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410 views44 pagesPower Electronics Unit-1
Anna University notes
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govindhasamymanikkamCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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CONTENTS
UNIT 1: SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES
11. Introduction...
1.1.1. Power Electronic Systems...
1.1.2. Types of Power Electronic Converters...
4.2. Power MOSFET
1.2.1. Types of Power MOSFET...
1.2.2. Structure of n-channel Power MOSFET
1.2.3. Operation...
1.2.4. Static characteristics
1.2.5. Switching characteristics.
4.3. Driver circuit.
4.4. Snubber circuits.
1.4.1. Purpose of Snubber Circuit
1.4.2. Design and Working Principle of Snubber Circuit
1.5, Low Power High Switching Power Supplies...
1.6. Buck Converter ..
1.6.1. Buck Converter Operation.
1.6.2. CCM and DCM...
1.6.3. Buck Converter Duty Cycle......
Boost Converter......
1.7.1. Definitio
1.7.2. Operating Principle of Boost Converter.
17.
1.8. Buck Boost Converter...
1.8.1. Working principle of Buck-Boost Converter.
Buck Converter Working...
Boost Converter Working... Power Bp
2]
1.8.4. Modes of Buck Boost Converters...
1.9, Isolated Topologies
rter:
4.10, Resonant Conve!
1.10.1, Series Resonant Converter (SRC) «
1.10.2. Parallel Resonant Converter (PRC).
1.103, LLC Resonant Converter Operatior
1.41. Switching Loss Calculations.
4.12, Thermal Design.
Two Marks Questions and Answers...
Review Questions...
UNIT 2: INVERTERS...
2.1. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)....
2.1.1. — Structure of IGBT....
2.1.2. Working...
2.1.3. IGBT Characteristics
2.1.4. | Switching Characteristics
2.2, Single Phase Voltage Source Inverters
2.2.1. Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter.......
2.2.2. Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter...
2.3. VSI- Single Phase Inverter (Square Wave Operation)
2.3.1. Operation of the Single-Phase VSI.
2.3.2. Three Phase Vol tage Source Inverte:
2.4. Voltage Control of Inverters...
24.1, External Control of AC Output Voltage.
2.4.2. External Control of DC Input Voltage......
2.4.3. Internal Control of Inverter
Multiple Pulse-Width Modulatio:
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation.
2.5.
2.6, Contents
2.7. Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation...
2.8, Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM)
2.8.1, Comparison Between Sinusoidal PWM and SVPWM.
2.9. Harmonic Control of Inverter...
2.9.1. Harmonic Reduction by Single-Pulse Width Modulation.
Harmonic Reduction by Transformer Connections
Harmonic Reduction by Multiple Commutation
in each Half - Cycle...
2.9.4. Harmonic Reduction using Stepped Wave Inverters...
2.10. Current Source Inverters (CSI).....
2.10.1. Single Phase Capacitor-Commutated Current-Source Inverters
with Resistive Load...
2.10.2. Single Phase Auto - Sequential Commutated Inverter ..
Two Marks Questions and Answers.
Review Questions...
UNIT 3: UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ....
3.1. Power Diode.....
. Construction
Working.
. V-I Characteristics of Power Diode.
3.1.4. Reverse Recovery Characteristics of Power Diodes.....
3.2. Half Wave Rectifier...
3,3, Mid Point Secondary Transformer Based Full Wave Rectifier.
3.4, Bridge Rectifier...
3.5. Voltage Doubler Circui
3.6. Distortion Factor...
3.7. Capacitor Filter For Low Power Rectifiers...
3.8, LC Filters...
3.9. Concern For Power Quality. l / Power Elect,
3.10, Three Phase Diode Bridg
Two Marks Questions and Answs
Review Questions
UNIT 4: CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS...
4.1. SCR Thyristo! o
4.1.1. Construction and Operation
4.1.2. Static V-I Characteristics of a Thy
4.1.3, Switching Characteristics of Thyristo'
4.1.3.1. Switching Characteristics During
4.1.3.2, Switching Characteristics During Turn-Off Proc
urn-On Proce:
4.2. Two Transistor Analogy...
4.3. Thermal Protection...
4.4, Controlled Converters - 2 Pulse Converter..
4.4.1. 1 Full Wave Controlled Bridge Converter...
4.4.2. Single Phase Mid-Point Controlled Rectifier...
4.4.3. Single Phase Semi-Converter.
4.4.4. Half Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RI Load .
4.5. 3 Pulse Converter:
4.5.1. Three Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load..
4.5.2. Three Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RI Load ..
4.5.3. Three-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier...
4.6. 6 Pulse Converter...
4.6.1. 39 Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier..........
4.7, Displacement Factor...
4.8. Ripple and Harmonic Factor.....
4.9, Power Factor Mitigation...
4.10. Performance Parameters..
4.11. Effect of Source Inductanc
4.11.1. Single-Phase Fully-Controlled Converter...........00 Contents
4.11.2, Three-Phase Fully-Controlled Bridge Rectifier...
4,12. Inverter Angle Limit.
Two Marks Questions and Answers...
Review Questions...
UNIT 5: AC PHASE CONTROLLERS
5.1. TRIAC.
5.1.1. Construction
5.1.2. Operation of TRIAC,
5,2. TRIAC Based phase controllers...
5,3. SCR based controllers
5.3.1. Single Phase Controllers,
5.3.2. Three phase controller
Two Marks Questions and Answers..
Review Questions...
Model Question Papers.... »M.Q.1 — M.Q.6 UNIT -I
SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES
| BA syllabus: |
MOSFET dynamic behavior - driver and snubber circuits - low power igh switching
equency switching Power supplies, buck, boost, buck-boost converters — Isolated
topologies ~ resonant converters - switching loss calculations and thermal design.
4.1, INTRODUCTION
Power Electronics belongs partly to power engineers and pa
d with the generation, transmission,
tly to Electronics
engineers. Power engineering is mainly concernet
distribution and utilisation of electric energy at high efficiency. Electronics
e other hand, is guided by distortion less production, transmission
engineering, on the
level, of the order of a few watts,
and reception of data and signals of very low power
or milliwatts, without much consideration to the efficiency.
In addition, apparatus associated with power engineerin
ronics engineering is based upon
g is based mainly on
electromagnetic principles whereas that in elect
/vapour and semiconductors.
Power Electronics is a subject that concerns the application of electronic principles
into situations that are rated at power level rather than signal level. It may also be
defined as a subject that deals with the apparatus and equipment working on the
Electronics but rated at power level rather than signal level.
GTOs etc. work
physical phenomena in vacuum, gases!
principle 0
Semiconductor power switches such as thyristors,
but have the name power attached to them only as a
arly, diodes, mercury-arc rectifiers and
For example,
on the principle of Electronics,
description of their power ratings. Simil
thyratrons, high-power level devices, form a part of the subject power electronics,
because their working is based on the physical phenomenon in gases and vapours, an
electronic process. “
Power Electr,
[12]
1.1.1. Power Electronic Systems
The major components of the power electronic system as shown in the fore
block diagram in figure 1.7.
Main power
coun
Powe>
Electronic ion
Command cacuit
t T
| j
| Feedback
Signal
Fig. 1.1. Block Diagram of a typical of power electronic system
Main power source may be an AC supply system or a DC supply system. T;
Output from the Power Electronic circuit may be variable dc or ac voltage or it m:
be a variable voltage and frequency. In general. the output of a power electron,
converter circuit depends upon the requirements of the load. For example. if the loz.
is a DC motor, the converter output must be adjustable direct voltage. In case the loz
is a three-phase induction motor. the converter may have adjustable voltage an.
frequency at its output terminals.
The feedback component measures a parameter of the load, say speed in case o}
rotating machine, and compares it with the command. The difference of the tw
through the digital circuit components controls the instant of tum on «
Semiconductor devices forming the solid-state power converter system.
Table 1.1. Power Semiconductor devices
| Voltage/ eps ;
Circuit symbol ie Current operating
| frequency
| ratings ate (KHz)
a « + 5000 15000 a 1.0 Switching Power Supplies 5
b) LASCR we | 6000 V/3000 A
Ao—* j
K j '
G6
ye) ASCR/ Ki ~ [2500 vM400a 120
RCT Ao oT K
GS
d) GTO = 5000 V/3000A | 2.0
1
‘ 6 | j
| (Or) ' |
oA Kf 1 j
! \
| ~~ S i ; | 7
|e) SITH i | 2500 V/500 A; 100.0
j |
|
i 6 '
f) MCT us 1200 V/40 A 20.0
Cc)
g) Triac A k “1200 V/1000 A. ‘0.50
| our Ss amt | |
3. | Transistors c ¢ | 1400 V/400 A 10.0
a) BJT
2
3
3
3
3 aN
Power jy,
| 1000 V/50 A
1200 V300.A | gy 0
i | |
"/@icBT. | 1200 V/S00A | S0.g
ot |
1.1.2. Types of Power Electronic Converters
A power electronic system consists of one or more power electronic converter,
power electronic converter is made up of some power semi-conductor devie.
controlled by integrated circuits.
The switching characteristics of power semiconductor devices
‘erter to shape the input power of one form to output power of sor
ied into six types as under:
permit a pow:
electronic conv
other form. Power electronic converters can be classifi
1. Diode Rectifiers
A diode rectifier circuit converts ac input voltage into a fixed de voltage. The inp
voltage may be single-phase or three phase.
2. AC 10 DC converters (Phase-controlled rectifiers)
These convent constant ac voltage to variable de output voltage. These rectifiers
use line voltage for thei Commutation; as such these are also called lino-commutate:
oF naturally-commutated ac to de converters,
3. DC DC con verters (DC choppers)
A de chopper converts fixed de input voltage to a controllable de output voltage. Switching Power Supplies i
4. DC to AC converters (inverters)
An inverter converts
variable voltage and variable frequency.
xed de voltage to a variable ac voltage. The output may be a
§. AC to AC converters
These convert fixed ac input voltage into variable ac output voltage. These are of
two types as under:
(a) AC voltage controllers: These converter circuits convert fixed ac voltage
directly to a variable ac voltage at the same frequency.
(b) Cycloconverters: These circuits convert input power at one frequency to
output power at a different frequency through one-stage conversion.
1.2. POWER MOSFET
A power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device because the output current can
be controlled by gate source voltage Vg..
A power MOSFET has three terminals called
1. Drain (D),
2. Source (S) and
3. Gate (G)
The circuit symbol of power MOSFET is as shown in figure 1.2 (a). Here arrow
indicates the direction of electron flow.
If
G
Fig. 1.2. Symbol of power MOSFET
Power MOSFET is a unipolar device because its operation depends upon the flow
of majority carriers only. It has a very high input impedance. in the order of 109 Q.
The gate draws a very small leakage current, in the order of nano ‘amperes.
MOSFETs do not have the problems of secondary breakdown. However, MOSFETs
have the problems of electrostatic discharge and require special care in handling. Power Elec,
(ia c
1.2.1, Types of Power MOSFET
‘The two main types of power MOSFETs are
1, Depletion MOSFET
2. Enhancement MOSFET
Each type are further classified as
i) n channel MOSFET
ii) p channel MOSFET
1.2.2, Structure of n-channel Power MOSFET
Figure shows the constructional details of power MOSFET. It is a planner diffas,
metal-oxide-semiconductor structure for n-channel power MOSFET. 7
Dritt
region
Fig. 1.3. Basic Structure ofn channel Power MOSFET
The bottom layer is n+ substrate, The doping density of this layer is 1019 em. On
nt substrate, high resistivity n- layer is epitaxially grown, The n- layer is called the
drain drift Tegion and is typically doped at 10!41015. om-3, This drift region
determines the breakdown voltag ice, her side, n+ substrate, a
metal layer is deposited to form the drain terminal, Now p- regions are diffused in the
epitaxially grown n- layer.
The doping density of the p-
10 m=, layer is 10'6 om3. The doping density of nt layer is Switching Power Supplies [1.7]
1.2.3. Operation
When the gate-source voltage V gg is zero and drain-source voltage Viyp is present.
then n-, p> junctions are reverse biased and no current flows from drain to source.
Now the device is considered as an open switch. When Gate terminal is made positive
with respect to source, an electric field is created and electrons from n-channel in the
p regions as shown.
Now the current flows from drain to source and the current direction is indicated
by arrows, The gate voltage Vgg is increased drain current I also increases. That is
output current can be controlled by gate voltage. So power MOSFET is also called as
voltage controlled device.
1.2.4, Static characteristics
4.2.4.1. Transfer characteristics
oA)
: Vest
0 2 4 6 8 10 ne
Fig, 1.4, Transfer characteristics
This shows the variation of drain current Ip as a function of gate-source voltage
Ves:
1.2.4.2. Output Characteristics
This indicates the variation of drain current Ip as a function of drain-source
voltage Vg as a parameter. For low values of Vp, the graph between Ip - Vpg is
almost linear, this indicates a constant value of on-resistance Rps = Vos/Ip- Power by,
——_—-—______
flat indicating 5
increased, output characteristic i:
ror piven Vase if Vps i
For given Vos. if Vos
rent is nearly constant. A load line intersects the output at A and p,
cul IS mat ~
indicates fully-on condition and B fully-off state.
Drain-Source breakdown voltage
°
Drain-source voltage =
Cutoff
when Ves < Vest
Fig. 1.5. Output Characteristics
1.2.5. Switching characteristics
Turn on Process
a
The turn-on time is defined as the sum of delay time and rise time of the device
Delay Time ty,
During turn-on delay time /,,, input capacitance charges to gate threshold vol:
Vesrand the drain current is zero.
Rise Time t,
During rise time, gate voltage rises to Vosp, It is the gate source peak voltage.
The total turn-on time is
fon = tan + t,
dn Switching Power Supplies
19
1.2.5.2. Turn-off Process
The turn-off process is initi:
Process is initiated by the removal of gate source voltage V gs at time
t,, because MOSFET is a majority car levic« turn-off time is the sum of tum-
\jori
} rier device. The
Turnoff delay time tay
During this peri i
bs v ey period fy, the input capacitance discharges from over drive gate
ge V) S Vsp but the drain current I) does not change.
Vet
Ma
Fig. 1.6. Switching Characteristics
Fall Time ty
During fall time ¢,
voltage Vggr- Then drain current fall from Ip
MOSFET tum-off is completed.
the input capacitance again discharges from Vgsp to threshold
to zero. So when Vgs £ Vest» POWeT
[og = tay * tr) ~
Power Etec,
[ir0]
1.2.6. Comparison between MOSFET and BJT
S.NO. MOSFET BJT ~
1. | Lower switching losses Higher switching losses
2. | More conduction losses Low conduction losses
3. _| Voltage controlled device Current controlled device
4. | Unipolar device Bipolar device
5. Positive temperature coefficient Negative temperature coefficien;,
6. | Secondary breakdown does not occur. | It has secondary breakdown
1.3. DRIVER CIRCUIT
A driver circuit needs to turn on the semiconducting devices. A MOSFET usu)
needs a gate driver to do the on/off operation at the desired frequency. For hiy
frequencies, MOSFETs require a gate drive circuit to translate the on/off signals fio;
an analog or digital controller into the power signals necessary to control th
MOSFET. Since the MOSFET is a voltage-driven device, no DC current flows int
the gate.
In order to turn on a MOSFET, a voltage higher than the rated gate threshol
voltage V'" must be applied to the gate. While in a steady on or off state. th
MOSFET gate drive basically consumes no power. The gate-source capacitance of
MOSFET seen by the driver output varies with its internal state. MOSFETs are ofter
used as switching devices at frequencies ranging from several kHz to more that
several hundreds of kHz.
The low power consumption needed for gate drive is an advantage of a MOS
as a switching device. MOSFETs designed for low-voltage drive are also available.
The basic requirements for a MOSFET drive circuit include an ability to apply a
voltage sufficiently higher than Vth to the gate and a drive capability to sufficiently
charge the input capacitance. The below figure 1.7 shows a basic MOSFET drive
circuit. Nwitehing Power Supplies 1)
Veo
o——+ ————O)
LOAD:
Veo pb
mcu T
4
GND c\ ig
s
GND
N-Channel Circuit
Fig. 1.7, N-Channel Circuit
There is a growing need for MOSFETs for switching applications (load switches)
to provide a conducting path in a circuit only when it is operated, and thereby reduce
ctly
the power consumption of electronic devices. At present, MOSFETs are
driven by a logic circuit or a microcontroller in many applications. Since turn-on and
turn-off times may be as slow as a few seconds for load switches, the MOSFET gate
can be driven with a small current. There are other ways of triggering MOSFET are
using a high-voltage device and a bootstrap circuit, Pulse transformer drive (insulated
switching), using a photo coupler and a floating power supply.
1.4, SNUBBER CIRCUITS
Snubber Circuit is a circuit consisting of series combination of resistance and
capacitance in parallel with SCR. This article describes the purpose, design and
working principle of Snubber Circuit in detail.
1.4.1. Purpose of Snubber Circuit
The main purpose of Snubber Circuit is to prevent the unwanted triggering of SCR
or thyristor due to high rate of rise of voltage ic. dv/dt, We already know that if the
rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage of SCR is high then it may lead to false
triggering, This is commonly known as dv/dt triggering. Thus we need to have some oo”
Power 1,
Ele,
1,12
arrangement to protect SCR from such undesirable turning. Application of
Circuit prevents from such spurious triggering of SCR. Thus it is basicay,
protection of SCR.
1.4.2. Design and Working Principle of Snubber Circuit
As we need to limit the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage of SCR dur
tum on process, this means we should use a capacitor the SCR terminals, Why»
is because a capacitor limits the rate of rise of voltage whereas an inductor limi,
rate of rise of current. Thus a capacitor when connected across the SCR term;,
when limit dv/dt. Let us now connect the capacitor across the SCR terminals ang
how this affects the dv/dt.
c
Discharge
Current
Vs Load
Fig. 1.8. Initial Snubber Circuit
As you can sce, we have connected capacitor C in parallel with SCR. When sw
S is closed, a sudden voltage appears across the Circuit. Initially capacitor C beh:
like a shorted path and hence the voltage across SCR is zero. But as time pas
to make improvement, As you can see, before SCR is fired or triggered by apply’ Switching Pow
Supplies (1.13)
gate pulse, the capacitor C is fully charged up to supply voltage Vs. As soon as
is tumed on by gate pulse, this charged capacitor C discharges through SCR.
Hence a current having magnitude (Vs/Resistance of loop formed by SCR and
Capacitor C) flows in the local path formed by SCR and capacitor C. Since the value
of resistance of this local path is quite small, the magnitude of discharge current will
be quite higher. This will lead to high value of di/dt which may exceed the specified
di/dt rating of SCR. In order to limit the magnitude of the discharge current, a
resistance should be connected in series with the capacitor C. This is shown below.
R c
Discharge
Current
Vs Load
Fig. 1.9. Actual Snubber Circuit
The above circuit is the actual Snubber Circuit. Thus, a snubber circuit comprises
of series combination of resistance and capacitance in parallel with SCR or thyristor.
Generally, resistance R, capacitance C and load parameters are so chosen that the
dv/dt during charging of capacitor C is less than the specified dv/dt rating of SCR and
the discharge current at the turn on of SCR is less than the specified di/dt rating.
Normally, R, C and load parameter forms an underdamped circuit so that dv/dt is
limited to acceptable value as provided by the SCR rating,
1.5. LOW POWER HIGH SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES
A switching power supply is one of the two major types of power supply design
utilized in electronics products. These power supplies are characterized by the use of precise switching that allows for designs to accommodate DC to DC, 1, ,
to DC and frequency conversions.
hing power supplies are primarily used in digital System,
computing equipment, audio equipment, nee
welding equipment and automotive ch,
Swite
telecommunication devices,
chargers, medical test devices, arc
The most common design types for switching power supplies are:
“Buck
Boost
“ Buck-Boost
Forward
Flyback
Push-Pull
Half Bridge
“» Full Bridge
1.6. BUCK CONVERTER
A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter. For a DC-DC co:
input and output voltages are both DC. It uses a power semiconductor devi:
switch to turn on and off the DC supply to the load. The switching action
implemented by a BJT, a MOSFET, or an IGBT.
i
WOT
a L +
ks
oh cm ne Vo
Ld =
Fig. 1.10.
Figure 1.10 shows a simplified block diagram of a buck converter that a°°
DC input and uses pulse-width modulation (PWM) of switching frequency !“
the switch. Switching Power
upplies
An external diode, together with external inductor and output capacitor, produces
the regulated de output. Buck, or step down converters produce an average output
voltage lower than the input source voltage.
1.6.1. Buck Converter Operation
The operation of a buck converter happens in two modes. The first mode is when
switch Q close, and the second one is when switch Q open. When switch Q closes,
current flows from the supply voltage V, through the inductor and into the load,
charging the inductor by increasing its magnetic field and increasing V,. Diode D will
be on reverse bias, thus blocking the path for current.
An inductor reduces ripple in current passing through it and the output voltage
would contain less ripple content since the current through the load resistor is the
same as that of the inductor. At the same time, the current through the inductor
increases and the energy stored in the inductor increases. When V, reaches the
desired value, switch Q is open and diode D is turned on. Figure 1.11 shows this
mode.
Vo
Ri = Vo
Fig. 1.11. Switch Q closed
When the switch Q opens, the inductor acts as a source and maintains the current
through the load resistor. During this period, the energy stored in the inductor
decreases and its current falls. Current continues to flow in the inductor through the
diode D as the magnetic field collapses and the inductor discharges.
Before the inductor completely discharges, diode D is open and Q is closed and the
cycle repeats. It is important that there is continuous conduction through the load for
this circuit. Figure 1.12 shows this mode. ON
Power ty,
“n,
Vy
Fig. 1.12, Switch Q open
1.6.2. CCM and DCM
The buck converter can operate in two different modes; continuous Condy,
mode (CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). The difference bety
the two is that in CCM the current in the inductor does not fall to zero,
A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the indy,
never falls to zero during the commutation cycle. In DCM, the current through
inductor falls to zero during part of the period. Practically, converter can Operate;
either operation modes, Figure 1.13 shows CCM and DCM mode,
ip i,
0 t 0 t
Fig. 1.13. CCM. and DCM
1.6.3. Buck Converter Duty Cycle
The ratio of output voltage, V,,,, to input voltage, Vin can be adjusted by varyi
the duty cycle of switch Q The longer Q is turned on, the greater V,,, will be. T
duty cycle of Q is usually called the converter’s duty cycle. If the switches and t
inductor are lossless, V, is Converted to V..., with no loss of power and the conversit
is 100% efficient, Figure 1.14 shows Variation of duty cycle, Duty cycle is alwa
bei F
cing Presented in Percentage value, A 60% duty cycle means the power is on 60%
the time and off 40% of the time Switching Power Supplies
Duty Cycle 10% {| il | Tl
Period
Duty Cycle 30% | rT]
Pulse
Duty Cycle 50% Width
Duty Cycle 90% | l| I l| L
Duty Cycle = Pulse Width x 100/Period
Fig. 1.14, Duty Cycle
1.7, BOOST CONVERTER
1.7.1. Definition
Boost Converters sometimes, also known as step-up choppers are the type of
chopper circuits that provides such an output voltage that is more than the supplied
input voltage. In the case of boost converters, the de to de conversion takes place in a
way that the circuit provides a high magnitude of output voltage than the magnitude
of the supply input.
It is given the name ‘boost’ because the obtained output voltage is higher than the
input voltage. Boost converters are the ones that perform a reverse operation of the
buck converter. Due to the type of operation performed by boost converters, these are
referred to as step-up choppers.
1.7.2. Operating Principle of Boost Converter
The figure given below is the circuit representation of the boost converter:
Fig. 1.15. ON
Power 1
Key,
(313)
The circuit here is an elementary form of step-up chopper which eg
requires a large inductor L in series connection td Me voltage source, The
circuit arrangement operates in a way that it helps in maintaining a Tegulateg i.
at the output.
Let us understand how the given circuit operates in oo to provide AM ing,
de signal at the load. Initially, when the chopper CH is in on State, then ‘
presence of supply dc input current begins to flow through the closeq Path ,.
circuit i.e., passing through the inductor as shown in the figure below, :
Fig. 1.16.
Here, the polarity of the inductor will be according to the direction of the flo;
current. In this particular case, the diode in the configuration is in Teverse bi;
condition and so current will not be allowed to flow through that particular Part of
circuit during on state of the chopper. Resultantly, the voltage across the chopper
appear across the load, Switching Power Supplies
Furthermore, at the nt when CH is rt of the circuit
through which the current was flowing carlicr will not be active in this case.
in the off state, then the pa
However, as the inductor stores, the energy in the form of a magnetic field and so the
current through it will not dic out instantly. Also, we know according to Lenz's law a
reverse current will be induced that will oppose the cause which has produced it. And
so, duc to the induced current, the polarity of the inductor will get reversed. This
reverse polarity of the inductor forward biases the diode present in the circuit. This
provides the path for the current through the diode that flows through the load during
the off state of the chopper i.e., Tyg. However, we must note here that the current
through the inductor is of decreasing nature and will die out after a point in time.
Thus, the total voltage across the load will be given as:
Vou = Vin + Vi
This means that the output voltage exceeds the applied input voltage. Thus,
performs step-up conversion as the energy stored within the inductor during the Toa
period is released during the T,, period.
During the T,, period, the voltage across the inductor will be given as:
V=L at
Let us have a look at the waveform representation of the step-up chopper shown
below:
During the Ty, period, the current through the inductor will change from i, to iy
this is clearly shown above. While during the T.y period, the inductor current will
change from i, to i. Now, talking about voltage, so during the turn-on period, the
voltage across the inductor will be equal to the supply input voltage. But when CH
gets off then on applying KVL in the figure shown below, we will get,
Vi = VotVin=0
This means,
Vi = Vo-Vin
Considering that output current is varying linearly, the energy input provided by
the source to the inductor, when CH is on, is given as:
Won = (voltage across the inductor)(average current through — the
inductor)(average current through the inductor) Von, Fig. 1.18. Waveform Representation
| oy (ith
Wo = Vin 2 Toy
Further, the energy that the inductor releases to the load When CH is off is give
as:
Wor = (voltage across the inductor) (avers:
current through the inductor) To,
. iy +i.
Wor = Voa~Vie(! +) Tor
Fora lossless system, comparing the two energies, we will have,
4) iy +i
viel PJ Ton = Vou-Viq (3) Tort
Vin Ten = Vou Tot Vin Tort
Vout Tot = Win Ton + Vin Tort itching Power Supplies
ee
Vout
wt = Vin (Ton
Since we know, T= Tyy + Tygs therefore,
1
Vout Vin TT,
T Ton
GF )
a 1
Vou = -Vin ia =a]
Thus, we can conclude here that the average load voltage can be stepped up with
the change in the duty cycle.
1.8. BUCK BOOST CONVERTER
It is a type of DC to DC converter and it has a magnitude of output voltage. It may
be more or less than equal to the input voltage magnitude. The buck boost converter
is equal to the fly back circuit and single inductor is used in the place of the
transformer. There are two types of converters in the buck boost converter that are
buck converter and the other one is boost converter. These converters can produce the
range of output voltage than the input voltage. The following diagram shows the basic
buck boost converter.
1.8.1. Working principle of Buck-Boost Converter
The working operation of the DC to DC converter is the inductor in the input
resistance has the unexpected variation in the input current. If the switch is ON then
the inductor feed the energy from the input and it stores the energy of magnetic
energy. If the switch is closed it discharges the energy. The output circuit of the
capacitor is assumed as high sufficient than the time constant of an RC circuit is high
on the output stage. The huge time constant is compared with the switching period
and make sure that the steady state is a constant output voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant)
and present at the load terminal. Powe)
Clr,
t types of working principles in the
(1.22) a
——_ buck boost Convery
There are two different
> Buck converter,
> Boost converter.
1.8.2. Buck Converter Working
ti ii i ys the working ope!
The following diagram shows the wor aaa
buck converter first transistor is turned ON and second transistor Is switched Or,
If the gate terminal of the first transistor is mo,,,
ration of the buck converte, hy
to high square wave frequency. . a faa
the current pass through the magnetic field, charging C, and it supplies the logy 7
D1 is the Schottky diode and it is tuned OFF due to the positive voltage 1, i
cathode,
Fig. 1.19. Buck Converter Working
The inductor L is the initial source of current. If the first transistor is OFF by usin,
the control unit then the current flow in the buck operation. The magnetic field of th
inductor is collapsed and the back e.m.f is generated collapsing field turn around th
polarity of the voltage across the inductor. The current flows in the diode D2, the loa.
and the D1 diode will be turned ON.
The discharge of the inductor L decreases with the help of the current. During th:
first transistor is in one state the charge of the accumulator in the capacitor. Th:
current flows through the load and during the off period keeping V,,, reasonabl:
Hence it keeps the minimum ripple amplitude and Vou Closes to the value of V,
1.8.3. Boost Converter Working
In this converter the first transistor is switched ON continually and for the secon’
transistor the square wave of high frequency is applied to the gate terminal. The
Second transistor is in conducting when the on state and the input current flow from
the inductor L through the second transistor. The negative terminal charging up the Switching Power Supplies 23
magnetic field around the inductor. The D2 diode cannot ‘conduct because the anode
is on the potential ground by highly conducting the second transistor.
ut D1
:
oc +
Input G pc
| ILQRE 3 ou
9 an Vout > Vin
. =
MOSFET
driving switch
Fig. 1.20. Boost Converter Working
By charging the capacitor C the load is applied to the entire circuit in the ON State
and it can construct earlier oscillator cycles. During the ON period the capacitor C
can discharge regularly and the amount of high ripple. frequency on the output
voltage. The approximate potential difference is given by the equation below.
VstV
During the OFF period of second transistor the inductor L is charged and the
capacitor C is discharged. The inductor L can produce the back e.m.f and the values
are depending up on the rate of change of current of the second transistor switch. The
amount of inductance the coil can occupy. Hence the back e.m.f can produce any
different voltage through a wide range and determined by the design of the circuit.
Hence the polarity of voltage across the inductor L has reversed now.
The input voltage gives the output voltage and atleast equal to or higher than the
input voltage. The diode D, is in forward biased and the current applied to the load
current and it recharges the capacitors to Vs + V, and it is ready for the second
transistor.
1.8.4. Modes of Buck Boost Converters
There are two different types of modes in the buck boost converter. The following
are the two different types of buck boost converters.
** Continuous conduction mode.
“+ Discontinuous conduction mode. oN
Power Fie
i ide
tinuous Conduction Mot :
Cont tinuous conduction mode the current from end to end OF induct,
‘ 7 - a
oon a the inductor partially discharges earlier than the SWitching o
goes to zero.
in this mode the current through the inductor goes to zero. Hence the ing c
tally di id of switching cycles.
totally discharge at the end of s1 c
Discharge
Current
Vs Load
Fig. 1.21. Discontinuous Conduction Mode
AS you can see,
S is closed, a sudden Voltage appears across the
we have connected Capacitor C in parallel with SCR, When swit
circuit, Initially capacitor C behav
one problem. Let us 80 deep into the above circ
See, before SCR is fired or triggered by applyin
charged up to supply voltage Vs, As soon as SC!
this charged Capacitor C discharges through SCR. Hence
(Vs/Resistance of loop formed by SCR and Capacitor €
med by SCR and capacitor C. Since the value of resistan®
© small, the magnitude of discharge current will be quit
Gate pulse, the Capacitor C jg fully
1S tumed on by Bale pulse,
Current having magnitude
flows in the local path for;
Of this local Path is quit ing Power Supplies
higher. This will lead to high value of di/dt which may exceed the specified di/dt
rating of SCR. In order to limit the magnitude of the discharge current, a resistance
should be connected in series with the capacitor C. This is shown below.
R c
Discharge
Current
s
Vs Load
Fig. 1.22. Actual Snubber Circuit
The above circuit is the actual Snubber Circuit. Thus, a snubber circuit comprises
of series combination of resistance and capacitance in parallel with SCR or thyristor.
Generally, resistance R, capacitance C and load parameters are so chosen that the
dy/dt during charging of capacitor C is less than the specified dv/dt rating of SCR and
the discharge current at the tum on of SCR is less than the specified di/dt rating.
Normally, R, C and load parameter forms an underdamped circuit so that dv/dt is
limited to acceptable value as provided by the SCR rating.
1.9. ISOLATED TOPOLOGIES
In power electronics, the term "isolated topology" refers to a circuit configuration
that provides electrical isolation between input and output. It is commonly used in
applications where safety, noise immunity, or voltage transformation is required.
In an isolated topology, a transformer or an isolation device is typically used to
provide the necessary isolation between the input and output sides of the circuit. The
transformer ensures that there is no direct electrical connection between the input and
output, preventing the flow of electrical current and minimizing the risk of electrical
shock and damage to equipment. 7
1.26 Power Plectray,
Isolated topologies are often used in power supply designs, where they alloy,
the conversion of voltage levels and provide galvanic isolation between the iny
Power source and the load. They can also be found in motor drives, inver.,
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and many other power electronic applicatiy,,
Some commonly used isolated topologies in power electronics include:
1, Flyback Converter: The flyback converter is a popular isolated topology
uses a transformer to store energy during the switch-on period and transfer
to the output during the switch-off period. It is commonly used in Joy, ,
-medium power applications.
2. Forward Converter: The forward converter is another isolated topology th,
utilizes a transformer to transfer energy from the input to the output. It Offer
higher efficiency and power density compared to the flyback converter and j
often used in medium to high power applications.
3. Full-Bridge Convertcr: The full-bridge converter uses a bridge rectifier ay
a full-bridge inverter configuration along with a transformer to achicy
isolation. It is capable of delivering higher power levels and is common
used in applications such as motor drives and UPS systems.
4. Half-Bridge Converter: The half-bridge converter is similar to the ful
bridge converter but uses only two active switches instead of four. It provide
isolation and is commonly used in medium-power applications.
These are just a few examples of isolated topologies in power electronics. Fach
topology has its own advantages, disadvantages, and Suitability for specifi
applications. The choice of the isolated topology depends on factors such as powe
level, efficiency requirements, cost constraints, and the desired level of isolation.
1.10. RESONANT CONVERTER
The resonant technique is used to reduce the switching losses in the semiconductw
devices. There are many resonant topologies available, such as:
** Series resonant converter
** Parallel resonant converter
* LLC resonant converter Switching Power Supplies
The first two topologies cannot be optimized for the wide input voltage range and
wide output load variation, The LLC resonant converter is capable of reducing
switching losses at wide input voltage range, and minimizes the
irculating cnergy at
high input voltage. Turn off losses can be minimized by reducing the turn-off current
through the switch and zero voltage switching (ZVS), thereby climinating turn-on
losses. Therefore, the LLC resonant converter provides negligible switching losses at
high switching frequency even at high input voltage variation range.
1.10.1. Series Resonant Converter (SRC)
In a series resonant converter (SRC), resonant tank elements (the inductor LR and
the capacitor CR), are connected in series with the transformer primary.
a | =a Resonant
4
wy aa
WwW
So] ne,
th
nti
Da
Fig. 1.23. Series Resonant Converter (SRC)
The resonant tank is used to shape the primary current as sinusoidal, and to reduce
the current value flowing through the switch at its transition period, thereby reducing
the switching losses. In a power MOSFET, zero voltage switching is preferred as
compared to zero current switching.
Therefore, the operating switching frequency, more than the resonant tank
frequency, is preferred for this type of converter to achieve ZVS. The operating
frequency increases to a very high value at light load (Q = 0) to keep the output
voltage regulated. 7
—f
POW Fe,
DC CHARACTERISTICS
DC Galn Charactorlatic of SRC
10 -—J Mih = 300y
a
Qe2ZRr Oporation Region
VV AN
| 0.8 —
| Vjn= 400v
06
§
8 %
4 7
okey
b: g
02 4
—
| 6” -—
=
09
04 06 0.8 1.0 1.2 14 1.6
{s/f
Fig. 1.24, DC Gain Characteristics of SRC
At low input Voltage, the converter is oj
input voltage increases, the converter sho
away from the resonant frequency,
energy in the resonant tank,
perating close to resonant frequency, As |
uld operate at a higher switching frequen
thereby increasing more and more circulati
signed to be more than the resonant tar
frequency,
Compared to SRC, the Operatin;
In 4 parall er, since the load is in parallel with the reson!
ae eve © resonant tank offers very small impedance to the inp
which induces g very high circulation energy. Given the above analysis, we ¢#
'8 region is much smaller at a light load (Q = »),
lel resonant Convert
Nat no load, thi Switching Power Supplies (1.29
determine that a parallel resonant converter is not a good choice for a front end DC-
DC converier
‘The major problems are: high circulating energy and high turn-off current at high
input voltage conditions.
Qa; Q,
iat date
Ls
L an SY a
Qs Q J uy
th Gs | cae sr
TAs) dee
Fig. 1.25.
DC CHARACTERISTICS :
Qmin ZVS REGION
ZVS REGION REGION 2
REGION 1
GAIN
Qmax.
ZCS REGION s
A REGION 3
20 50 400 150 200 250 300
Frequency [kHz]
Fig. 1.26.
1.10.3. LLC Resonant Converter Operation
LLC resonant converter operation can be divided into two time intervals. In
the first interval, the inductor LR, resonant with the capacitor CR and inductor LM, is ON
1.30 Power Electy,
Oy
clamped with the output Voltage. Resonance of LR and CR is stopped when, the,
Tesonant current is equal to the LM current, after which LM will Contribute 7
Tesonanee and the second interval begins. During this interval, the
components will change to CR and LM in series with LR (see the flat Tegion j
+ Therefore, the LLC resonant converter is a multi-resonant converter
Tesonant frequency at particular time intervals is different. The detailed ope;
the LLC resonant converter, as shown in Figure, can be broken down i
modes. At the initial condition, t = t0, the description of the LLC resonant Conve,
operation begins at the conclusion of one power transfer cycle. This Occurs afte, ,
Tesonant tank delivering power to the load with switch Q2 is conductin,
iB. T
Tesonant current (when Q2 is conducting) flowing through the inductor is Negative
indicated in Figure
€S0,
nF;
ince ,
ation
Into th,
Mode 1
t0
