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Lab 11 – Evolution 2024

Personal Protective Equipment Requirements
Instructor Safety Gloves Fume
Demo Glasses Nitrile Hood
Instructor Lab Coat Gloves Bio Hood
Always Heavy

Learning Objectives
After completing this lab, students should be able to:
1. Collect and analyze factual evidence for use in determining
evolutionary relationships among species
2. Use morphology to trace the evolutionary changes in anatomy
Preparation:
Bio 103 text: Campbell Biology, 12e, Chapter 26.
Come to lab with written definitions for these essential evolutionary
terms:.
Binomial Taxon
nomenclature
Systematics Homology
Phylogeny Classificati
on
Morphology Phenotype
DNA Protein
Distal Plantigrad
e
Proximal Digitigrad
e
Cursorial Unguligrad
e
Introduction
Evolution is the process of change that occurs in populations through
time and over generations. Evolutionary theory provides a logical
explanation for the specialized characteristics we discover in fossils and
living organisms. These characteristics are the result of natural selection by
the environment for attributes that are most adaptive and lead to
reproductive success. In this laboratory, we will examine morphological and
molecular evidence of evolution by looking at factual data. Because
evolution is a process of slow change, we cannot see it happening.
Therefore, we must infer the past based on the factual evidence we can
find. Evolutionary biology is the study of evidence from past and present
organisms in an effort to reconstruct the evolutionary history of taxonomic
groups. This phylogeny is often presented as a tree in which the branches
indicate points of divergence from common ancestors.
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In our application of scientific inquiry, we will examine the kinds of

evidence used to reconstruct evolutionary history. As a concept, evolution is
the scientific explanation for the origin and diversity of life forms based on
descriptive and quantitative evidence. Because we cannot relive the past,
evolutionary history is theoretical. Because there may be conflicts in the
interpretation of the data, phylogenies are often debated and reconstructed
when new data are discovered.
Evolution can be documented with different categories of evidence.
These categories (biogeography, fossils, comparative anatomy, comparative
embryology and molecular biology) are described in your textbook. In this
laboratory, we will concentrate on using morphology (comparative anatomy
and fossils) to reconstruct the phylogeny (evolutionary history) of extant
(living) organisms.
The current hierarchical classification system reflects phylogeny. Review
Chaptr 26 from Campbell Biology, 12 ed, which illustrates the connection
h

between phylogeny and taxonomy. Organisms with similar phylogenies fall

into similar taxonomic categories. For example, badgers and otters share
more characteristics in common than either shares with wolves or coyotes.
Animals that share characteristics are placed in the same taxon: badgers and
otters are in the Family Mustelidae and wolves and coyotes are in the Family
Canidae. Figure 26.5 shows that animals in both families share more
characteristics in common than either does with any of the cats; therefore,
biologists believe they are at the branch point, Likewise, because the
Canidae have some features similar to the Felidae, a probable common
ancestor would be an extinct carnivore. Consequently, they are both grouped
into the Order Carnivora.
Biologists have traditionally used the comparative anatomy of
homologous traits to determine relatedness and consequently evolutionary
history of species. Changes in limb lengths or leaf sizes over time can show
how closely related species are. With growing databases of DNA sequences,
scientists can investigate relatedness using a molecular data, either DNA or
amino acid sequences. When results from different investigations yield the
same or similar results, the relationships they indicate are considered to be
much more likely. For this week’s lab, we will be examining only
morphological characteristics.
Hypothesis for this laboratory investigation:
The evolutionary history of species can be constructed from traditional
morphological evidence: anatomical features of dissected specimens,
embryos and fossils.

Part 1: Taxonomy based on morphology

1. Systematics
Carolus Linnaeus (aka Carl von Linné) (1707-1778) developed the
hierarchical classification system that forms the basis of all taxonomy in
biology today. Linnaeus organized similar looking organisms into taxonomic
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groups based on their anatomy (morphology). Biologists today use these

same morphological features to describe relationships among organisms that
share features that they had inherited from their ancestors (homologous
characteristics). From these shared features, biologists construct
phylogenetic trees.
The hierarchical classification system has seven levels: Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. Because adaptation is
usually continuous, there are many intermediate forms and intermediate
taxonomic levels (subphylum, superclass, etc.).

Use the information in your textbook to classify humans in the Answer Sheet.
Table 12.1. Classification of humans
- Kingdom ________________________________
- Phylum _______________________________
- Subphylum __________________________
- Class ____________________________
- Order __________________________
- Family _______________________
- Genus _____________________
- Species __________________

Linnaeus also defined the scientific name for every organism because
many organisms were referred to by more than one common name, making
it difficult for scientists to communicate accurately about specific organisms.
The scientific name consists of the genus and the specific epithet, also
referred to as binomial nomenclature (“two names”). For humans, the
scientific name is Homo sapiens. Note that the genus name is always
capitalized and the species name is never capitalized, both are italicized or
underlined.

Look up two species in your textbook and write their common name and
scientific name in Table 12.2 in your Laboratory 12 Answer Sheet. It is
important that you use the appropriate spelling and format.
Table 12.2 Applying scientific nomenclature
Common Scientific name (Genus and specific
name: epithet):

Part 2: Constructing a Phylogeny using Morphological Traits

How to draw a phylogenetic tree

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A phylogram is a hypothesis representing the evolutionary history of the

species whose skulls are being examined. The similarities and differences
that you see in these three skulls are the kinds of features that Linnaeus
used to place species in their taxonomic groups. Because evolutionary
relationships are also determined by the degree of similarity found in these
anatomical features, evolutionary history can be inferred from the
similarities found in homologous characteristics. Homologous traits are
those that have been inherited from a common ancestor. Through the
process of descent with modification, these traits may look different because
they have become modified for special purposes.
When you construct a phylogeny, you will either be given or create a
character table like the one in Figure 26.12a. You then put the most similar
species together in a phylogenetic tree like that in Figure 26.12b. Note that
the appearance of each trait is also indicated on the phylogenetic tree and
you want parsimony, meaning the fewest of those traits appearing or
disappearing as possible. An outgroup is a more distantly related species
that has ancestral characteristics for all traits; this serves as a comparison.

Figure 26.12 from Campbell Biology

Primate Phylogeny from Skulls
Complete the phylogeny scoring table for selected primates in Table
12.4 below by compiling morphological data from skulls. The table already
provides some data, including that from teeth, which fossilize well and are
thus very useful features. Some parts of the table are filled in for you.

1. Complete Postorbital Bar and Orbital Closure

The postorbital bar connects the frontal bone (your forehead) to the
zygomatic arch (your cheek bone). This provides increased stability of vision
to the animal. The postorbital bar may also be incomplete, with a gap.
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Postorbital closure is when there is a plate of bone behind the eye tissue; in
its absence, you can see straight through the postorbital bar.

Figure 12.1: from Kay et al. 1997, Science. A shows a complete

postorbital bar with no orbital closure. B shows a complete postorbital bar
with orbital closure.

2. Dental Traits
Mammals are heterodonts, meaning they have different types of teeth:
incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. Incisors and canines are generally
for biting off food, while premolars and molars process food. Canines also
can vary in shape; the typical form we think of comes from a carnivore; the
tooth is long and conical in shape. Canines can be reduced, however, causing
them to appear more like the incisors- not conical, smaller.
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Figure 12.2: To the left, a dog with canines (from:

https://www.wonderweimsrescue.com/dog-teeth-cleaning-dental-care/). To the right,
a human with reduced, incisor-like canine (from:
http://bodterms.weebly.com/canine-tooth.html).
Examine a cat, number of primate species, including humans and a
close (extinct) relative of humans; Neanderthals. Primates, including
humans, are in the same order; primates and cats are in the common Family
Mammalia. What purpose does the cat serve in the phylogram?

Fill in Table 12.4 below (0 for absence of trait, 1 for presence), using the
descriptions above. Some traits that are more difficult to determine are
already filled in.

Table 12.4: Phylogeny scoring

Species 1. Complete 2. 3. 4. Canine is conical and

postorbital Postorbital Loss sharp (yes = 0; no = 1,
bar Closure of tail will look like incisor)
Baboon 0 0
Cat 0 0 0 0
Chimp 1 0
Human 1 1
Lemur 0 0
Neandert 1 1
hal

A common misunderstanding in evolution is that humans evolved from

chimpanzees. Use your phylogeny to explain why this is incorrect.

Next, consider Homo ergaster, a likely common ancestor to humans and

Neanderthals. Based on this likely common ancestry, fill in your hypothesis
about the appearance of each trait for this species before you look at the
skull.

Table 12.5 Phylogeny scoring for H. ergaster

Species 1. Complete 2. Postorbital 3. Loss 4. Canine is
postorbital bar Closure of Tail conical and
sharp
Homo
ergaster
Were your hypotheses supported? Explain. (note: some traits may not be
able to be tested based on the skull given, it is a fragmentary fossil, indicate
what traits you could not test). The specimen will appear as though pieces
have been put together, with black parts representing missing pieces.
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Describe a trait (not one that you have already been given) that each pair
has in common with one another, but not the third: a) human and
Neanderthal; b) human and Homo ergaster; c) Homo ergaster and
Neanderthal.

Part 3. Stride Length and Leg Morphology

Running speed became very important for the mammals that were the
prey of carnivorous mammals. An animal’s speed is controlled by its stride
length and stride rate. A single stride equals one full cycle of a single step. If
we consider the movement of a single limb, from the point from where the
foot leaves the ground until that same foot makes contact with the ground
again is a stride. The linear distance, between the point where the foot left
the ground and the point at which it again contacted the ground, is the stride
length. If we multiply the stride length by the number of strides per minute,
we can calculate the animal’s speed. Animals with greater stride length can
generally out-run animals with smaller stride length.

Effective limb length is measured as the distance from the center of the
head of the humerus or femur to the bottom of the first limb bone in contact
with the ground. The effective limb length is directly influenced by the
length of the limb bones and by foot posture. For example, all limb bones
being equal in length, an animal that normally stands on its toes (as do
horses and deer) will have a greater effective limb length than an animal
which normally stands on the flat of the foot (as do humans).

One way to increase stride length is to increase the length of the limbs
relative to other body dimensions. Proximal bones are those that are close
to the center of the body; distal bones are those that are further from the
center of the body. If the stride length can be increased by lengthening the
limbs, it is more efficient to increase the length of the lighter, distal bones
than the heavy proximal limb bones. In addition, a reduction in number
(through natural selection) of the distal bones would further decrease the
mass that must be moved during each stride. Consider this question: Which
can you swing more quickly with one hand, a baseball bat or a fishing rod?

Figure 12.3 below illustrates the amount of the foot that is in contact
with the ground during standing and the differences in length of leg
components for several species. Notice that animals that have experienced
increases in the length of the distal limb bones also tend to have a smaller
area of the foot in contact with the ground when they stand. Slower animals
(e.g., bears, raccoons, humans) are plantigrade, that is, the entire foot from
toes to heel is on the ground as the animal stands. Digitigrade cursorial
animals, however, stand on the ball of their foot with the heel off the
ground. Unguligrade, hoofed, animals (ungulates) stand on the tips of their
toes and have lost some toes as part of this adaptation.
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Figure 12.3 Foot Posture of the Hind Leg in Several Vertebrates.

Foot posture image:
https://sites.google.com/a/upei.ca/locomotion/home/cursorial

As you can see in Figure 12.3, the ungulate leg has evolved to create a
greater stride length for these animals. At the same time, by reducing the
number of toes and increasing the length of the distal portion of the leg,
effective limb length has also increased. The earliest ungulates had four
toes. As these ancestors of the modern ungulates became separated into
different parts of the world, natural selection favored continued increases in
stride length and running speed. One group, the perissodactyls (odd-toed
ungulates) evolved into horses (see Figure 25.29, Campbell Biology 12 th

edition) whereas other ungulates became isolated geographically and

evolved into artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates). As these two groups
continued to remain reproductively isolated from each other (that is, they did
not interbreed and produce hybrids), differences in their DNA also
developed. Consequently, if we look at the DNA of living ungulates, one
would expect similarity among the artiodactyls but differences between the
artiodactyls and the perissodactyls.
Many animals depend on their ability to run for survival. These animals
may be either predators or ungulate herbivores. Animals with adaptations
that increase their running speed and efficiency are considered cursorial
animals. If we expect to correlate anatomical features with running ability,
we must be able to identify some advantage in being able to run so that the
better runners will leave more surviving offspring. An organism that leaves
more offspring than another is said to have a greater fitness. Any
adaptations that increase an organism’s fitness are said to be selective
advantages.
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Appendage lengths and ratios in relation to stride and running

speed.
Calculate the relative size of the distal limb segments: measure the
length of the appendage of three different specimens in the lab and also
measure the length of the distal portion (tarsal to tip of phalanges). You
three specimens will be: cat OR dog, human, pig OR horse. Divide the distal
segment length by the total leg length (socket of hip to phalanges); this ratio
should increase as stride and running speed ability of the animal increases.
Complete table 12.6 below on your Laboratory 12 Answer Sheet.

Table 12.6 Data from three species

Species Which – Metatarsals flat on Proportion of metatarsals and
grade? the ground? tarsals to whole leg
Human
Cat OR
dog
Horse OR
pig

This table below will help you calculate the Proportion above, but will not be
on your Answer Sheet.

Species Length of Length of Length of Metatarsals Total

Upper Leg Lower Leg and Tarsals (ankle and Length of
(femur) (Tibia) (cm) arch of foot on humans) Leg (cm)
(cm) (cm)
Human
Cat OR
dog
Horse
OR pig

On your Answer Sheet, write a brief statement comparing the three

foot postures and relate them to vertebrate locomotion. Speculate on how
each adaptation might relate to the ecology of the animal.