained. They follow the national core curricula and qualification Education system based
on trust and responsibility requirements. They also receive public funding.

Pre-primary and basic education are part of the municipal basic services that receive statutory government
transfers. The statutory government transfer is based on the number of 6-15 year olds living in the
municipality and the special conditions of the municipality. This funding is not ear-marked and the
municipality can decide for itself how it allocates this funding. The statutory government transfer for
municipal basic services is approximately 25 per cent of the calculated costs.
The funding for general upper secondary education and vocational education and training is based on the
number of students reported by the school as well as on the unit prices set by the Ministry of Education
and Culture.

In the funding of universities of applied sciences the Government allocates resources in the form of core
funding, which is based on unit costs per student, project funding and performance-based funding. For
example, completed degrees are part of performance based funding. Universities of applied sciences have
also external sources of funding. Both in vocational training and in the funding of universities of applied
sciences the education providers are encouraged to improve their results through performance-based
funding.

Finnish universities are independent corporations under public law or foundations under private law. Each
university and the Ministry of Education and Culture set operational and qualitative targets for the
university and determine the resources required every three years. The agreement also defines how these
targets are monitored and evaluated. Universities receive funding from the state but they are also expected
to raise external funding.

Education Administration

Finland has a decentralized education system and local authorities and institutions have significant
autonomy in determining educational provision. The national education administration is organized at two
levels. Education policy is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture. The Finnish
National Agency for Education is responsible for the implementation of the policy aims. It works with the
Ministry to develop educational objectives, content and methods for early childhood, pre-primary, basic,
upper secondary and adult education.

Local administration is the responsibility of local authorities, most commonly municipalities or joint
municipal authorities. They make the decisions on allocation of funding, local curricula and recruitment
of personnel. The municipalities have also the autonomy to delegate the decision making power to the
schools. Typically, the principals recruit the staff of their schools.

The education system in Japan

Objectives of Japanese education:

(a) The development of broad mindedness, a health body and creativity in individuals,

(b) The rearing of the spirit of freedom, self-reliance and public awareness, and
(c) Educating the Japanese individual to live in the global human society.

As a democratic state, educational opportunities are made available to all citizens of Japan. However, the
Japanese education system generally include:

(a) the formal school system

(b) the less formal system of education.

For the purpose of administration, schools at all levels are divided into (a) State (b) Local (c) Public and
(d) Private. There is no difference in all the categories of schools in Japan except in the areas of
administration and finance. The first nine years of Japanese education is free and compulsory.

Pre-School Education in Japan (3-5 Years)

Elementary education in Japan normally takes place in the kindergarten schools. The primary objective of
pre-school education in Japan is to give all round development to the Japanese children. The curriculum
for this level of education include: Health, Social Studies, Nature study, Language, Music, Art,
Arithmetic, Writing, Reading, Songs, Tales and Physical Education.

Japanese Elementary Education (6 Years)

Elementary Education in Japan was organized on four years’ duration initially. In the year 1886, this level
of education was made free and compulsory. Also in 1908, the compulsory elementary education was
raised to six years from the original four years.

According to the 1972 Education Reform, education in Japan aims at the following:

(a) To help people to acquire the abilities for building a satisfactory and spontaneous life.

(b) To adapt to social reality and the creative solution of difficulties.

From the above general aims, the following specific objectives are derived:

(a) To develop basic abilities in the young people alongside a set of specified vocational skills.

(b) The preparation of students to cope flexibly with rapid progress in science and technology.

(c) The preparation of the students for social life.

The Japanese elementary schools are designed for children aged 6- 12 years. About 97% of the Japanese
children attend public elementary schools while only about 3% go to private elementary schools.
The curriculum for this level of education include, Japanese language, social studies, Arithmetic, Science,
Music, Art and Craft, home Education, Physical Education, Moral Education, (in public schools)
Religious Education (in Private Schools).

Secondary Education in Japan

This level of education is divided into two cycles, namely; a) Lower or Juniour secondary and b) Upper
Secondary Schools.

Juniour schools in Japan

Lower secondary school covers grades seven, eight, and nine, children between the ages of roughly 12
and 15, with increased focus on academic studies. Education at this level is free and compulsory like
elementary education. It is aimed at giving all round development to the Japanese children and to give
continuity to the Japanese elementary education. The curriculum for this level of education include:
Japanese Language, Social Studies, Mathematics, General Science, Vocational and home Education,
Foreign Language, Vocational Subjects, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce and Fisheries. A growing
number of junior high school students also attend juku, private extracurricular study schools, in the
evenings and on weekends.

Upper Secondary school

Upper-secondary school is not compulsory in Japan. Private upper-secondary schools account for a
majority of all upper-secondary schools, and neither public nor private schools are free. The most
common type of upper-secondary school has a full-time, general program that offered academic courses
for students preparing for higher education as well as technical and vocational courses for students
expecting to find employment after graduation. A small number of schools offer part-time programs,
evening courses, or correspondence education.

The first-year programs for students in both academic and commercial courses are similar. They include
basic academic courses, such as Japanese language, English, Mathematics, and Science. In upper-
secondary school, differences in ability are first publicly acknowledged, and course content and course
selection are far more individualized in the second year. However, there is a core of academic material
throughout all programs.

Most upper-secondary teachers are university graduates. Upper-secondary schools are organized into
departments, and teachers specialize in their major fields although they teach a variety of courses within
their disciplines. Teaching depends largely on the lecture system, with the main goal of covering the very
demanding curriculum in the time allotted. Approach and subject coverage tends to be uniform, at least in
the public schools.

Teacher Education in Japan

Teachers for kindergarten schools are always trained in the teacher training Institutions while the
secondary school teachers are also trained in the Universities. In the same vein, teachers for the Japanese
higher institutions are equally trained in the Universities. It should be noted that before a person can be
appointed to teach in any public tertiary institution, such a person is expected to have a minimum of
Masters degree in the area where he wants to teach.

Adult Education

Adult education in Japan is regarded as social education. This kind of education is always organized by
the Ministry of Education for the Japanese citizens who are not in the formal school. Towards this
education, the Ministry of Education always provides correspondence courses. Such correspondence
courses are in vocational, technical, agricultural, fishery as well as forestry subjects. The ministry efforts
are always complemented with radio and television programmes particularly in the area of general
education. Nongovernmental bodies also assist in Japanese adult education.

Special Education

Right from the year 1973, an official recognition was accorded the education of special children in Japan.
Like other levels of education, special education has its own objectives which include the following:

(a) To identify and give appropriate educational programmes to the affected children.

(b) To establish national centres for research and training.

(c) For the integration, whenever possible of the handicapped with normal children.

(d) To render other possible assistance to the handicapped children.

Tertiary Education

In Japan, there are three categories of tertiary institution. They are: (a) University (b) Junior College and
(c) College of technology. In the University, degrees are awarded and students spend between 4-6 years
depending on their course of study. At the Junior College, degrees are not awarded unlike in the
Universities. As stated above, colleges of technology are another form of tertiary institution in Japan. In
this institution, educational technology and engineering education are provided. This kind of education is
primarily designed for the graduates of junior or lower secondary education. It has duration of five years.
Administration and Financing Education

All public schools in Japan are highly centralized. Generally, schools are administered in the following
order:

(a) The Ministry of Education at the top

(b) The Prefectural(Provincial) Education Boards

(c) The Municipal Education Boards at the grassroots level or local level.

At the national level, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture always assists in the preparation of
education budget, formulation of educational laws, and maintenance of educational standard. It also has a
responsibility to approve the establishment of higher institutions and to supervise various tertiary
institutions in Japan.

Education system of Singapore

Background Information

Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819 and became an independent nation in
1965 after attaining self-government from Britain in 1959 and spending two years as part of the
Malaysian Federation. Since independence, the city-state has become a regional economic
powerhouse with strong international links, which it now leverages in a bid to position itself as a
knowledge-based economy and a regional hub for educational excellence.

Taking advantage of an educated workforce, the country has transformed from an impoverished
island with no natural resources and a mostly illiterate population to a country of 5.8 million
people whose living standards match those of the most highly-developed industrial nations.

In its first participation in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2009,
Singapore’s 15-year-olds were among the top performers in all the three subjects: reading,
mathematics and science. In 2015, the nation was first in the world in all three subjects; in 2018,
four Chinese provinces outperformed Singapore, but it outperformed every other nation.
Since the end of World War II, Singapore has implemented a series of economic development
strategies rooted in improved education and training. It has focused on boosting creativity and
capacity for innovation in its students. In 2004, the government developed the “Teach Less,
Learn More” initiative, which moved instruction further away from its early focus on rote
memorization and repetitive tasks towards deeper conceptual understanding and problem-based
learning.

Current priorities under the initiative “Every School a Good School” aims to ensure that all
schools have adequate resources to develop customized programs for their students; raise
professional standards for teachers; encourage innovation; and foster partnerships between
schools and communities. In addition, Singapore launched the “Learn for Life” initiative in 2018
to promote greater flexibility in teaching, learning, and assessment. With more opportunities for
self-directed learning in and out of school, Singapore hopes to encourage lifelong learning for all
her citizens, in ways that bring them satisfaction and meaning.
Education System Structure

Preschool

In Singapore, children ages three through six can attend either a public or private kindergarten or
a childcare center. In 2013, the government created the Early Childhood Development Agency
(ECDA) to coordinate oversight of all early childhood education.

Most childcare centers and kindergartens in Singapore are privately run but licensed by ECDA.
A subset of centers caps their enrollment fees in exchange for government subsidies, part of a
national effort to increase access to childcare for low- and middle-income Singaporeans.
Beginning in 2013, the government opened a small number of public kindergartens to model
quality programming and further expand access to early education. In 2017, the Prime Minister
announced plans for a fourfold increase in the number of public kindergartens by 2025.

ECDA regulates programs for children ages 4-6 as well as programs for younger children.
ECDA established the Singapore Preschool Accreditation Framework (SPARK) to accredit
centers. Accreditation is voluntary, but there are incentives to participate, including access to
government subsidies and to professional development for staff.

ECDA has developed the Nurturing Early Learners Kindergarten Curriculum Framework as
suggested guidance for children ages 4 to 6. The government does not assess learning outcomes
for students in kindergarten or childcare; the first nationwide screening of children’s literacy and
numeracy skills takes place in the first month of primary school.

Primary and Secondary Education

In Singapore, the education system includes six years of primary school, followed by four to six
years of secondary school, and one to three years of postsecondary school. The curriculum for
primary schools is common for all students in years one to four. For years five and six, students
can take individual courses at the foundation or standard level. Foundational level courses are
designed to provide more support for students. As they enter secondary school, students, their
parents, and their teachers jointly agree on one of three bands or “streams” they will join:
Express, Normal (Academic), and Normal (Technical). All streams offer the same course of
study, but Express is accelerated and Normal (Technical) offers more applied work. In most
cases, students’ scores on the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) are the primary
determinant of the stream they will join, but parents and students can advocate for different
streams if they demonstrate accelerated learning or need more help.

Singapore is piloting and implementing a system under which students choose streams for
specific subjects, rather than their overall course of study, a practice known as subject-based
banding. For example, a student could pursue a technical stream in mathematics, but an express
stream in English. Subject-based banding currently exists in all primary schools, and the goal is
to have full subject-based banding in all secondary schools by 2024.

In addition to these options, Singapore has four specialized schools for students who perform
poorly on the PSLE. These schools offer foundational coursework in mathematics and literacy,
alongside vocational offerings leading to skill certificates and extensive social supports. There
are also specialized independent schools that focus on the arts, sports, and mathematics and
science. These schools receive public funding and use the MOE curriculum, but have more
flexibility in their program offerings.

Students who want to apply to university stay in secondary school for an additional two years to
take A-level courses, as part of the Integrated Program. Those who do not do that have multiple
postsecondary options: Polytechnics, the Institute of Technical Education (ITE), Junior Colleges,
a Polytechnic Foundation program and a small set of Arts Institutions. Students choose their
postsecondary school based on their secondary school stream as well as results from the General
Certificate of Education (GCE) examinations. Polytechnics offer three-year diploma programs.
Graduates may pursue university education after they earn their Polytechnic diploma without
taking A-level exams, if they so choose. ITE offers shorter technical or vocational education
programs, through National ITE Certificate (Nitec) aligned courses and work-based learning.
Students graduate from ITE with a Nitec or Higher Nitec qualification and can then continue
their vocational studies at a polytechnic or at university. They can also stay at ITE and earn a
technical or work study diploma, which also allows some pathways to select university
programs. Junior Colleges offer two- or three-year pre-university education, preparing students
for the required examinations to enroll in universities or for entry into Polytechnics.

Standards and Curriculum

The Ministry of Education oversees the development of the national curriculum, which includes
“Desired Outcomes of Education.” The desired outcomes are student excellence in life skills,
knowledge skills, and subject discipline knowledge organized into eight core skills and values:
character development, self-management skills, social and cooperative skills, literacy and
numeracy, communication skills, information skills, thinking skills and creativity, and
knowledge application skills.

The primary school curriculum includes ten subject areas: English, mother tongue language
(available for Chinese-, Malay- and Tamil-speaking students), mathematics, science, art, music,
physical education, social studies, and character and citizenship education. A coding class was
added to the curriculum in 2019. And in 2021, the Ministry introduced an updated character and
citizenship education curriculum which focuses on mental health and cyber-wellness and on the
establishment of peer support structures within every school, among other topics. For primary
students who qualify as gifted, Singapore offers individualized enriched curriculum
opportunities.

Secondary education varies depending on school and program type. Students in the express and
Normal (academic program) are required to take English, mother tongue language, mathematics,
science, and humanities (geography, history, and English literature). For students in the Normal
(Technical) program, compulsory subjects include English, mother tongue language,
mathematics, computer applications, and social studies. There are electives available for both the
Technical and Normal program as well.

The Ministry of Education has been very involved with the implementation of its primary and
secondary curriculum. During the shift from rote learning to the current model emphasizing
student engagement and creativity, Ministry officials were very “hands-on” in schools. They met
regularly with school leaders and developed extensive professional learning opportunities for
teachers around the new curriculum. However, in recent years, the Ministry has taken a step
back, encouraging schools to consider the curriculum as a framework which they should adapt to
their students’ needs. The Ministry also encourages secondary schools to differentiate themselves
through theme courses or special programs designed to attract students with shared interests.

Assessment and Qualifications

Teachers perform continuous assessment of their students at all levels of education. This
assessment is informal and based on student work in and out of the classroom. Previously, all
students in primary school took school-based exams throughout the year and at the end of each
year, but in 2019, the government dropped the exams for Primary 1 and 2 and in 2021 dropped
the mid-year exams for Primary 3 and 5, as well as Secondary 3. By removing these exams, the
government hopes to shift focus away from grades and competition and toward learning for its
own sake.

At the end of primary school, all students take the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE)
in four subjects: English, math, science, and mother tongue. Students take exams at one of two
levels, based on the level of subjects they took in years five and six. In 2021, the Ministry began
to update the PSLE scoring process. Going forward, students will be graded based on individual
performance in subjects rather than benchmarked against each other. These scores will be
translated to Achievement Level tiers, which will help students determine their stream for lower
secondary education, as well as which school they will attend. Students send their examination
scores to up to six lower secondary schools, ranked in order of preference. The schools then
choose their students based in large part on their PSLE rankings. That said, the Ministry also
allows some schools to admit students based on their talents in academic areas, sports, or co-
curricular activities without factoring in PSLE results, to provide greater diversity in student
talents and interests. Since 2018, schools have been able to offer up to 20 percent of their places
to students through this process, called direct school admission. The Ministry of Education helps
place those students who are not accepted into their schools of choice.

At the secondary level, student take subject-based exams, depending on their band. After four
years of study, students take O-level exams in the express and N-level exams in the Normal
(Technical) program. Students in the Normal (Academic) program can take the N-level exams
after four years of study or the O-level exams after five years. Students who wish to study at
university take A-level exams after an additional two years of study.

Special Education

Whenever possible, the government encourages students with special needs to enroll in
mainstream schools, either initially or after having met certain benchmarks in special education.
Currently, about 80 percent of all students with special needs attend mainstream schools. To help
facilitate their integration, learning support specialists known as Allied Educators help students
with conditions such as dyslexia or autism. As of 2018, there was at least one Allied Educator in
every mainstream primary and secondary school, a 40 percent increase over the previous five
years. The Ministry has also provided specialized training in special education to a designated
group of general education teachers within each mainstream school, to create a strong support
system for students with special needs; about 15 percent of teachers in mainstream schools had
completed this training by 2019. In addition, since 2020 the Ministry has provided all teachers in
mainstream schools with access to online professional learning focused on supporting students
with special needs.

In 2019, the Ministry implemented two peer mentoring interventions to support students with
special needs in mainstream schools. Circle of Friends allows students with social, emotional or
behavioral difficulties to meet with their teacher or Allied Educator along with a group of six to
eight of their peers. Over five to eight sessions, the students work together to find solutions for
the student in difficulty. Facing Your Fears is a similar program designed to support students
suffering from anxiety. In this intervention, groups of two to four students meet with facilitators
and Allied Educators to learn self-management strategies over 10 weekly sessions.

For students who need more intensive or specialized assistance, Singapore has 19 government-
funded special education schools run by 12 social service agencies. These schools serve
populations with highly specific needs: the deaf, the blind, students with autism, or those with
the most severe cognitive challenges. Special needs education is available through the
postsecondary level, where students with intellectual disabilities are prepared for the workforce
through special training programs. The government continues to invest in special education and
plans to open seven new schools by 2027. These schools serve less than 2 percent of the total
student population.

The Ministry allocates extra funds for special needs students at 150 percent or 300 percent of the
base per student cost, depending on whether they attend mainstream or special schools. The
Ministry increased spending for special schools by 40 percent from 2015 to 2020 and has
pledged to continue this increase. The National Council of Social Services also contributes
funding to special schools, specifically for additional social supports.

Career and Technical Education

Singapore’s career and technical education (CTE) offerings take place primarily at the
postsecondary level. At the primary and secondary levels, the emphasis is mainly on career
exploration and guidance. A career guidance curriculum has been mandatory since 2014, and the
Ministry of Education has created a web portal that enables students to examine their own
strengths and interests and explore careers that match them. In addition, students pursuing the
Normal (Technical) route in secondary school take coursework that prepares them for entrance
exams at the Institute of Technical Education (ITE), Singapore’s primary postsecondary CTE
institution

Technical and vocational education gained importance in Singapore at the end of World War II
when industrialization created a demand for skilled workers. After attaining independence in
1965, Singapore began investing heavily in vocational education in order to support the
country’s very ambitious economic development plans. The Ministry of Manpower worked with
economic agencies and industry groups to identify critical workplace needs. Those needs, as well
as projections of future needs, were used to inform curriculum planning for vocational
education. Singapore created polytechnic institutions in the 1960s as the primary vocational
training route for Singaporeans.

Singapore founded the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) in 1992, at a time when vocational
education was viewed as a “last resort” for weak students; the five existing polytechnics were not
desirable educational options. Singapore wanted to revolutionize vocational education. Spread
across a set of state-of-the-art campuses, ITE was designed to be a world-class example of how
vocational and technological skills could be translated to a knowledge-based economy.

Today, ITE is filled with simulated and real-world workspaces for students to demonstrate their
job skills in a wide variety of high-growth industries. Since 1995, enrollment in vocational
education has doubled, and vocational students now make up over 60 percent of the cohort who
go on to postsecondary education, with about one-third of those students heading to the ITE and
two-thirds to polytechnics.

Teacher Education and Induction

The National Institute of Education (NIE) is housed in Nanyang Technological University, one
of the most prestigious institutions in Singapore’s higher education hierarchy. All primary and
secondary teachers are trained at the NIE. During their training, teacher candidates receive a
monthly stipend equivalent to 60 percent of a starting teacher salary, and their tuition is covered
by the Ministry of Education. Once they have completed training, teachers must commit to three
full years on the job.

The undergraduate teacher-education program is a four-year program that includes 22 weeks of

practical experience in schools. The graduate program is a 16-month program that includes 10
weeks of practical experience. Students entering the graduate program first attend the
Introduction to Teaching program run by the Academy of Singapore Teachers (AST), a
professional learning organization run by teachers. Then, to help them gauge their true interest in
teaching, prospective candidates spend a few months to a year working in schools as untrained
contract teachers before beginning their coursework.

Both undergraduate and master’s programs are guided by the Teacher Education Model for the
21st Century, a framework that states the values, skills, and knowledge (“V3SK”) needed for
teachers. The curriculum for the undergraduate route includes academic studies—the content the
teachers will teach—as well as education studies, curriculum studies, and service learning.
Undergraduate students also have opportunities to participate in practicums in other countries.

After graduation from either the undergraduate and graduate programs, all beginning teachers
take a two-year AST induction program led funded by the Ministry of Education. In this period,
teachers have a reduced teaching load in order to attend classes and work with a trained mentor.

In 2019, early childhood educator training programs were merged under the National Institute of
Early Childhood Development (NIEC), in close collaboration with NIE. NIEC offers certificate-
level and diploma-level pre-employment training for postsecondary students as well as
continuous education courses for mid-careerists. All students are offered training awards,
including full sponsorship and allowance to further incentivize people to join the program.
Prospective early childhood teachers take courses and complete practicums and internships. To
teach at a public Ministry Kindergarten or Early Childhood Development Agency (ECDA)
preschool, educators must have an early childhood diploma qualification or participate in a nine-
month sponsorship program as a trainee teacher. To teach at an ECDA infant or toddler site,
“educarers” must have an early childhood certificate.
Teacher Development

Teachers have access to several types of professional development opportunities. They can
improve their practice through courses at NIE or at AST, where offerings range from in-service
training to online classes on a variety of subjects related to teaching. Teachers can participate in
as many as 100 hours of government-funded professional development per year. The Ministry
and NIE also offer scholarship opportunities for teachers seeking master’s and doctoral degrees
in Singapore or abroad, either full- or part-time.

In addition, the career ladders are a key component of Singapore’s teacher development strategy.
Once teachers at the primary and secondary level have demonstrated their eagerness and
readiness to take on a new role (generally no sooner than three years into the job) they may
choose among three career tracks: the teaching track, the leadership track, and the specialist
track. In the teaching track, teachers can work their way up to become Principal Master
Teachers. In the leadership track, teachers can be promoted from a leadership position within the
school all the way up to the position of Director-General of Education. In the specialist track,
teachers are focused on research and teaching policy, with the highest-level position being Chief
Specialist.

Career ladders ensure that teachers can stay in the profession while taking on new roles and
responsibilities and provide the structure for their peer-to-peer mentoring, collaboration,
coaching, and development systems. Further, the career ladder guarantees that curriculum
development is led by those who know teaching and learning best. For these reasons, the career
ladder is not only crucial for Singapore’s strategy to recruit and retain teachers, but also a key
element of its professional growth strategies and its approach to overall teaching and learning.

Teacher Accountability

Singapore uses the Enhanced Performance Management System (EPMS) to conduct annual
teacher evaluations. EPMS assesses teachers’ performance based on 16 different competencies,
including their work in the classroom and their interaction with the greater school community.
Teachers first conduct a self-appraisal, and then supervisors evaluate them against the EPMS.
These evaluations are qualitative and consist of written feedback rather than numeric scores of
specific indicators. Teachers base their professional development plans on EPMS feedback.
Principals, alongside the School Staff Developer (in charge of professional learning) and the
Cluster Superintendent, co-construct a “Current Estimated Potential” for each teacher using the
results of the EPMS. This estimate, or snapshot of the teacher’s short-term career trajectory, is
shared with the teacher and used to help them articulate their career goals. Teachers can earn
rewards based on EPMS results, including honors and salary bonuses. The Ministry also selects
teachers for awards and recognition at the national level.

Governance Structure

Singapore’s education system is highly centralized. The Ministry of Education oversees kindergarten
(ages four to five) through higher education and lifelong learning. The Ministry allocates funding for all
schools, sets course syllabi and national examinations, oversees teacher credentialing, manages the
teacher and principal evaluation and promotion system, and hires and assigns principals and teachers to
schools.

Schools are grouped into geographic clusters, each overseen by a superintendent, to provide local support
for the Ministry’s policies and initiatives. The cluster superintendents, who are successful former
principals, collaborate with principals in their cluster on how to implement the curriculum and which
teaching materials to choose from among a set the Ministry approves and encourages teachers to use. The
superintendents also facilitate the sharing of resources and best practices between cluster schools.

The Ministry sets the framework for the educational system within which other entities operate.
Independent or semi-autonomous agencies such as the National Institute of Education (teacher training),
the Examinations and Assessment Board (national assessments), and the Institute of Technical Education
(vocational education) have clearly defined areas of responsibility and work closely with the Ministry.

Planning and Goals

Singapore articulates clear and comprehensive system-wide goals for education. These goals, which the
nation revisits regularly, emerge from widespread discussion with partners in the system and with the
public, as well as from extensive benchmarking of other leading education systems. Singapore structures
policy initiatives around its education goals and creates benchmarks to measure progress. For example, in
2013, Singapore held a National Conversation to gather input on a vision for the 2030 education system
strategic plan. Goals included improving character and citizenship education, strengthening digital
literacy, building more knowledge and understanding of the history and cultures throughout Asia,
expanding supports for disadvantaged students, and building more adult education opportunities.

In addition, Singapore’s leaders monitor educational research and benchmark best practices from around
the world so that the system can continue to match the performance of the world’s best.

Education Finance

The Ministry of Education directly funds all schools based on the number of pupils. In addition, all
schools receive a set grant (called an Opportunity Fund) to use for their low-income students and students
from ethnic minority groups. Although this supplemental funding is distributed by the Ministry, schools
can choose how to spend it. The Ministry also provides funding directly to students from low-income
families in the form of subsidies, called Financial Assistance Schemes, for educational materials and
activities and funds for school meals. In addition, the Ministry in 1970 created the Education Fund, which
collects contributions from Singapore residents to both support all students and low-income students
through scholarships and by providing textbooks, meals and uniforms for students who need these but do
not otherwise qualify for financial assistance.

School Accountability

Schools in Singapore conduct annual self-evaluations of their practices and outcomes using the Ministry-
developed School Excellence Model, which includes nine criteria for performance. Schools then develop
improvement plans based on the results. Additionally, external inspectors evaluate each school every five
years. The external inspectors, made up of university professors and successful school leaders, provide
feedback to the schools and offer coaching and support for improvement.

Improvement efforts are organized through Singapore’s school cluster system. Cluster superintendents
meet regularly with principals to monitor their improvement efforts. High-performing schools are eligible
for awards. The Ministry annually awards schools that demonstrate outstanding achievement in a single
year or over a period of years. The highest award, the School Excellence Award, is given to one school
each year.

Support for School Aged Children

All students in Singapore receive an Edusave account, to which the government contributes
funds so that it can invest in their future. Families can draw on these accounts for any type of
educational expense; disadvantaged students receive additional funding. The Ministry of
Education also provides financial assistance for students from low-income families. The aid
supports school fees and other expenses for students in government or government-aided private
schools. Financial aid for independent schools is also available.

These supports are available in the context of a broader safety net for children. The
government’s Ministry of Social and Family Development (MSF) administers ComCare, which
provides cash grants to low- and moderate-income families on a sliding scale. It also covers
long-term assistance needed for care and school-related expenses for children of disabled
parents. The MSF also oversees the National Council of Social Service, an umbrella group of
450 private organizations that provide services to Singapore citizens. Services include school-
based social work and support for students at risk of dropping out of school.

Digital Platforms and Resources

The Student Learning Space (SLS) provides a library of curriculum-aligned, Ministry-curated

resources (e.g., lesson plans, videos, assessments) for all grade levels and subjects. The Ministry
assigns teams of teachers to work full-time creating these resources, which are continually
updated based on feedback from teachers and students (as is the design of the SLS itself).
Singapore announced plans for the SLS in 2013, piloted it in 2017, and expanded it to all schools
in 2018. Every student in grades 1-12 has an account to access the SLS. Using templates,
teachers create lessons by compiling SLS resources or using a mix of SLS resources and their
own materials. Students can also access SLS resources on their own, independent of
assignments. Teachers can choose to share the lessons they have created with their peers within
the SLS.
In 2020, after students shifted to periodic home-based learning in response to the coronavirus
pandemic, Singapore decided to make home-based learning via SLS a permanent feature of the
education system. Starting in 2021, secondary school students have up to two days a month of
online learning, and all secondary school students will be provided with a device. Singapore
plans to pilot online learning strategies in primary schools to determine the best approach to
building these skills for younger students. The Ministry believes that students will benefit from
having self-directed learning time at home that complements in-person instruction.

Education system of Cuba

According to a 2014 report by The World Bank, Cuba has the best education system in Latin American
and the Caribbean and the only country on the continent to have a high-level teaching faculty. The World
Bank Report also praises Cuba for its success in the fields of education and health, with social services
that exceeds those of most developing countries and, in certain sectors, are comparable to those of the
developed nations. The country’s social system that ensures state-sponsored universal access to education
and health services has helped Cuba to achieve universal literacy, eradicate certain diseases and provide
universal access to safe drinking water and basic public sanitation. Cuba now has one of the region’s
lowest infant mortality rates and longest life expectancies.
Education in Cuba has been a highly ranked system for many years. Following the 1959 revolution, the
Castro administration nationalized all educational institutions, and created a system operated entirely by
the government. Strong ideological content is present, with the constitution stating that educational and
cultural policy is based on Marxist ideology. That Education expenditures continue to receive high
priority in Cuba demonstrates that there is a strong commitment to the educational sector on the part of
the government. Equal opportunity for a high quality education for all students is one of the key factors
that explains that the Cuban educational success is not a miracle or an accident, but the result of many
years of concerted efforts and commitments, by the government to its people.

Key features of Cuba’s education system:

Since 1961, the educational system in Cuba has been run by the state nationalizing private institutions at
all levels of education

The education system is 100% subsidized by the government, meaning that Cuban students at all levels
can attend school for free. The Cuban government has been investing a substantial part of its budget into
education for many years. Cuba is also the nation in the world that allocates the highest share of its
national budget, 13 percent, to education.
Education is compulsory for children from the ages of 6 to 16.

Students attend primary school for six years, after which they proceed to basic secondary or high school
for a period of 3–4 years.

From an early age, children are indoctrinated in their schools with the government’s political beliefs of
communism. Parents who violate this code by teaching their children contrary doctrine face the prospect
of prison.

Cuba shows how important education is by keeping a student to teacher ratio of 12 to 1, which is
approximately half of the Latin American average. In addition, the youth illiteracy rate in Cuba is close to
zero, a figure unmatched by all other Latin American countries. Cuban schools are closely integrated with
the community. Teachers are very active in the communities of the children that attend their schools, and
build strong relationships with parents and families to enhance the learning process. In the recent past,
however, the lingering economic crisis, emigration, and teachers' meager salaries have led to a critical
shortage of educators in primary and secondary schools throughout the island, with schools severely
understaffed. Private remedial instruction is on the rise, as are private schools that teach English and other
supplemental skills.

Structure/Levels of education.

Preschool Education is the first link of the System, which brings together children in age group 0-5
years. It has two main objectives: to guarantee the full physical, intellectual, moral and aesthetic
development of children, besides providing adequate preparation for future academic education.

Of the children in this age group 68.5% participate through the "Educate Your Child Program" sponsored
by informal channels, with the involvement of the family and the community; 17% attend the children's
circles, which are specialized institutions, and pre-school, in which all children from the age of 5 are
enrolled, representing 14% of the country's population.

The "Educate Your Child Program" aims to prepare the family to cope with the education of their
children. To that end, multidisciplinary working groups have been established on the Island, consisting of
health and education professionals from different organizations and agencies, who work within the area of
action of the family.

School attendance is compulsory from ages 6 to 15 or 16 (end of basic secondary education) and all
students, regardless of age or sex, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary
education lasts for six years. It consists of grades 1 through 6. Secondary education is divided into basic
secondary education and pre-university secondary education. The curriculum in primary and secondary
schools is based upon principles of "hard work, self-discipline and love of country". The primary-school
curriculum includes dance and gardening, lessons on health and hygiene, and Cuban revolutionary
history. At the end of basic secondary education, pupils can choose between pre-university education and
technical and professional education. Those who complete pre-university education are awarded the
Bachillerato diploma Technical training leads to two levels of qualification - skilled worker and middle-
level technician. Successful completion of this cycle gives access to the technological institutes.

Cuba has over 47 universities with a total enrolment of over 400,000 students. The oldest and more well-
known university in Cuba is The University of Havana.

The requirements for entering a university or technical institute of higher education in Cuba are as follow:

• Students must show proof of completing a secondary education.

• Students must pass college entrance exams.

• Men must show proof of having completed compulsory military service or proof of non-compliance due
to medical reasons or family obligations

Political Clearance: Students must be cleared by the Committee for the Defense of the Revolution before
they are allowed to take the university entrance examinations. Students demonstrating good political
standing in relation to their Communist beliefs receive a letter of approval allowing them to take college
entrance exams. Students with a “poor” political standing may be “blacklisted” from furthering their
education.

There are three stages in the university system which include the following:

• Stage 1– The Licenciatura (Bachelor’s degree equivalent) or professional degree (Titulo) is the first
stage of university studies requiring completion of 4-5 years of study. A degree in medicine may require 5
to 6 years to complete.
• Stage 2 – The second stage of higher education consists of three levels: Diplomado, Maestria and
Especialista. Within each of these levels, students must complete a minimum of 200 hours in theory,
practicum and internship. Upon completion of this stage, which generally lasts for two years, students are
awarded the degree of Diplomado, Maestria or Especialista (equivalent to the Master’s degree).
• Stage 3 – The third stage of higher education is to obtain a Doctoral Degree. Students must study for 3
to 4 years before they are considered for candidacy in a Doctoral program. Once they are approved for
candidacy, students are admitted into the Doctoral Program where they will conduct their scientific
research, defend the findings of their work and finally be awarded their Doctoral Degree.
All universities and technical schools are run by the Ministry of Higher Education (Ministerio de
Education Superior – MES). The MES is responsibilities include managing the schools, regulating
teaching methodology and courses, establishing educational policies and ensuring all the schools comply
with government standards.

Distance education is available for students in Cuba to study for a professional career. There are
approximately 15 centers for distance education throughout Cuba providing degrees in the following
career choices: History, Law, Finance and Accounting, Economics and Science and Technology.
Requirements for distance education include completion of secondary education, one year work
experience and being between 25 and 35 years of age. Male students must show proof having completed
mandatory military service.

Teacher Education

University education includes the Higher Pedagogical Education, linked to the Ministry of Education. Its
role is to train the teachers. The courses are offered by the Universities of Pedagogical Sciences, from
which students graduate with a Bachelor's degree in Education.

These centers also cater to the improvement of teachers in activity, covering the different types of
graduate education established in Cuba, in two areas: professional enhancement and graduate academic
programs. The first aims enhance the teachers’ professional performance, to enable them to improve their
knowledge, master the contents of the disciplines and the necessary methods and, in addition, prepare
them to assimilate the changes imposed by development, with the ability to enhance their own practice,
its results and the ways to change it. Among the enhancement activities, personal growth is essential for
other organizational forms such as courses, seminars and "graduates".

Graduate academic education enables teachers to achieve high professional competence, research and
innovation capacity, which is recognized with an academic or scientific degree i.e. Master's in Education.

New curricula and programs have been introduced in Undergraduate Education, which meet the current
demands in the training of teachers to better prepare the students before they face the work at school, the
expansion of the profiles of careers that produce teachers for Secondary Education, and the improved role
of the school in training, as a materialization of the study-work principle.
The new pedagogical model was developed for the purpose of training educators who:

 Are prepared to scientifically conduct the educational process at the school, ensure the full
personal development of the student expressed in the knowledge of contents, the supporting
methods and the ethical standards shown in their professional performance.
 Vocationally orient the student to the specialties the country needs the most.
 Interact with the family so as to play a major role in the full development of their students.
 Use scientific methods to provide solutions to problems encountered in their work.
 Demonstrate to be politically, legally and culturally prepared and are capable to communicate
effectively, so as to serve as a linguistic model to students.
 Can identify their own enhancement needs and act to meet them.

These new plans preserve and consolidate principles contained in previous plans, which prioritize: the
political-ideological work and full general cultural development, the educational work in tune with the
training and development of a broad profile professional, who can lead the educational process in more
than one discipline or grade, the link between theory and practice, with a professional focus throughout
the training process.

These are five-year courses that train teachers in 21 careers for all levels of the Education System, which
are develop in different modalities. The new model involves an intensive training stage in the classroom
during the first two or three years of the career at the Universities of Pedagogical Sciences, which since
the first year improves the general culture of the future teacher, while starting his preparation to work at
the school. Upon completing this stage, the student enters a school near his home, which is considered a
micro-university because that is where he will continue his professional development under the direct
guidance of a mentor who will accompany him throughout his career, which is complemented by the
university courses he will attend to achieve his higher level education. These courses are completed with
a state examination or a certificate activity; the latter for students with high academic achievement.

Special Education. It is the subsystem that caters to younger children with special educational needs. Its
goal is to ensure the proper mental development of students and prepare them for their future life from the
point of view of both education and work.

There are different types of centers catering to population that requires specialized education: schools for
the blind; for visually impairment, cross-eyed and amblyopic students; for deaf and hearing impaired
students; for mentally impaired students; for students with behavioral and speech disorders; and for
students with physical and sensory disabilities. There are established special schools in the country to
ensure students receive the assistance they need. This is extended even in hospitals and homes, when the
student is incapable to commute to the educational institution.

Students are admitted in these schools after a thorough survey conducted at the 200 Centers of Diagnosis
and Guidance by a multidisciplinary team of specialists who determine the student's condition,
recommend the assistance institution and the specific treatment to be provided. In the municipalities there
are the Councils of Assistance to Minors which participate directly with the school in preventive activities
and direct assistance to the population at greatest risk.

Female participation

The Cuban Revolution in 1959 brought lots of changes to the country, especially for women. "Before the
Revolution many women lived as housewives and for those who needed to work there were very few
choices." Many women in rural areas worked in agriculture and for women in the city working as a maid
or prostitute were the only choices. The Federation of Cuban Women (FMC) was founded in August 1960
with a clear goal to involve all women in Cuban affairs. After years of being excluded, the women of
Cuba began to play an active role in the government. The FMC wanted to see women involved with the
social, political, economic and cultural issues Cuba faced. This required that schools and programs be
built to provide multiple services to Cuban women.

The Literacy Campaign was created to increase Cuba's literacy rate and to initiate communication
between the countryside and cities. Students and volunteers went to rural areas to teach people to read and
provide information on current Cuban politics. Rural women received schooling and job training if they
chose to receive it, which allowed them to work outside of agriculture. For women working as prostitutes
in the cities the new government created programs to reeducate them once prostitution became illegal in
1961. Separate but similar programs were created for maids, offering schooling and job training along
with free daycare and housing, which allowed the women full opportunity to rebuild their lives.
Healthcare was provided focusing on the mental health of Cuban women that had previously been
oppressed in the work place. Skills to build confidence and pride were taught because the new
government believed that all women deserved dignity. The Cuban Revolution brought about drastic
change for women allowing them to become very active in their own country, which is what many in the
revolution hoped for.

Administration of Education
According to the Constitution of the Republic, responsibility for education rests with the state. The
Ministry guides, performs, and implements state and government policy in education, except for higher
education. The National Education System is composed of a central authority, provincial and municipal
organs, and several administrative bodies that answer only to the National Assembly of People's Power,
the legislative structure of the Republic of Cuba.

The Ministry of Education, provincial and local educational officials, and teachers and professors
periodically propose changes that are consistent with their charge to conduct, organize, and manage
educational services in their respective territories. The local education authorities are subject to the
principle of double subordination: to the Ministry and to local councils. The Ministry of Higher Education
is charged with overseeing universities and various institutes and is distinct from the Ministry of
Education.

Education System in Brazil

Since the enactment of its Constitution in 1988, the education system of Brazil has seen major
improvements in both attendance and performance and is now considered one of the finest systems in all
of South and Latin America. The principles established in that constitution now serve as the guidelines
for national education, according to which education is a “right for all citizens, duty of the State and of
the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing
the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work.”

Through the advice of the Brazilian Ministry of Education, the national government is responsible for
legislating on the Guidelines and Bases for national education, coordinating and developing Federal
Education Plans, and providing technical and financial aid to the states, the federal district and the
municipalities for the development of their educational systems and for priority assistance to compulsory
schooling.

Goals and Objectives of Education

According to the constitution as it pertains to the Brazilian education system, the legislation that defines
the goals and objectives of education applies to all schools. According to the Bases and Guidelines Law,
the national education system, conceived in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human
solidarity, has the purpose of:

 Understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the state and
other community groups.
 Respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms.
  Strengthening national unity and international solidarity.
 Integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards
common welfare.
 Preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources, which will
allow them to use existing possibilities to aid common welfare.
 Protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage.
 Condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as
well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

Naturally, these goals and objectives are applied in relation to the maturity and the age group of the
student. As a result, the current legislation defines distinct goals for the various educational grades.
Education is mandatory for all children between the ages of six and fourteen and free at all public
institutions, including adult institutions, for those individuals who did not have access to school at the
appropriate age. The Constitution does not expressly set age limits. Instead it determines that “education
is compulsory, aiming at providing the necessary structure to the development of the students potential as
an element of self-fulfillment, training for work, and conscious exercise of citizenship.”

Intermediate education, also known as upper secondary education, is also free at all public schools,
although it is not compulsory. This level of education aims for the full development of adolescents,
including the elements which make up the objective of fundamental education, as well as employment
training, depending on the specific choice/focus of each educational institution.

As for higher education, the system in place aims at the development of the sciences, arts, qualification
of professionals at the university level, research and specialization. Higher education is also free for
students in Brazil’s public schools and universities.

Education Structure

The education system in Brazil is divided between 5 distinct levels or stages: pre-primary or preschool
education, primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education and tertiary or
higher education. Of these five levels, only primary education and lower secondary education are
compulsory.

Pre-school Education

Preschool education in Brazil is entirely optional. The system offers parents two options to preschool
education: Maternal, or state run crèches, for children aged 2-5, and Jardim, for children aged three to six
years of age. Maternal is basically a playgroup where children learn to socialize collectively in a very
informal setting. Jardim, on the other hand, has a more academic focus for small children.

When determining the best fit for a preschool-age child, Brazilian schools meet with the parents and child
prior to enrollment and, depending on the academic and social skills of the child, the school will advise
parents on where it feels the child would find more success. All state-run preschools and nurseries are
free of charge for all parents, regardless of income level.

Compulsory Schooling: Primary Education and Lower Secondary School

Schooling is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 14 in Brazil. Children under the age
of 6 are free to enroll in the primary level of education as long as they will turn 6 within the first semester.

The eight-year compulsory stage of education is known as Fundamental Education, or Ensino

Fundamental. It is divided between two distinct four-year stages:

 Fundamental Education I (Ensino Fundamental I) ages 6-10

 Fundamental Education II (Ensino Fundamental II) ages 11-14
The core curriculum in both stages of Fundamental Education is set by the National Education Council
and implemented at the local level. Students in the first stage of Fundamental Education receive
instruction from a single teacher, while those in the second level have as many teachers each day as they
do subjects.

During Fundamental Education I (Ensino Fundamental I), children study age-appropriate course matter
designed to improve their skills in mathematics, Portuguese (the official language of Brazil), science, arts,
history, geography and physical education. During Fundamental Education II (Ensino Fundamental II),
students study the same course matter, albeit more advanced. They must also take courses in at least one
other compulsory language, typically Spanish, English or French.

The usual practice in Brazilian schools, both public and private, is to group students according to age
group. However, students who demonstrate advanced academic ability may be placed in a higher grade
level where he/she will be more academically challenged. Under the Brazilian state system of education, a
comprehensive exam is given to all students at the close of each school year to determine whether the
child will move on to the next grade level, or whether they will repeat their current grade. Holding a
child back is not an unusual practice in Brazil, which often leads to classrooms that may be quite varied in
age.

Depending on the educational philosophy of a given private school, children may also be required to
repeat a grade, although the practice is not as common as it is in public state-run schools. If it becomes
apparent that a child is not managing to keep up with the advance in learning levels of their classmates,
the school will typically speak to parents about other options involving academic systems, options that
may better serve the child’s needs.

Upper Secondary Education

Upper secondary education in Brazil, known locally as Intermediate School or Ensino Medio spans four
years in duration and is designed for students between the ages of 15 and 18. Attendance in this optional
level of education varies by region and socioeconomic status, with the largest cities having the highest
rate of attendance, particularly among children of affluent families.

The core curriculum during Intermediate School is also designed by the Educational Council. It includes
mathematics, Portuguese, foreign languages, history/government, geography, science, technology, arts,
music, physical education, philosophy and sociology.

The coursework in which students engage during Intermediate School is essentially designed to prepare
them for university (usually public) admission. Courses can be conducted either at the private school at
which the student has been attending up to this point, or at specific colleges which train teenagers to take
the specific entrance exam set by a specific university. Students may also opt to take professional
training concurrently with their academic studies—training that prepares them for a specific trade or
career.
Special Education

Special education in Brazil is offered from preschool through the upper secondary level. Support for
special education programs is provided by the Ministry of Education, by the state, by some municipal
secretariats, and by non-governmental organizations (usually churches and other non-profit
organizations). Depending on the type of program, a school or institution might include rehabilitation
centers, clinics, hospitals and more. There are many programs existing in Brazil designed to help the
special education population of different forms such as mental retardation (learning delays, etc.), hearing
difficulties, physically handicapped and visual deficiencies. There is an increasing interest in helping
blind students or those with sub-normal vision at an early age increase their academic performance in
order to reach their full potential.

Adult Education

Adult education in Brazil, like other countries, is considered remedial schooling. The minimum age for
entrance into Brazilian adult school is 18 for the elementary level and 21 years of age for the secondary
level. The Brazilian Ministry of Education and the state secretariats provide support for Adult Education
through special courses, equivalent to the American GED, which can be taken in schools or via an online
format. Supervision is handled by state Boards of Education and inspection services. Students who
successfully complete the full program of Adult Education are awarded a diploma indicating satisfactory
completion of all coursework.

Distance Education

Wider access to the Internet has made Distance Education more and more popular in Brazil, especially for
those who have limited access to traditional schooling. At the beginning of the 21 Century, the Brazilian
federal government created the Secretaria de Educação a Distância or SEED (Secretariat of Distance
Education). The formation of this leadership is a prime example of the government’s commitment to
modernizing education. SEED strategically applies new technologies and methodologies in order to
diversify and raise the standard of educational quality.

Television in Brazil is a major vehicle for Distance Education. Distance learning is done with the help of
the TV Escola (TV School), which reaches over 60,000 schools across the country. It is broadcast on a
special channel by satellite and provides for hours of programs that are repeated four times a day. TV
Escola is also a program designed for teachers and is updated by the Reforma do Ensino Médio or REM
(Reform of Secondary Education). It was created in October of 1999 as an experimental program and
proved to be one of the most efficient tools that the Ministry of Education had for updating the methods
and resources of primary and secondary level teachers.
Higher Education

Higher education in Brazil dates back to the mid 18 century with the foundation of Jesuit colleges and the
early 19 century with the foundation of the first professional schools. Today Brazil hosts scores of world-
class universities including University of Sao Paulo and University of Campinas.
The higher education consists of public and private universities, the latter operated by both for-profit and
non-profit organizations. Admission to public universities in Brazil is extremely competitive, given the
fact that students do not pay admission fees and due to the publicly-perceived higher quality of education
at these schools. Public universities are seen to excel in the agrarian and human sciences, such as
medicine, teacher training and psychology, while private institutions are well-known for the applied
social sciences, including law, administration and economics.
Institutions of Higher Education

The higher education system in Brazil is made up of three types of institutions: Universidades,
Federações de Escolas, and Faculdades.
  Universidades. Universidades are multidisciplinary institutions that must include professional
staff training in higher education, research, and the creation of human knowledge. Roughly 35
percent of the instructors at Universidades must hold a Master’s or a Doctorate
degree. Universidades are more autonomous, with the independent ability to open new course
programs and set student enrollment numbers.
 Federações de Escolas. Federações de Escolas are also multi-disciplinary institutions, but do
not have the same number of disciplines as the Universidades. Slightly less autonomous in their
course offerings and student placement offerings, they are not obligated to invest in research, as
are the Universidades.
 Faculdades. Faculdades, while nearly as autonomous as the Federações de Escolas, are
institutions that typically only specialize in one or two disciplines, such as law or business.

While private schools of higher learning have the ability to determine staffing levels and make personnel
decisions, all human resource decisions in public institutions are linked to the civil service and public-
sector rules surrounding pay and working conditions. The nomination of a Rector or University President,
however, is a decision granted to the institution and is usually decided with considerable input from the
faculty.
Degrees Offered at Higher Education Institutions: There are three degree types offered by the higher
education institutions, although not each type is offered at every institution and in every discipline. They
are: Bachelor Degree (Bacharelado); Master’s Degree (Mestrado) and Doctoral Degree (Doutorado)

Bachelor Degree: This is an undergraduate degree that may take between 4 to 6 years to complete. The
first two years towards this degree are designated as one of two core streams set by the Brazilian Ministry
of Education: the humanities or the sciences. Upper-level courses are dedicated to coursework in the
student’s chosen discipline. In the recent past many institutions have opened up their curriculums to
allow for more elective options.
Undergraduate admission is based on the national entrance exam, typically offered to students once every
academic year. Public institutions generally require high scores on the entrance examination due to the
heavy competition for admission slots. The exam in offered by each institution of higher learning.
However, according to Brazilian law, the exam must cover each of the following subjects: Portuguese
language, mathematics, natural sciences, humanities and one foreign language.

Master’s Degree: The Master’s Degree level generally takes two years for student’s to complete. While
pursuing a Master’s degree in an academic field, a minimum number of classes, usually five to eight, as
well as a research thesis are required. A Master’s degree in a professional field, such as teaching, requires
completion of more coursework and a project as an intern, including a final paper or report.

Doctorate Degree: The doctorate degree level typically takes between 3-5 years to complete. Much like
in the Master’s degree programs, doctoral candidates must take advanced courses in their chosen
discipline or field of study. They must also pass an oral qualifying exam prior to admission in order to
begin work on their thesis. Successful candidates will produce a thesis or dissertation with a “significant
original contribution to knowledge in their discipline. They must also present an oral defense of their
thesis or dissertation to the program faculty.

Teacher Education

Students can obtain teacher training in secondary schools through vocational programs. In addition to the
required courses to graduate, students take teacher training courses which includes a supervised internship
and need 300 hours of teaching practice. Students can be certified to teach at primary schools through the
secondary school program; however, to teach secondary schools, most teaching students need higher
education to obtain either a master's or doctorate's. Schools do offer school administration training, but it
is not compulsory for students hoping to become an administrator. The licenses and degrees are as
follows: teaching certification through vocational programs, a bachelor's, master's, and doctorate.
Recently, the government has released a new National Education Plan outlining 20 goals to improve
national education, four of which outline improvements to teacher training

Administration of the Education System

The Federative Republic of Brazil is a federation of 26 states and a self-governing federal district which
contains the capital city, Brasilia According to Brazil’s current education law, education is the shared
responsibility of the federal, state, and municipal governments. Whereas the national government sets
overall education policies and is responsible for higher education, school education is administered
locally by the state and city governments, which have a fair amount of autonomy (within federal
guidelines). The core school curriculum, for example, is set nationally, but states can adapt it to suit local
needs.

The main federal supervisory authority in the school system is the National Education Council (Conselho
Nacional de Educação), an agency of the Ministry of Education (MOE). In addition, all Brazilian states
have their own education councils which oversee the schools in their jurisdictions and administer
examinations. City governments may grant recognition to private institutions at the early childhood
education level, whereas private elementary and secondary schools are generally authorized by state
governments.

Public Higher Education Institutions can be established by federal, state, or municipal legislation, but
only the national government can grant recognition to private higher education institutions. The main
federal oversight body in tertiary education is the Department of Higher Education (Secretaria de
Educação Superior, SESU) of the MOE. It formulates higher education policies, develops curricular
guidelines, and accredits institutions and study programs. The National Education Council, on the other
hand, defines the minimum number of classroom instruction hours and general guidelines for all levels of
education and fields of study.

In terms of funding, states and municipalities are constitutionally mandated to spend at least one quarter
of their tax revenues on education while the federal government is required to spend at least 18 percent of
its tax income. In addition, there are spending targets for specific sectors. For example, a 1996
constitutional amendment required states and municipalities to spend at least 60 percent of their education
budget on elementary education—a requirement that helped make elementary education universal in
Brazil. A new 14-year program established in 2006 (FUNDEB) seeks to further increase participation
rates in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education. FUNDEB’s increased spending levels are
designed to broaden access to education in rural areas, in underserved regions, and among indigenous
populations

Education System in South Africa

The legacy of South Africa’s apartheid system of government, which lasted from 1948 to 1991, is largely
to blame for the country’s dual economy characterized by high inequalities. The country’s education
system, in particular, has never fully recovered from the 1953 Bantu education law, which was designed
to render the country’s majority black population disenfranchised both from the political system and the
economy. The law deliberately sought to make blacks subservient laborers. It also systematically
excluded black students from exposure to certain subjects.

Today, South Africa invests a considerable amount in education – as it has ever since the end of
apartheid. In 2013, for instance, 19.7 percent of the country’s total budget went to education – a relatively
high figure by international standards. However, the ripple effect of the discriminatory education system
continues, not least on the quality of instruction available from a generation of teachers, themselves
educated by a sub-par system.
 Pre-school in South Africa

The education system in South Africa is not compulsory for children until the age of 7 years old. Until
then, you have the choice to send your child to a nursery and Grade R pre-school.

There are two preschool systems in South Africa: one is funded by the government and regulated
provincially, and the other is independent and run by communities or private bodies.

Both the government and private programs consist of two main components: Pre-Grade R and Grade R
programs (Reception Year). Pre-Grade R programs are intended for children between 0-4 years of age,
and Grade R programs are appropriate for 5-6 year-olds. Lessons focus on language, mathematics, life
skills, technology, arts and culture.

The primary goal of the Early Childhood Development (ECD) program is to protect children’s rights to
an education and develop their emotional, social and physical potential. The ECD program utilizes
different learning processes, enabling children to learn about the environment and themselves.

Primary Education
Elementary education in South Africa lasts seven years, and requires the completion of grades R (or
reception year, which is equivalent to kindergarten) through grade 6. This phase is further divided into
two parts, the foundation phase and intermediate phase. Students begin elementary school at six years
of age.

The foundation phase consists of grades R through three, and focuses on subjects such as home language,
an additional language, mathematics, and life skills. There are in total between 23-25 hours per week taught
in the classroom. The additional official language subject is introduced in grade one.

The intermediate phase includes grades four to six. The curriculum includes a home language, an
additional national language, mathematics, natural science and technology, social sciences, and life
sciences. Students in the intermediate phase attend classes 27.5 hours per week.

A number of achievement levels, ranging from 1 to 7, are used to evaluate students’ learning. The lowest
achievement level – level 1 – represents a failing grade denoted as “not achieved”, whereas the highest
achievement level 7 denotes “outstanding achievement.” These achievement levels also correspond to a 0-
100 percentage scale.
Assessment at the elementary level is conducted by each individual elementary school. There are no
national examinations, nor is there a formal qualification awarded at the end of the elementary school cycle.

Secondary Education

Secondary education in South Africa is six years in duration (grades 7 to 12), and is divided into two
phases, lower and upper secondary school.

Lower secondary (also known as the “senior phase”) lasts through grade 9, and is mandatory. Students
typically begin lower secondary at age 12 or 13. The curriculum for lower secondary school includes the
home language, an additional language, mathematics, natural science, social science, technology, economic
and management sciences, life orientation, and arts and culture. Students receive 27.5 hours of classroom
instruction per week.

Upper secondary, also known as further education and training (FET), lasts through grade 12, and is
not compulsory. Entry into this phase requires an official record of completion of grade nine. Just as in the
intermediate and senior phases, this phase comprises 27.5 classroom hours per week.

At the start of upper secondary school in grade 10, students are streamed into one of two tracks – academic
(general) or technical. Students who select the technical track must be enrolled in a technical secondary
school.

In both academic (general) and technical routes all students must study seven subjects. Four subjects are
mandatory regardless of stream. These include two official languages, mathematics (mathematics courses
differ in scope between the two tracks), and life orientation. Students can select the remaining three
subjects as electives. Students are advised to study subjects that they might be interested in pursuing in
higher education.

Graduation depends on performance on a final exam, the National Senior Certificate or “matric,” at the end
of grade 12. Those who earn a second level or “higher certificate” pass (described below), but who do not
score high enough to continue on into diploma or degree-granting institutions of higher education may
enroll in a bridge year, or grade 13, at an accredited institution.

Secondary education is administered through a network of previously mainly-white government schools

and private colleges. Standards are generally high. Unfortunately, school fees and tuition fees respectively
debar the poorest from attending.
Vocational Education

Vocational training is administered by sector education and training authorities arranged across functional
lines. Training itself is provided mainly by commercial colleges functioning partly under government
subsidies. Beneath this lies a plethora of independent adult schools some of which maintain high standards.

Teacher Education

South Africa is currently experiencing a shortage of teachers. According to one study, the country is in
need of as many as 30,000 additional teachers by 2025. The government has invested heavily in teacher
training, and more than doubled the number of annual graduates from teaching programs from 5,939 in
2008 to 13,708 in 2012.

The standard requirement for these new teachers is a Bachelor of Education degree, earned upon
completion of four-year university program, including a one-year teaching internship. Alternatively,
holders of a three-or four-year non-teaching bachelor’s degree can study for a one-year post-
secondary Advanced Diploma in Education (also known as Postgraduate Certificate in Education).

After completing the necessary training, all potential teachers must register with the South African Council
for Educators (SACE). Registered teachers are required to pay a monthly fee and follow a code of ethics;
failure to meet these requirements will result in the termination of their registration. A number of lower-
level teaching qualifications, such the Certificate in Education and the Diploma in Education are awarded
by universities, mainly as exit qualifications in incomplete bachelor’s programs, but presently do not entitle
to teach in South Africa.

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education and training is provided through a large number of private and state-managed
institutions under the overall control of the ministry of higher education and training. Polytechnics train
technicians is a wide variety of disciplines while universities award traditional bachelors, masters and
doctorates degrees. A wide divide in quality standards between previously “white” and previously
“independent homeland” institutions continues to pervade society. The oldest university in South Africa is
the University of Cape Town established in 1829 and depicted here. It is set out on the lower slopes of the
Table Mountain Massif as the architect interpreted the style of the Greek Pantheon.

Education System of Tanzania

Tanzania gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1961. In 1964, the Republic of Tanganyika
joined with the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba to form the United Republic of Tanzania. The
United Republic currently has over 45 million inhabitants.

The United Republic of Tanzania (URT, 2012) follows the 1(2)-6-4-2-3+ formal educational model,
which includes one (or two) years of Pre-Primary Education (PPE), 10 years of compulsory primary and
lower secondary education, two years of upper/high secondary education, and three or more years of
tertiary education. The system evolved from the inherited 4-4-4-4+ colonial education system. With
Tanzania’s rapid economic growth and social changes as well as worldwide technological advancements,
it became obvious in the early 2000s that Tanzania’s existing education policy was not bringing the
desired results

Pre-Primary Education

The 2014 Education and Training Policy (ETP) established compulsory free basic education from
preprimary to lower secondary level. For the first time in the history of education in Tanzania, preprimary
education was made free and compulsory. This move may potentially enable pupils from marginalized
and disadvantaged backgrounds to access educational skills, knowledge, and attitudes that may enable
them to build a foundation to break the vicious, intergenerational cycle of poverty. This cycle takes I or 2
years for children aged 0-4 years.

Primary Education
Education is free in theory up to age 15 in Tanzania, although unfortunately poorer parents are unable to
afford uniforms, school materials and examination fees, and so their children continue to be deprived. The
primary period lasts for 7 years, where after all children must pass the same examination for a primary
school certificate.

Middle Education
Four years of junior secondary schooling follow. Nominal annual tuition fees are levied, as are a wide
variety of other charges too, ranging from watchman fees through to a furniture levy. The medium of
education is English, although Swahili language classes are also followed. There are examinations at the
end of forms 2 and 4.

Secondary Education
Secondary education in Tanzania follows the Cambridge model of ordinary and advanced levels, both of
which require 2 years of study followed by an examination. The advanced level is available only at
certain boarding schools, which effectively often means the end of the road for many a poor child because
of cost.

Secondary school consists of two levels: ordinary level (lower secondary) which takes four years to
finish and advanced level, which takes two years. Most secondary public schools are day schools and
most of the private schools are boarding schools. Classes are taught in English.

Public schools are tuition free, but parents have to provide their children with school materials, uniforms,
food and transport.

Vocational Education
A vocational education and training act is in place that finds expression through the vocational education
and training authority. The latter sets standards, and issues educational and training guides, for
implementation through a network of state and private colleges. Other roles include entrepreneurship
development, gender issues in the workplace, and the war against child labor.

TERTIARY (University)

The highest level is university/college level. In Tanzania, one can pursue a certificate, diploma or degree
at a university or college. The length of the course depends on what one is studying. People who are
accepted for a certificate program must finish ordinary level of secondary school. Enrolling in a diploma
or degree course requires the completion of advanced level.

To join university, students must apply through a centralized online system through the Tanzania
Commission for Universities. They choose up to five institutions and will ultimately be placed at one of
them. Of these the oldest is the University of Dar es Salaam, which was established in 1970 following the
dissolution of the University of East Africa into 3 national institutions.

There are 5 campuses in the city and 10 faculties. These include mechanical & chemical engineering,
electrical & computer systems engineering, civil engineering & the built environment, humanities &
social sciences, and education.

Cost: There are both public and private universities/colleges. Students pay university fees whether the
school is public or private, but public universities are cheaper than private ones.

Teacher Education
Teacher training in Tanzania is currently offered in three levels, which are grade A, diploma and degree
level. Grade A student teachers are trained at teacher training colleges to equip them with knowledge,
pedagogical skills and methods to teach at primary schools. The training lasts two years that include
teaching practice. If the student teachers complete their training successfully they graduate as professional
teachers and are employed by the government to teach in primary schools. However, there are some cases
particularly in rural areas where these teachers teach in secondary schools because of shortage of teachers
especially in science subjects. Diploma student teachers are trained to teach at secondary schools.
Training also lasts two years. Degree level teacher students are trained at the universities for three years
to teach at secondary schools and teacher training colleges.

In many developing countries, including Tanzania, teachers get no further additional professional support
for a long time, leading to ineffective teaching, hence, poor performance in schools (Mbunda , 1998).
Pointing out the importance of life-long learning for teachers Mbunda states that:

“Pre-service training alone is not enough whether one acquires a teacher certificate or a first degree for
the basic reasons that;

 A single teacher training course is not sufficient to keep one intellectually alive;
 Curriculum always changes and knowledge and teaching technology develop and;
 Education is a life-long and continuous process”.

There are various challenges that hinder young people from joining the teaching profession in Tanzania.
First, teaching is perceived negatively by young people because of low salaries in comparison to other
professions like law and medicine. In addition, teachers are not respected in the society as before (Mosha,
2016). Complaints from the teachers about poor teaching and learning environment, shortage of resources
and large class sizes do not attract young people to the profession. Second, the teaching profession is not a
choice for many youth but they join it because they have no alternative. Third, youth perceive teaching
profession as the profession joined by those who did not perform well in the national examinations.

Administration of Education

All government schools are administered and managed by the Department of Education. The role of the
Department is to provide management support to the schools, and also includes the deployment of new
teachers. The Department also has the role of ensuring that all programmes at school level are well
implemented. At district and regional levels, the district and regional education officers are in-charge of
their areas respectively. The deployment of teachers is done at district level, but the process is
coordinated at central level by the Department of Education.

The head teacher is the administrator at the school level. However, each school must have a school
management committee. The members of the committee are selected and appointed as follows: (a) a
chairperson who is appointed by the District Commissioner. Normally the “Sheha” (an officer in charge
of a locality) is the chairperson; (b) two members appointed by the Sheha; (c) two members appointed by
the District Education Officer; (d) three members elected by the parents themselves. The school head is
the secretary of the committee.

The functions of the school committee are: 1. to bring the community closer to the school in order to
promote ownership; and 2. to assist in the administration and management of the school, and thus
promote its development.

Although the formation of the school committees had been decreed, the committees have not been given
legal powers to exercise their duties and functions.

Common Educational Challenges of Developing Countries

These are countries that neither have stable political nor economic systems. This is caused
majorly by their forceful integration into world capitalist system through colonialism. The effect
of this is that these countries are poor, backward in educational attainments among others things.
The educational challenges of these countries are similar contrary to established truth that no two
states or countries in the world may have same challenges
According to Ndoye (2008) the education system in Sub-Saharan Africa faces the
following challenges:
1.An insufficient stock of educated citizens: Although a number of gains have been
recorded in education in Africa, the continent remains the most affected by illiteracy with a
rate of 40 percent illiteracy compared to 18 per- cent worldwide. The overall education
development index (EDI) remains low.

2. Unequally distributed education levels: Africa is also plagued by the issue of inequities
in the distribution of education levels. The greatest disparities are in the rural areas in which
about 71 percent of the African population lives and where the Gross Enrolment Ratio
(GER) and the primary comple- tion rates were 70.9 percent and 28 percent in 2000 as
compared to 103.5 and 61 percent respectively for the urban areas. Apart from the rural-
urban and the rich-poor disparities there is also the gender disparity that com- pound Africa’s
problems considering the role-play women in health, nutri- tion and demographic regulation
at the family level.

3. Low-efficiency education systems: A third challenge facing African edu- cation system
is low efficiency that results in waste in the use of education resources. Repetition and
dropout rates are high to the extent that for the 2002-2003, on average, 40 percent of the
children that entered school did not finish their primary education (Ndoye, 2008).

4. Low quality of education: research has revealed that due to several factors about half the
pupils in Sub-Saharan Africa that complete primary edu- cation level do not master
fundamental required learning. The factors are: weaknesses in the qualification of teachers
and supervisors; lack of didactic materials; insufficient learning time; and inappropriate
management of schools. In addition there is a general absence of early child development
programs.

5. Lack of utility of school learning: Ndoye (2008) points out that at every level of the
education system, the links between education and the surrounding economic, cultural, and
social milieu are weak. This is largely attributed to colonial legacy and its effect on education.
Further, from macroe-conomic perspective, education planning is rarely integrated into
national development planning and rarely fosters approaches that can develop endogenous
potential.

Other similar educational challenges of these countries as listed by Lawal (2004) are:

 Underfunding of the educational sector

 Poor statistical data
 Ethnicity in the provision of educational facilities
 Religious challenges
 Political and governmental instability
 Cultural differences
 Poor school attendance among children due to urge to make quick wealth
  Lack of qualified teachers due to the poor image of the teacher as well as government inability to
employ teachers in the right proportion to execute the educational policy of their respective
countries.
 Inadequate motivation of the teaching personnel
 Poor economy leading to the financial difficulty in implementing the policy of education in most
of these countries as provided in the statues books.

Given the above challenges, Ndoye (2008) recommends some reforms that can transform
the education system in Sub-Saharan Africa.
1. The general orientation of education reforms in Africa must be founded on a long
term view that gives coherence and continuity to the concrete changes to be
undertaken. Education must be prioritized in planning and financing and linked to the
needs generated by scientific and technological changes in the global world.
2. Policies must be oriented toward equitable access for all and accelerated progress
toward universal primary education.
3. There is need to efficiently respond to the increased demand for education. This will
imply decentralization of school construction and management to ensure community
participation; and revision of the curricula to match the skills that young people will
require to meet the needs of the current socioeconomic context.
4. There is need to broaden technical education and professional training in order to
address the needs of the economies that are largely dominated by the informal sector.
5. There is need to re-legitimize the public service mission of higher education and
research so as to redirect the teaching, training and research toward an applied
emphasis on the identification, evaluation and development of the potential and
strengths of national development.
Positive trends in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
 Considerable broadened admission capacities at all levels of education. This is encouraging with
prospects for increasing access to education and increasing the number of graduates in the future.
 Improved transition rates that strengthen retention; this trend should facilitate managing
student flows particularly to extend the length of time children are enrolled in school
(primary plus lower secondary) and to rationalize admission to higher education, starting with
access from upper secondary.
  Positive evolution in terms of equity between females and males that should accelerate, in
interaction with broadening admission capacities and improvement in transition rates, to be
even more favorable to the enrollment of females.
 Increased investment in education from national budget allocations and an increase in
external aid.
 Substantially increased literacy rates
EMERGING CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) in Education

Liberalization

It is an immediate effect of globalization. Liberalization is commonly known as free trade. It implies

removal of restrictions and barriers to free trade.

In most countries it is reflected through economic policies and legislations which guide foreign exchange
regulations containing clauses which have facilitated easy entry of Multi-National Corporations (MNCs)

i. Joint ventures with foreign companies e.g. Toyota, Suzuki, Safaricom, Airtel, GoTV, StarTimes
etc
ii. Reduction of import tariffs.
iii. Removal of export subsidies.
iv. Encouraging foreign direct investments.

The effect of liberalization is that the companies of developing countries are facing a tough competition
from powerful corporations of developed countries. The local communities are exploited by multinational
companies on account of removal of regulations governing the activities of MNCs.

Privatization:

In the event of globalization privatization has become an order of the day. Privatization can be defined
as the transfer of ownership and control of public sector units to private individuals or companies. It has
become inevitable as a result of structural adjustment programmes imposed by International Monitory
Fund (IMF).

Objectives of Privatization:

 To strengthen the private sectors.

 Government to concentrate on areas like education and infrastructure.

 In the event of globalization, governments felt that increasing inefficiency of public sectors would not
help in achieving global standards. Hence a decision was taken to privatize the Public Sectors.

 Causes of Inefficiency of Public Sectors:

 Bureaucratic administration
 Out dated Technology
 Corruption
 Lack of accountability.
 Domination of trade unions
 Political interference.
 Lack of proper marketing activities.

Privatization has its own advantages and disadvantages Viz.

Advantages:

 Increased Efficiency
 Absence of political interference
 Quality service
 Systematic marketing
 Use of modern Technology
 High Accountability
 Creation of competitive environment.
 Improved Innovations
 Research and development
 Optimum utilization of resources
 Development of Infrastructure.

However, privatization suffers from the following defects.

 Exploitation of labor.

 Abuse of powers by executives.

 Unequal distribution of wealth and income.

 Lack of job security for employees.

Privatization has become inevitable in the present scenario. But some control should be exercised by the
government over private sectors.
Reasons for permitting Privatization in Education

1. Economic Reasons: The task of providing education costly especially for developing countries. Most
governments in spite of many years of political independence are unable to provide free elementary
education to all children in the school going age. Therefore, it has become inevitable to permit private
agencies also in the gigantic task of providing Universal education.

2. Political Reasons: Governments also stand to gain in permitting self- financing educational
institutions so as to acquire the power to expand educational infrastructures without deploying their own
funds. Governments too, can get continuous revenues from the participating private agencies in
education.

3. Educational Reasons

 As students remit heavy fees for their education in private institutions, their sense of responsibility and
motivation for learning increase.

 Teachers in private educational institutions lack job security and hence they do not indulge in disruptive
activities such as strike, hindering the congenial educational climate prevailing in schools and colleges.

 As salary and other perks of teachers of private schools are related to merit and efficiency, their
productivity increases and they become accountable.

 As parents are paying hefty school fees, they realize their role and responsibilities and cooperate with
the school.

 As most of the private educational institutions have fairly good infrastructure like school building,
library, laboratory and playground.

Demerits of Privatization of Education

1. Educational institutions turn to be commercial propositions aiming primarily at maximizing their

profit in the name of providing quality education.

2. Poor but meritorious students have virtually no place in these private schools.

3. As the private school teachers are poorly paid, they are forced to augment their monthly income by
running private tuition classes outside the school hours.

4. Private schools often forget that the primary aim of education is the promotion of all round
development in children and mostly resort to coaching of students to score highly in the public
examinations. Thus schools nowadays have become ‘knowledge Shops’.
Is Privatization in Education is Thus Desirable?

Banning privatization of education totally is not a wise and welcome step. We should not forget that in a
democratic set up, private sector too has significant role to play. However, as permission is granted to
private investors in education, the government must also take certain precautions:

1. In granting permission to open new schools, care should be taken to see that most schools are located
in rural areas.

2. Educational qualifications, minimum monthly emoluments for teachers, teacher – pupil ratio etc. as
fixed by the education department of the state are to be strictly implemented.

3. Schools are to be compelled through the state Education Department to carry out in full all the
stipulated co-curricular activities along with regular classroom teaching as prescribed by relevant
ministries.

4. Suitable legislative provisions are to be made to subject the private self-financing schools to submit
their accounts for an annual Government auditing and supervised stringently.

In Sum, it could be stated that allowing private participation in education, regulated well by the State
through its constant monitoring and supervision will be beneficial in the long run.

Globalization:

The term globalization can be used in different contexts. The general usages of the term Globalization
can be as follows:

i. Interactions and interdependence among countries.

ii. Integration of world economy.
iii. Deterritorization.

By synthesizing all the above views Globalization can be broadly defined as follows: It refers to a process
whereby there are social, cultural, technological exchanges across the border.

The term Globalization was first coined in 1980s. But even before this there were interactions among
nations. But in the modern days Globalization has touched all spheres of life such as economy, education,
technology, cultural phenomenon and social aspects etc. The term “global village” is also frequently used
to highlight the significance of globalization. This term signifies that revolution in electronic
communication would unite the world. Undoubtedly, it can be accepted that globalization is not only the
present trend but also future world order.
The impact of globalization could be felt in the field of education in the following:

1. Major Participation of corporate Sector in the Higher Education: Due to liberalization policy followed
in India, self-financing educational institutions have sprung up at all levels of education. Now, we have
large number of Private Universities too.

2. Education has become commercialized, particularly at the higher education stage. One good thing that
has come out of it is that infrastructural and educational facilities have started expanding significantly,
even in rural areas.

3. Universities in most countries have started getting cross-country recognition.

4. Attracting Foreign talents for Faculty Positions. Universities have started initiatives to attract foreign
talents for their faculty positions in their attempt to tone up the quality of University education, and lift it
to international standard.

5. Value addition to Higher Education: students pursuing a graduate programme in any discipline are
permitted to work for an additional diploma or degree in related field.

6. Foreign Universities have started offering their programmes in other countries in collaboration with
local Institutions or appointing them as franchisees.

7. Local Accreditation bodies have set up measures to regulate the courses run by franchises of foreign
universities in accord approval and recognition.

8. Globalization of education promotes competition resulting in quality improvement in higher education.

9. Knowledge, skills and competency required for vocations and professions in demand are the major
focus of the globalization of education.

10. All jobs, vocations, and professions will acquire the same character, worldwide demanding similar
skills, professional competencies and knowledge.

Multiculturalism:

The view that the various cultures in a society merit equal respect and scholarly interest. It usually
describes the existence, acceptance, or promotion of multiple cultural traditions within a single
jurisdiction, usually considered in terms of the culture associated with an ethnic group. It is manifested in
countries with complex cultural orientation such as India, USA, South Africa, Zimbabwe among others.

Aims and Goals of Multi-Cultural Education

 It seeks to accommodate all the norms and values of the cultures it serves.
 It promotes the aspirations and the educational needs of both the minority and majority of the
various communities.
 It culturally enriches all children and youths through programmes that preserve and extend cultural
alternatives hence developing cultural tolerance.
 It serves as an agent for social change since students identify with other groups.
In terms of how it affects Indian society, India is a country which has Multiculturalism in its DNA. India
itself is a union of Indo-Iranian and Dravidian culture. For example, the language of the Baghvad Gita
(One of Hinduism's holy texts) is Sanskrit which is a standardized dialect of the old Indo-Aryan (Iranian)
tongue. In contemporary India, whilst English is widely spoken, many people speak Hindi, which is a
standardized Hindustani dialect, which Urdu also takes its basis from. Hence Indians speak two languages
which are respectively the lingua francas of the World, and the Indian subcontinent. And with all students
learning all these languages, the potential for conflict given the hundreds, if not thousands of languages
like Punjabi, Gujarati, and Konkani etc. is extremely diminished, and makes India on the whole, a much
more accepting and pluralistic culture and place.

Merits of Multi-Cultural Education

 -It breaks monotony and provides variety

 It creates an increased wide knowledge base
 Lynch (1981) argues that as long as cultural diversity is not used as a tool for ethnic division and
segregation it is a healthy phenomenon that can promote unity and tolerance.
Demerits of Multi-Cultural Education

 Gwarinda (2001) says there is a tendency of people condemning other peoples culture while
boosting that their culture is the best hence becoming the standard measure against which all other
cultures are judged.
 It creates Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism
 Also creates bias, prejudice and feelings of hatred of other social groups.
 Ethnocentrism always leads to conflicts and wars in societies
Problems associated with multi-cultural education
  Cultural deprivation vs. cultural capital
 Discrimination of pupils according to social class backgrounds
 Language barrier
 Conflict among the various social groups
Solutions/some possible solutions

 Group interactions
 Counselling
 Positive discrimination
 Use of varied instructional media
 Consultations coupled with home visits
Peace Education:

It is the process of acquiring the values, the knowledge and developing the attitudes, skills, and behaviors
to live in harmony with oneself, with others, and with the natural environment.

Promoting Peace Education in the Classroom:

 These are not just lessons for the classroom but lessons for life of immediate relevance,
empowering individuals to achieve a just society in which all human rights of all persons are
valued and respected.
 Peace education applies to the contents of all curricula, at every level in the education system.
Peace education is the all-round education of each individual.
 Peace education should be extended to all learners, including refugee and migrant children,
children from minorities and disabled with the objective of promoting equal opportunities
through education.
 The training of teachers, education workers and all education stakeholders, including staff from
ministries of education is crucial.
 Educators promote the development of the whole person, so as to enable everyone to contribute
to society in a caring and responsible manner.
 In order to recruit and retain the best teachers, governments should give priority to adequate
salary, which must provide teachers with a reasonable standard of living for themselves and for
their families, as well as the means of enhancing their professional qualifications by developing
their knowledge and improving their cultural resources.
  Governments must also focus on providing attractive working conditions including small class
sizes, career paths and more opportunities for professional growth and development, financial and
other incentives, and support systems for new teachers, such as mentoring programs.
 Education is a participatory and interactive process of instruction and learning, and the
curriculum and pedagogy should give prominence to understanding the wealth of distinctive
cultural and linguistic characteristics, in response to globalization.
 The educational context should provide programs addressing psychological and physical
violence, including cyber bullying, through violence prevention, conflict resolution and mediation
in all levels of education.
Human Rights Education:

Human Rights Education is all learning that develops the knowledge, skills and values of human rights.
Efforts to define human rights education in the 1950s and 60s emphasized cognitive learning for young
people in a formal school setting. By the 1970s, most educators had extended the concept to include
critical thinking skills and concern or empathy for those who have experienced violation of their rights.
However, the focus remained on school-based education for youth with little or no attention to personal
responsibility or action to promote and defend rights or effect social change.

In 1991 the Human Rights Educators' Network of Amnesty International USA published a defining
rationale for human rights education that reflected the expanding definition of the field:

Human Rights Education declares a commitment to those human rights expressed in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the UN Covenants, and the United States Bill of Rights. It asserts
the responsibility to respect, protect, and promote the rights of all people.

Human Rights Education promotes democratic principles. It examines human rights issues without bias
and from diverse perspectives through a variety of educational practices.

Human Rights Education helps to develop the communication skills and informed critical thinking
essential to a democracy. It provides multicultural and historical perspectives on the universal struggle for
justice and dignity.

Human Rights Education engages the heart as well as the mind. It challenges students to ask what
human rights mean to them personally and encourages them to translate caring into informed, nonviolent
action. Human Rights Education affirms the interdependence of the human family. It promotes
understanding of the complex global forces that create abuses, as well as the ways in which abuses can be
abolished and avoided.
In 1986 David Shiman had published the first human rights curriculum in the United States, Teaching
about Human Rights, which has been followed by a steady stream of new resources in the field, notably
Betty Reardon's Teaching for Human Dignity (1995) and the establishment of the University of
Minnesota Human Rights Education Series in 1998.

Another significant stimulus was the 1992 meeting of human rights educators sponsored by the Columbia
University Center for the Study of Human Rights with the support of the Organizing Committee of the
People's Decade of Human Rights. Many US human rights educators met for the first time at this seminal
meeting and formed working alliances that have resulted in significant projects such as Human Rights
USA, a partnership of Amnesty International USA, the Center for Human Rights Education, the
University of Minnesota Human Rights Center, and Street Law, Inc. Sponsored by the Ford Foundation,
Human Rights USA sought to raise human rights awareness and celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1998.

As a result of such efforts, human rights education in the United States has become a recognized
educational force. However, it remains to find an established place in the mainstream educational system.
Instead it has flourished in alternative settings: non-profit organizations, extracurricular groups like
Amnesty International's campus chapters, alternative educational settings, and communities of faith.

The UN Decade for Human Rights Education:

Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration, the United Nations General Assembly has called on
Member States and all segments of society to disseminate and educate about this fundamental document.
In 1993 the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna reaffirmed the importance of human rights
education, training and public information, declaring it "essential for the promotion and achievement of
stable and harmonious relations among communities and for fostering mutual understanding, tolerance
and peace. In response to an appeal by this World Conference, the General Assembly proclaimed the
period 1995 to 2004 the UN Decade for Human Rights Education.

In proclaiming the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education in December 1994, the General
Assembly defined human rights education as "a life-long process by which people at all levels of
development and in all strata of society learn respect for the dignity of others and the means and methods
of ensuring that respect in all societies. The Assembly emphasized that the responsibility for human rights
education rested with all elements of society- government, nongovernmental organizations, professional
associations, and all other sectors of civil society, as well as individuals.
The Plan of Action for the Decade further defines human rights education as "training, dissemination and
information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of
knowledge and skills and the molding of attitudes which are directed to:

a) The strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

b) The full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity.

c) The promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender equality, and friendship among all nations,
indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups.

d) The enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free society.

e) The furtherance of the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

During this Decade, the UN is urging and supporting all its Member States to make information about
human rights available to everyone through both the formal school system and popular and adult
education.