Science Review

Chemistry
❖ 5.1 From Particles to Solutions
➢ Particle Theory of Matter
▪ All matter is made up of tiny particle with spaces between them
▪ Different substances have different particles
▪ Particles are in constant random motion
▪ Particles move faster as temperature increases
▪ Particles attract one another
➢ Pure Substances vs Mixture vs Alloy
▪ Pure Substance
• Particles that make up the substance are the same
 They have constant composition
✓ Elements and Compounds may combine to be a pure substance
➢ Mixture
▪ A substance made of at least two or more different particles
• Mechanical Mixture-you can see the difference
 Salt and Water
• Solution
 Uniform mixture (evenly spaced particles) of two or more substances
✓ Solute dissolved in solvent
➢ Alloys
▪ A solid solution of two or more metals
➢ Elements
▪ A pure substance that can’t be broken down simpler
▪ Smallest particle is an atom
▪ Ex; Symbol (capital then lower case) O Oxygen
➢ Compounds
▪ Two or more elements that are pure substances together in fixed proportions
• Have chemical formulas
 Smallest particle is a molecule
✓ No number by a compound means it has 1 ex; H2O O=1
❖ 5.2 Physical Properties
➢ A characteristic of a substance that can be found without changing it
➢ Simple observations of a substance using your senses, colour, shape or measuring
➢ There are two types of Physical Characteristics
▪ Quantitative
• A property that involves a number
▪ Qualitative
• A property that’s not measured
➢ Examples of Physical Properties are
▪ Lustre-shininess
▪ Brittleness-Breakability

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 ➢ Physical Changes
❖ A change where the substances composition(particles) do not change
➢ Ex, ripping a paper, dissolving sugar into water as it can be removed.
❖ 5.3 Chemical Properties
➢ A chemical property is determined when the composition(particles) of a substance change
➢ A chemical property describes the substances ability to change to make a new substance
➢ Substances are reactants and they react to produce new substances(products) in a reaction
➢ All substances have chemical properties
➢ Chemical Change
▪ A change in the substance(s) and the production of a new one(s)
▪ During a chemical change the components (particles are moved into new positions) to make a
new one
➢ Clues to Determine Chemical Change
▪ A change in colour (has a different colour)
▪ A change in odor (creates a smell)
▪ A gas or bubble is produced (a new substance in the form of a gas)
▪ A solid forms (does not dissolve, forms a precipate)
• Precipate is a solid that separates from a solution without dissolving
▪ Releases heat or light (energy is released or absorbed)
❖ 5.6 Characteristic Physical Properties
➢ A physical Characteristic Property is unique to a substance and can identify it
➢ There are certain properties unique to pure substances (highly specific)
▪ Density
▪ Melting and freezing point
▪ Boling point
➢ Density
▪ A measure of how much mass is contained in the given unit of volume of a substance
• Calculated by dividing mass by volume
▪ So density is the ration between mass and volume
▪ Common units used are
• g/cm3=solids
• g/ml=liquids
▪ The density of a substance is related to the mass of the particles of which the substance is
composed
• Same sized container can have a different density
▪ Density can increase due to pressure and temperature
▪ Temperature and pressure do not have much affect on solids and liquids for density
➢ Freezing Melting and Boiling Point
▪ Freezing: the temperature at which a substances changes state from liquid to solid
▪ Melting: the temperature at which a substance changes state from solid to liquid
• Melting and freezing point are the same for a substance
▪ These are physical characteristic properties
➢ Water
▪ Water is the only substance in which its solid form floats on its liquid because its less dense

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 ▪ Waters freezing point and boiling point can be manipulated with salt
❖ 6.1 A table of Elements
➢ Is used as a quick reference to determine if a substance is pure
➢ Elements: a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any simpler chemical substance
➢ Compounds
▪ A pure substance composed of 2 or more different elements that are chemically joined
▪ Elements and symbols
• Ag=Silver
• Capital letter and then lowercase the capital is the start of a new element
➢ Things to remember
▪ Elements are the building blocks for all substances
▪ Elements are combined to form Compounds but only certain can occur
➢ Different types of Elements
▪ Metals
▪ Metalloids
▪ Non-metals
➢ Metals
▪ An element that is lustrous, mailable and ductile
▪ Also conducts heat and electricity well
➢ Non-metals
▪ An element usually gas or a dull powdery solid that does not conduct electricity well
➢ Metalloids
▪ An element that has properties of both metals and non-metals
➢ Some elements have lustre and look metallic others do not
➢ Some elements have a white coating and no lustre but when cut open they do/can
❖ 6.4 Patterns in the periodic table
➢ All elements in the same column have the same qualities (physical and chemical)
➢ Chemical Families
▪ A column or group of elements with similar properties
▪ Alkali metals-1
• Soft
• Silvery
• Shiny
• Very reactive
▪ Alkali Earth Metals-2
• Shiny
• Silvery
• Hard
• Very reactive
▪ Hallogens-17
• Non-metals
• Very reactive to anything but especially 1 and 2
▪ Nobel Gases-18
• Stable

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 • Non-reactive
➢ Periods are horizontal
➢ Groups are vertical
➢ Trends
▪ As you go down the periodic table (column) the atom gets larger
▪ Larger= more reactive
▪ Group 1 is more reactive than 2
➢ History of the periodic table
▪ By Dmitri Mendeleev
▪ 63 known elements
▪ He noticed patterns and left blank spaces which
▪ Organized by atomic mass
➢ Current Periodic Table
▪ Organized by atomic number and there are over 113
❖ 6.6 Theories of the Atom
➢ Theory-an expression to understand a natural phenomenon with evidence
➢ Evolution of Atomic Theory
▪ Atom-The smallest unit of an element
▪ Proton-A positively charged particle of the atom in the nucleus
▪ Neutron-A neutral particle of the atom in the nucleus
▪ Electron-A Negatively charged particle of the atom
➢ [Link] Particle – Democritus
▪ Matter can be divided smaller and smaller until the atom is reached
• The atom is
 Different sizes
 Constant Motion
 Separated by empty spaces
➢ [Link] water air and fire – Airstole
▪ All matter was made up of earth water air or fire
▪ Each have unique qualities dry wet cold and hot
▪ Accepted for over 2000 years
➢ [Link] Ball Model - Dalton
▪ 1807
▪ Democritus revived
▪ Matter was the same particles (identical atoms)
▪ Supported why objects were attracted to each other while others repealed
▪ All matter cane be broken to an atom
▪ All matter is tiny indivisible particles called atom
▪ Atoms of one element are identical
▪ Atoms of different elements are different
▪ Atoms are arranged to from new substances in chemical reactions, but they can never be
created of destroyed
➢ [Link] – Thompson
▪ 1897

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 ▪ Discovered small negative particle
▪ Negative was attracted to positive in a circuit
▪ So negative and positive were attracted
▪ Atoms contain negatively charged electrons
▪ Atoms are neutral the rest is positively charged sphere
▪ Negatively charged electrons are evenly distributed through the sphere
➢ [Link] Foil – Rutherford
▪ 1909
▪ Believed the negative and positive were evenly placed
▪ The test proved that the positive particles moved pass the atom
➢ 6. Chadwick
▪ 1932
▪ Found a particle that could penetrate and disintegrate atoms
▪ They have no charge, so they must be in the atom as well
▪ An atom must be an empty sphere with a tiny dense centre
▪ The nucleus contains positive and neutral (neutrons)
▪ Negative move in the empty space around rapidly
▪ Neutral atom has the same number of protons and electrons
➢ Electrons Orbit – Bohr
▪ Studies hydrogen and its chemical reaction
▪ When a light is shined through a prism a rainbow is seen
▪ Bohr excited hydrogen with heat and produced a few colours
▪ When light is produced from hydrogen only a few colours are seen
▪ Bohr’s theory stated
• Electrons orbit around the nucleus of the atom
• Each electron has a finite amount of energy
• The further the electron is from the nucleus the greater the energy
• Electrons cannot be between orbits, but they can move from one to the other
❖ 6.7 Explaining the Periodic Table
➢ Atomic Number
➢ The number of Protons in the necleus of the atom
➢ Daltons Atomic theory is that the atoms of each element are different
➢ Atoms are unique because the number of protons in the necleus
• The current periodic table is organized by incresing atomic number
• Matter is neither created nor destroyed only rearranged
• Therefore copper+tin=gold cannot work
• Protons are tightly combined within the necleus of the atom. they cannot be combined with
another atoms necleus to form new atoms
• Mass Number and Atomic Numbers
• Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons found in the necleus
• Atomic Mass:the mass of the atom in the atomic mass units(u)
• An atom is made up of mostly empty space. Electrons are found in this empty space and make
up very little mass
• The mass of an atom is found within the necleus yet the necleus takes up very little space

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 • Ex; lithium has an atomic mass of 6.941 u but to find the neutons you must round to 7. Atomic
mass is the number of neutrons 7-3=4=number of neutrons
• Isotopes
• An atom with the same number of protons but a differrent number of neutrons
• If not told which to use round
• Determining the number of neutrons for Isotopes
• Lithium 6
♦ 6u
➢ 6-3=3
▪ The True Atomic Mass
▪ The true atomic mass of lithium is not a whole number but a combination of Lithium 6 and 7
▪ This is the average weight of the two isotopes
▪ Bohr Rutherford Diagrams
▪ A simple drawing that shows the numbers and locations of a sub atomic particle
▪ There area maximum of two electrons in the first ring and in every ring after it is 8
▪ Atomic number is Protons and electrons
▪ No specific elecron placement
▪ Ex; Be(berylium)protons=4 Eelctrons=4 Neutrons=9-4=5
❖ 7.1 Putting Atoms Together
▪ Molecule; two or more atoms of the same or different elements that are chemically joined
together in a unit (interaction of electrons)
▪ Chemical Formula ;Notatio that indecates the type and number of atoms in a pure
substance
▪ Matter
• Everything is made up of matter, but not induvidual atoms
• Matter is made up of combinations of atoms bonded together
• Atoms bonded together form molecules and compounds
• Molecules (non-metal and non-metal)
• Molecular elements are when two or more of the same element are bonded together
• Molecular compounds are when two or more of the same element are bonded together
• A molecule consisting of atoms of the same element
• There are many molecuar elements consisting of two of the same atoms bonded
together
♦ I2 Br2 Cl2 F2 O2 N2 H2
➢ I brought clay for our new house
▪ Molecular Compounds
▪ Two or more different non-metals
▪ Two or more different types of atoms bonded together
▪ Ex in nature; Oxygen gas=O2 Ozone=O3
▪ Different Combinations of Atoms of Different Types
▪ Hydro Carbons
♦ Hydrogen and Carbon
♦ CxHy
♦ X and y are numbers

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 ▪ Organic Molecules
• Carbon Hydrogen and Oxygen
• CxHyOz
• X y and z are numbers
▪ Molecular compounds are different combinations of the same things/elements but they
can have widley different proprtions
❖ Ionic Compounds
▪ Ion;a particle tha has either a positive or a negative charge
▪ Cation; positivly changed atom
▪ Anion; negativly charged atom
➢ Molecules are made up of neutral atoms bonded together
❖ Compounds are made up of charged atoms that form bonds between one another
❖ When an atom looses electrons it will become positive=cation when it gains it will beocme
negative=Anion
❖ To represent this change on a Bohr Rutherford diagram you must move the electrons to the shell to
make it full (use an arrow and an x to show this movement)

❖ 7.3 How Atoms Combine

➢ Why do atoms combine
▪ Atoms combine to form a stable compound
▪ Atoms wants to be like noble gases, stable with a full outter shell
▪ Elements other than noble gases do not have a full outter shell and are not stable so they
react
▪ Bonds are created when atoms gain or lose electorns and share electrons
➢ Metals
▪ Alloys vs Compounds
• Alloys are solid soloutions are created by mixing two or more metals together(liquid)
• Compounds are created when bonds are formed bewteen two or more atoms in fixed
ratios
➢ Metals and Non-Metals
▪ Ionic compounds are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons
▪ Oppositly charged atoms arethen attreacted to eachother and form bonds
▪ Remember; when electrons give they are cations when they take they are anions
➢ Ionic Compunds
▪ Are given chemical names and common names
▪ When naming iconic compunds the first element is the metal=cation and the second is non-
metal=anion
▪ To se this change in names you muct change the name ending from –ine to –ide
▪ Ex;chlorine to chloride
▪ Ex; Sodiumchloride NaCl Na=+ Cl=-
➢ Non-Metals and Non-Metals
▪ When a non metal and another nonmetal are combined to form a compound they share
electrons rather than just take them

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 ▪ This is covalent bonding
▪ So they don’t gain or lose electrons
▪ The elements will share their electrons in order to have a full outer shell in both elements
▪ This is shown by putting a circle around the two sharing electrons

Electricity
❖ 11.1 What is Static Electricity
➢ Electric Charge a form of a charge either positive or negative that exerts electrical force
▪ Atomic Structure
• + are protons and - are electrons
➢ Positive, Negative and Neutral Objects
▪ Static electricity and in balance of electric charge on the surface of an object
▪ Neutral object object has equal numbers
▪ Negatively charged object has more electrons than protons and Positively charged object has
more protons then electron.
➢ The Law of Electric Charges
▪ Electric force the force exerted by an object with an electric charge can be a force of
attraction or a force of repulsion
▪ Objects that have like charges repel and Objects with opposite will attract
▪ Distance is the amount of charge so greater distance is less attraction
▪ An increase in charge equals increase in attraction
▪ Induce charge seperation is a shift in the position of the electrons in a neutral object that
occurs when a charged object is near it
➢ Detecting Charges
▪ Electroscope is used to detect the presence of an electric charge
▪ A pith ball electroscope can be used to determine the presence
▪ Pith Ball Electroscope
• If an object is charged the pith ball will be attracted to it
• A pith ball determines if there is a charge present and what it is
• If the object is neutral there be no movement
• If the object in the ball have the same charge they will repel regardless of if it’s negative
or positive
▪ Metal Leaf Electroscope
• More sensitive than the pit ball electroscope
• When the metal ball is touched with charged objects the ball will take on the same
charge as the object leaves will repel each other
• It can detect an electric charge
• The same charge causes the leaves to separate
➢ Induction
▪ When a charged object approaches a neutral object causes the electrons to move toward or
away from the approaching object
▪ This is known as induction
▪ The neutral object becomes attracted to the charge object

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 ▪ For example a positive in a neutral object or close to each other the positive object causes
the negative electrons to move out of place temporarily but once the positive object is
further away from it the electrons would move back into their original positions
➢ Using static charge
▪ The use of static charge is known as electrostatics
▪ For example electrostatic painters use charge to paint to attracted to a wall these must be a
conductor
❖ 11.2 Charging by Contact
➢ Charging objects by friction
▪ Is the transfer of electrons between two neutral objects made from different materials that
occur when they are rubbed or touch
▪ Two neutral objects
▪ Charges are transferred from object to object
• One becomes negative gains electrons and One becomes positive loses electrons
➢ Charging objects by conduction
▪ Occurs when electrons move from a negatively charged object to a neutral object charging
the neutral object to a negatively charged object result in the same charge
▪ Connecting an object to a large body example like earth that is capable of effectively
removing an electric charge that the object might have, grounding
▪ The object recieves the opposite charge that it has whn gounding
➢ Electrostatic series
▪ A list of materials arranged in order by the tendency to gain electrons
▪ Using electrostatic series can predict the charge of objects that are rub together
▪ Objects higher up will lose electrons
▪ Objects lower will take electrons
▪ Weather has an effect on objects, winter is more prone to charging less moisture in the air
than in the summer
▪ Charged particles are used in many products and Technologies by using the electrostatic
series for example electrostatic dusters friction causes dust to be attracted to the duster
❖ 11.4 Conductors and Insulators
➢ Conductor
▪ Material that lets electrons move easily through it
▪ Copper and aluminum or metal is used in many of our electrical equipment to conduct
electricity
▪ Graphite and silicon are also good conductors but they are not metal
▪ They are called semi conductors because electricity does not pass as easily as metals
▪ Never use electricity or devices your water because water is an excellent conductor of
electricity
▪ Pure water is a nonconductor but dissolved ions in it is an excellent conductor
▪ Most water has minerals in it thus allowing it to be a conductor
➢ Insulators
▪ Material that does not let electrons flow through it
▪ Usually nonmetals for example plastic wood and glass
▪ Electric wiring in the homes are coded by plastics as insulator

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 ➢ Using conductors and insulators
▪ Lightning rods use conductors to carry electricity from the building to the ground
▪ Glass is used as an insulator and telegraph machines, in the communication industries
▪ Silicon dioxide have replaced glass to prevent the exposure of wiring
➢ Laser printers
▪ A laser printer contains both conductors and insulators the printer usually contains a
positively charged drum known as the photoconductor it contains electrons only one light
shines on it without the light it is an insulator
▪ A laser light draws the electrons towards the photoconductor causing a negatively charged
image to be created on the drum
▪ The negatively charged image dries positive toner
▪ The drum is rolled over the paper where the positively charged toner is transferred to
negatively charged paper
▪ The paper with the toner in place is he did over a fuser 200° and puts the plastic toner on the
paper permanently
❖ 11.6 Charging by Induction
➢ Charging by induction
▪ By Induction, it’s charging of a neutral object by bringing another charged object close to but
not touching the neutral object can be temporary or permanent
▪ Temporarily charging by induction
▪ When I charged object comes close to a neutral object it causes some electrons to move
temporarily as they will move back resulting in the uneven distribution of electrons in the
object TVs and monitors are excellent examples of charging my induction, where does is
attracted to the screens
➢ Permanently charging by induction
▪ An object can be permanently charged by induction, if it is grounded
▪ You charge a neutral object by approaching it with a negatively charged object this causes
electrons in a neutral object to move further from the negatively charged object
▪ The neutral object has a positive charge nearest to the negative object and a negative on the
furthest part
▪ If you ground the negative portion you have created a neutral area now has imbalance and is
permanently charged
▪ This always produces two objects with opposite charges
❖ 11.8 Electric Discharge
➢ Electric discharge, the rapid transfer of electric charge from one object to another
➢ transfer of static charge could damage sensitive electronic equipment
➢ What a negative or positive charge object touches of sensitive electronic device static discharge is
released
❖ charges always occur from negatively charged object to positively charged object so a more
noticeable to discharge
➢ Lightning
▪ Leaning is the electric discharge between the clouds and earth surface
▪ Water molecules in the cloud rub together because negatively charged the water droplets
move to lower portions of the cloud

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 ▪ The earth is neutral
▪ The negative charge clouds forced resurfaced to become positively charged as the electrons
move in the ground move further away
▪ If the difference is significant enough a static discharge across from the clouds to the ground
creating lightning
▪ The air become super heated and light and sound are produced
▪ Lightning can also occur between two clouds
▪ Lightning rods lightning rods are used as lightning is dangerous to buildings in people
▪ Metals such as copper iron lightning rods are placed on buildings at their highest points
▪ Lightning will strike the highest point that’s conducting the lightning rod is connected to the
ground the electric discharge will travel down the road to the conducting wire directly into
the ground snow people electrical equipment or building will be harmed
❖ 12.1 Introducing Current Electricity
➢ Static electricity is built up on the surface of an object eventually the electrons will discharge to
create neutrality again
➢ Current electricity is the controlled flow of electrons through a conductor
➢ Current electricity is controlled movement of electrons through a conductor in a controlled way
➢ Electrons are always moving this is different than static electricity
➢ Static vs current
▪ When there is an electrostatic discharge the electrons are flowing but they flow in multiple
directions for a short period of time
▪ Current electricity is a steady flow of electrons over a long period of time
▪ The flow of electrons is directed to conducting is the power devices
▪ It is unsafe to touch conducting wire is because the electrons can enter your body and be
harmful
▪ For safety conducting wires are covered in an insulator to protect the flow of electrons into
your body
➢ Making electrons move
▪ Some electrical devices can function using batteries what others required to be plugged into
the wall outlet for electrical current
▪ Electrical generation supply the electrical current for our appliances
❖ 12.2 Electric Circuits
➢ Electric circuit a continuous path in which electrons can flow
➢ Components of an Electric circuit
➢ Energy source of energy generating station, batteries
➢ Load transforms electricity into other forms light heat sound
➢ Conducting wires connect all the parts together aluminum or copper electrons
➢ A switch controls the flow of electrons
➢ Uses
➢ A simple circuit is has four components
➢ In a circuit electrons flow from negative to positive
➢ A simple circuit consists of an energy source loads conducting wires and switch
➢ Electrons must flow continuously
❖ 12.3 Electrical Energy

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 ➢ Electrical energy is the energy provided by the flow of electrons in an electrical circuit
➢ Electrical energy is measured in joules J
➢ Electrical energy is used to do work this occurs when energy is transformed into other forms of
energy light mechanical heat
➢ Electrical energy is used every day example cell pones lights toasters
➢ The two main sources of electrical energy or batteries or electrical generating stations
▪ Batteries only supply a small amount of energy over a short period of time
▪ Electrical generating station supply large continuous supply of energy
▪ Electrical cell is a portable device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy primary
cell is an electric cell that can only be used once secondary electric sell that can be used more
than once recharged
▪ Components of an electrical sell or two electrodes and conducting solution electrolyte
▪ There is a positive and negative electrode flow from negative to positive ones in a circuit
▪ The electrons are repelled by the negative electrode and attracted to the positive one
▪ Primary sales are batteries that cannot be recharged the chemical reaction cannot be
reversed secondary cells are batteries that can be recharged ever used the electrical energy
from the outlet is used her versus the chemical reactions lead acid batteries dry cell batteries
➢ Fuel Cell
▪ A special type of electrical cell
▪ Continue supplies of chemicals are pumped in and waste is removed
▪ A hydrogen fuel cell converts hydrogen gas and oxygen gets into water while producing
electrical energy
▪ Fuel cell vehicles in motors are not harmful to the environment and create no emissions
▪ If you type cell is not necessarily homeless as hydrogen gas comes from fossil fuel‘s
▪ Pollution is created to make hydrogen gas contributes to greenhouse gas effect the trapping
of heat in the earth
❖ 12.4 Forms of Current Electricity
➢ Direct-current DC
▪ Direct current DC is a flow of electric charge in One Direction in an electric current
▪ Direct current is produced by an electric cell battery electrons but only flow in One Direction
➢ Alternating current AC
▪ Alternating current AC is a float electrons that alternating direction in an electric circuit
▪ Alternating current electrons travel back-and-forth or alternate directions
▪ Electric generation stations outlets produce alternating current flow
➢ Generating electricity
▪ Electrical energy is produced when one type of energy is converted into electrical energy
▪ Generating stations use mechanical energy to produce electrical energy
▪ Generating stations consist of turbines generator and transmission lines
▪ An external energy source water flows over a turbine, turbine is turned rapidly and is
connected to a generator
▪ The generator consist of a coiled copper wire surrounded by a magnet
▪ Electrons begin to flow in the copper wire
▪ Electrical energy is controlled and ca travel long distances
▪ Electrical energy can easily be transformed into other forms of energy

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❖ 12.5 Generating Current Electricity
➢ Electric generating stations create energy with an external source to create energy in the
generator turbine
➢ Moving water Hydro electric generation
▪ This is used to get to get for Hydro electric generation stations off the auto river
▪ Falling water turn turbines
▪ Hydroelectric generation stations use fast falling water waterfalls rivers reservoirs from dabs
▪ There 180+ Hydro electric generation stations in Ontario
▪ 58 are connected to the grid
▪ There are endless supplies of water so this a renewable resource
▪ The water does not get used up it gets put back into the water cycle
➢ Pros and cons
▪ No pollution
▪ Damn change the way waterfalls
▪ Expensive
▪ Alter the water leak
▪ Smaller dams have less a fax for cons
▪ Canada is lucky to have so many bodies of water
➢ Moving water tidal generation
▪ Newer
▪ The movement of ocean or river water moved her buns
▪ Title movement occurs at different times
▪ As the tide comes in or out
▪ To the station is on for five hours and off for seven hours
▪ The tide does not change in Ontario leaks
▪ There are other areas this is useful
▪ Renewable
➢ Pros and cons
▪ No pollution
▪ They can only be built by coats
▪ That experience tide changes
▪ Thermal generation
▪ Heating water to produce steam to turn turbines
▪ Must burn fossil fuel or radioactive materials
▪ Thermal energy is from the crust
▪ Sunlight
➢ Using Fossil Fuels
▪ oil natural gas
▪ Formed From living things millions of years ago the cells have become hydrogen and carbon
▪ They take a long time to form are non-renewable
➢ Using radioactive materials
▪ After World War II electricity using uranium was created
▪ Long tubes are filled with radioactive uranium
▪ High energy reaction takes place nuclear fission

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 ▪ The breaking of the nuclei creates a lot of energy
▪ Used to create steam enter in the turbine
▪ Called nuclear generating stations
▪ Are nonrenewable
➢ Using biomass
▪ Biomass is animal matter wood straw Manure are plant matter plant-based oils or natural
decaying materials
▪ Biodegradable waste that can be burned
▪ Sewage gas in landfill gas work to
▪ Read over
▪ Waist is continually made
▪ Plants are consistently grown
▪ Burn plants make carbon dioxide
▪ They also have their own from being alive over a short period of time
▪ So fossil fuel‘s are not biomass because they are made over a long period of time they also
have more carbon dioxide
▪ Biomass can be used as an energy source several ways
▪ Biomass burned
▪ Methane gas collected and burned
➢ Using geothermal
▪ Use geothermal energy from earths crust
▪ Hot Springs and geysers
▪ Thermal energy is transferred from the ground to liquid
▪ Liquid is transferred to the containment power
▪ Water is heated to make steam
➢ Pros and cons
▪ Fossil Fuels
• produces a lot of Energy
• Add to global warming carbon dioxide
• Greenhouse effect
• Fossil fuel’s exhortation ruins land
• Underwater or on land
• Fossil fuels are found at the expense of more fossil feels
• They are powering the equipment
• Cool easy to mine
• With that money countries use called Phone generation stations
• Burning it produces Ash smoke so for dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
• Air pollution
• Irritation the eyes and skin and breathing issues releases mercury
• Contaminate bodies of water
➢ Oil and natural gas
▪ Contribute to climate change
▪ Acid precipitation
▪ Smog

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 ▪ Oil transportation can lead to always spells
▪ Natural gas creates less pollution
▪ Limited amount of natural gas
▪ Oil prices are going up as amount of oil are running out
➢ Radioactive materials
▪ Does not directly produce pollution
▪ Finding uranium again mining in that contribute to habitat loss
▪ Thermal pollution is produced
▪ Lake water is heated and put back
▪ Affecting lake ecosystems
▪ Less oxygen in the water with heat
▪ But he slowed amount of radioactive waste
▪ Environmental
▪ Can cause cancer and organ failure
▪ Releases radioactivity for years
▪ Very expensive to build and maintain
▪ They’re high risks of accidents
▪ In past events environment and people damages
❖ Biomass generation
▪ You can reuse greenhouse gases and waste animals plants garbage is recycling
▪ There is not enough to supply to meet demand
▪ When you grow fuel plants you waste the farmland
▪ Energy conservation must become more important then renewable sources
➢ Geothermal generation
▪ Produces no pollution does not contribute to climate change
▪ Challenging to obtain
▪ Must be built far enough into the ground to produce steam
▪ Wind
▪ Wind turbines generate electricity
▪ Large blade on the tower
▪ Can generate enough power approximately 250 homes
▪ Are connected to the grid
➢ Pros and cons
▪ Cheaper than generating stations for uranium are fossil fuel’s
▪ Wind is free
▪ When can easily be added or removed from the grid
▪ Wind turbines can be put close to homes making transmission line short
▪ Avoiding less electricity to be lost
▪ Does not produce pollution
▪ Wind turbines can be put anywhere but windspeeds constantly change
▪ To generate constantly you have to have wind farms large areas
▪ Generate significant electricity
▪ Are connected to the grid
▪ Offshore usually by body of water produces constant wind

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 ▪ Wind power can be made on small scales for individual homes for about $1000
▪ Wind farms are criticized for being noisy but when turbines are made to be quiet
➢ Light
▪ Electrical energy can be made without a turbine and generator
▪ Photovoltaic cells convert light into electrical energy
▪ Solar cell is a type that converts the suns energy into electrical energy
▪ Sunlight create a flow of electrons
▪ As the solar cell converts light into electricity
▪ Sun is renewable
➢ Pros and cons
▪ Installable anywhere
▪ Do not produce pollution
▪ Throwing away in manufacturing create some
▪ Can be connected to the grid or independent
▪ Last 40 years or more when installed properly
▪ Only 30% effective at converting light to electricity due to the materials
▪ Expensive do not produce energy immediately takes several hours
▪ Large numbers of cells combined to produce enough to power communities on a solar farm
connected to the grid
▪ Future of energy production
▪ 26% of Ontario his energy is from coal and natural gas burning
▪ 50% country nuclear reactions
▪ 76% is nonrenewable
▪ All forms of energy generation how consequences
▪ Governments make choices about energy forms and are chosen by needs efficiency and
environmental effects
❖ 12.7 Electrical Power and Efficiency
➢ Electrical Power
▪ Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is produced or used
▪ The unit of measure for electrical power is the Watts W
▪ One what is equal to one joule per second J/S
▪ Power reading value indicates the amount of energy this or produced is known as wattage
▪ Consider and compare a 60 W incandescent lightbulb to a 15 W compact fluorescent bulb
▪ The incandescent uses more than the fluorescent
▪ Both produce about the same amount of light that extra energy from the incandescent is lost
in the form of thermal energy heat
▪ Measuring electrical energy use
▪ Kilowatt hour KWH is The S I unit for measuring electrical energy usage of 1 kW of power for
one hour of use
▪ A gigawatt GW represents 1 million whites
▪ When measuring apply time to energy use
▪ A hour is equal to 3600 joules
▪ 60 seconds times 60 minutes

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 ▪ A kilowatt hour is standard international unit of measure SI and is 1000 greater than a white
hour
▪ An electrical meter is a measure device which measures the electricity used by houses
schools and industries
➢ Efficient devices
▪ Efficiency comparison of the energy output of a device with energy supplied
▪ Efficiency is a comparison between how much energy is used by a device and the amount of
useful energy produced by that device
▪ Efficiency=smaller KWH/bigger KWH
▪ Evaluating efficiency in devices
▪ Lightbulbs create light
▪ Incandescent make light but eventually heat well Energy transformation
▪ The effluence of an incandescent light is 90% is converted into heat 10% is light so the
incandesce sent more efficiently produces heat over light
▪ (Kw)(H)=KWH make sure to convert to KW
▪ K|H|D| |D|C|M
▪ Fox it concerns about CFL which contain a small amount of mercury gas they are safe
properly disposed of
▪ Lighting emitting diodes LED devices may run more cost as it uses more electricity
➢ EnerGuide And energy star labels
▪ When buying appliances it is important to consider Energy use and price
▪ Unless expensive device may cost more to run while the costly one may use for less
electricity to work
▪ EnerGuide Labels indicate the energy efficient C in KWH per year
▪ This information is used to purchase appliances wisely
▪ Energy star appliances meet minimal level of efficiency
➢ Calculating the efficiency of a device
▪ The greater the voltage the greeter/more affective the appliance
▪ Energy out is the measure of useful J energy required to do the task
▪ Energy in is the measure of energy J required to complete the task formula used to
determine efficiency
▪ Percentage of efficiency equals the energy out divided by energy in times 100
▪ Cost of energy
• Current cost of electricity
• Off peak 8.5 C/KWH
• Mid peak 12.8 C/KWH
• Peak 17.5 C/KWH
• In the winter the cost does not charge for the first 1000 kWh
• To calculate the cost of using your electrical device you need to know it’s power rating in
kilowatts and the length of the time operated in hours
• Electrical devices Still use energy in standby mode when plugged in Though off
• You can also be billed for extra charges such as electrical distribution and transmission
• The use of electricity also negatively imports the environment and pollution
• Formula to calculate

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 • Cost operate equals power use times time times electricity cost
• Make sure all the units are proper use king Henry’s daughter makes delicious chocolate
milk
• Use grass
❖ 13.1 Circuits and Circuit Diagrams
➢ Circuit diagram
▪ A way of drawing in electric circuit using standard symbols
▪ From a written description you should be able to draw a circuit diagram accurately using
appropriate symbols
▪ For current direction is also important and needs to be identified on the diagram
▪ For an electric cell the long line is positive electrode and the shorter line is negative electrode
▪ When loads are attached to a circuit diagram they become attached in a series or in a parallel
▪ Longer line is for negative
▪ Shorter line is for positive
➢ Series Circuit
▪ Series circuit in which loads are connected end to end so that there is only one path for
electrons to flow
▪ Electrons can only flow through one pass on a continuous loop so of one load short then the
electrons cannot flow through the rest of the circuit.
▪ Start at the battery for drawings
▪ Direction is always towards the positive
▪ Always straight lines
▪ Parallel circuit
▪ Parallel circuit is the circuit in which the loads are connected by branches that there are two
or more parts for the electrons to flow
▪ In a parallel circuit there is always more than one past the electrons to flow therefore if one
load shorts the electrons can still flow in one of the other paths
❖ 13.3 Electrical Current
▪ Electrical Current
• Electrical Current I is a measure of the rate of electron follow past a given point in a
circuit measured in amperes A
• Ampere determines a way to measure electric current
• Unit of measure is ampere
• The symbol for current is I
• Measuring Current
• Ammeter is a device that is used to measure electric current
• When solving electrical problems the first thing to determine is the amount of current
flowing through loads
• An ammeter does this it determines the flow of current
• An ammeter must be connected in series with the circuit
• Lamp equals the movement of 6.2x10^18 electrons flowing
• 6.2x10^18 is equivalent to 1 Colombo C
• 1amp=1 C/S
• Ammeter symbol is

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 • Must be in series so that the electrons that pass through the load go though the
ammeter
➢ Safety with Electrical Circuits
▪ Current can damage electrical devices if too large
▪ Circuit breaker panels and fuses are used to protect devices from power surges
▪ Always set the ammeter to the highest current setting a current setting too low can damage
the meter
▪ To prevent electric shock never touch the tips of ammeter leads when they are connected to
a circuit
▪ Human Body and Electric Shock
▪ Small amounts of electric shock can be dangerous for the human body
▪ A wall outlet releases 15 A
▪ Only 1-4.3 can stop your heart
❖ 13.5 Potential Difference
➢ Potential difference (voltage) (V) is the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge
measures at two different points measured in volts V
➢ A model for electric potential energy potential difference
➢ The difference between two points within a circuit
➢ The difference between the two electrodes of an electric cell
➢ Electrodes within a circuit leave the negative with more energy then when they return to the
positive electrode
➢ The different is the energy lost as a transformation to do work by a load
➢ Water wheel example water falling from a high point
➢ Higher=more potential to do
➢ Measuring potential difference
➢ Voltmeter is a device to measure potential difference voltage V
➢ When a voltmeter is connected to measure the parallel around the load or energy source
➢ The voltmeter measures the difference between points in a circuit
➢ The symbol is
❖ 13.7 Resistance in Circuits
➢ Electric resistance R is the ability to oppose the flow of electrical Current measured in Ohms Ω
➢ Symbol for resistance is R
➢ Unit of measure for resistance is Ohm Ω
➢ Factors that affect resistance the slower the current in an electrical circuit
➢ The greater the resistance the warmer the material will get as electrical energy is transformed
into thermal energy
➢ There are many factors that influence resistance
➢ Material, width, length, temperature.
▪ Type of Material
• Metals are excellent conductors they allow electrons to move freely unlike insulators
metals like cooper aluminum or gold express low resistance
▪ Cross Sectional Area width

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 • The diameter of a cross section of a substance such as a wire will indicate its ability to
transmit electrons. The thicker the wire the more easily electrons flow/conduct
electricity. Thinner=more resistance
▪ Length
• As length of the conductor increases so does the resistance
▪ Temperature
• Temperature causes the electrons to become more active
• The electrons vibrate more increasing the number of collisions per sec
• The increase collisions will slow down the other electrons resulting in higher resistance
➢ Measuring resistance
▪ Ohmmeter is a device that is used to measure resistance
▪ Current and voltage measurements are used to determine resistance
▪ Resistance is measured using an ohmmeter
▪ Ohmmeter is measured in parallel
▪ Ohmmeter must have the circuit off to read it has its own power
▪ Resistors in Circuits
▪ Resistors a device that reduces the flow of electric current
▪ A resistor is an electrical device that reduces current in a circuit there are many different
types of resistors
▪ The symbol for resistor is omega
▪ Use V=IR when calculating
❖ 13.9 Relating Current Voltage and Resistance
➢ Ohm kept the variables of current and voltage consistent but varied the length of conducting wire
➢ As lengthy increased current decreased increased length increased resistance
➢ When plotting the data on a graph a straight line was established and this was the slope of the
line that was the greater resistance
➢ Mathematically the equation was R=V/I
➢ Slope=rise/run Slope=voltage/Current
➢ Ohms Law
▪ Ohms law the straight relationship between voltages
▪ R=resistance ohms Ω
▪ V=potential difference volts V
▪ I=Current amps A
▪ (I)(R)=V
❖ 13.10 How Series and Parallel Circuits Differ
➢ Loads in Series
▪ When an energy source connected in series electrons flow regardless of how many loads
there’s only one path for them to flow
▪ Current through loads in series
▪ The resistance on a circuit with one load is different then a circuit with two loads plus
▪ The electrons with two or more have more bumps to do it then a circuit with one load
▪ So the more loads in series equals more resistance less current
▪ Current in a circuit can be determined with I=V/R
▪ More loads equals more resistance equals less current

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 ▪ Only one path therefore the same and amperage through out
➢ Voltage across loads in series
▪ Brightness across lamps in series decreases as more are added
▪ Battery converts chemical energy to potential energy
▪ This Potential energy is put into all leaving electrons
▪ Creating flow in circuits
▪ This movement in circuit converts potential to kinetic energy
▪ Circuits with one lamp load all the energy is given to it
▪ If all the energy is given to one load this is the same amount coming out of the battery
▪ In a circuit with two lamps half of the energy is given to each load half of an electron making
a dull light
▪ Finding potential difference across each lamp is found by using the formula
Vload=vsource/#oflampsonpath
➢ Loads in parallel
▪ When loads are connected in parallel potential difference is created with the two terminals of
energy source
▪ Electrons have multiple paths to move number of paths depends on the number of loads
➢ Current through loads in parallel
▪ Two identical loads connected in parallel have two paths to flow
▪ As it has two parts the current splits into two this can be calculated with
▪ Iload=Isource/#of loads
▪ Voltage across loads in parallel
▪ There’s a difference in total resistance between series and parallel
▪ The number of paths equals less resistance
▪ Voltage drop among loads
▪ Electrons in parallel flow into only one load
▪ But it is related to potential energy there for the voltage drop in each per load this causes
brightness differences
▪ This can be calculated with Vsource=(Isource)(Rt)
▪ Resistance and current voltage in Circuits
▪ In a parallel circuit the voltage drop across load is equal to the voltage drop across the
battery this is different in comparison to a series circuit.

Ecology
❖ 2.1 Life on planet earth
➢ Earth orbits the sun
➢ Earth has layers gaseous terrestrial aquatic and ice surfaces
➢ The Spheres of the Earth
➢ Atmosphere-layer of gases surrounding the earth
➢ Lithosphere-Earths solid putter layer
➢ Is the terrestrial (land) portion of the planet rocks and minerals
➢ Hydrosphere-all of the earths water in solid liquid and gas form
➢ Is the aquatic portion of the planet oceans seas lakes rivers streams ice
➢ Earths oceans contain 97% of the earths water
➢ Biosphere-the zone around the earth where life can exists

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 ➢ Earths weight(mass) creates gravity which holds the gaseous layer
➢ Atmosphere contains Nitrogen78% oxygen carbon dioxide21% other1%
➢ Atmosphere controls the earths temperature during the day and night
➢ Atmosphere prevents UV rays and other radiation (harmful) causing diseases(cancer)
➢ Biosphere
▪ Locations life can exist, including atmosphere lithosphere and hydrosphere
▪ All conditions of life are met and maintained on the thin layer of ground, water and lower
▪ atmosphere
▪ Living things need space water nutrients to survive
▪ Meaning they are only found in limited areas which limit number of surviving species
➢ The Gia Hypothesis
▪ James Lovelock 1960
▪ Hypothesis=based off of past scientific information
▪ The earth and its interactions of the four spheres act and make the earth an organism
▪ The earth responds to changes and regulates it self like a cell
❖ 2.2 Introducing Ecosystems
➢ Ecosystem all the living organisms and their physical and chemical environment
➢ Biotic factor living things their remains and features such as nests associated with their activities
Abiotic factors the nonliving physical and chemical components of an ecosystem
➢ Living organisms that share regions and interact with each other biotic and there external
nonliving environment abiotic are found in eco systems
➢ Abiotic rocks water wind
➢ Biotic bacteria plant micro organisms organization of ecosystems species population and
communities
➢ Describe in ecosystems consist of various sizes and combinations of biotic and abiotic features
➢ All ecosystems are characterized by there to stink set of features
➢ Example Coral Reef abiotic water Sand tropical
➢ Biotic marine life fish sensitive to temperature
➢ Sustainability of ecosystems
▪ Sustainable ecosystem is an ecosystem that is maintained through natural processes
▪ Sustainable the ability to maintain ecological balance
▪ When ecosystems maintain a relatively consistent set of characteristics over a long period of
time
▪ Humans negatively impact ecosystems
▪ Humans can create their own sustainable ecosystem but these are artificial and need to be
▪ maintained by humans humans can make ecosystems unsustainable humans are also
affected by changes in their abiotic and biotic features

❖ 2.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

➢ Radiant energy is energy that travels through empty space
➢ Light energy is a form of radiant energy
➢ Thermal energy form of energy transferred by heating or cooling
➢ All living things require energy to survive characteristics of living things
➢ Energy supply to her plan it comes from the sun in the form of radiant energy sunlight
Sunlight is made up of many different wavelengths of energy known as the light spectrum
➢ Visible light is known as white light there’s a UV in French radio micro ECT
➢ Division of light

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 ▪ 70% of late is the floor by the hydrosphere and lithosphere and is converted to thermal light
energy
▪ 30% is reflected back into space
▪ 0.023% of energy is actually absorbed by living things
▪ Thermal energy cannot be used and is known as waste energy
▪ Light energy is used by plants for photosynthesis and is converted to chemical potential
energy
▪ glucose
▪ Glucose is used by all living organisms to survive cellular respiration
➢ Photosynthesis
▪ process in which the suns energy is converted into chemical energy
▪ producer is an organism that makes it’s own energy rich food component using the suns
energy
▪ Planter organisms that can use photosynthesis light energy to create chemical potential
energy in the form of glucose
▪ Plants are known as producers because they can make their own food
▪ Plants contain chlorophyl which makes them green in colour which traps in the energy
▪ Bacteria is phone in water and contain chlorophyl to capture sunlight for photosynthesis
▪ Carbon dioxide plus water equals sugar plus oxygen
▪ Not all sugars are used for energy
▪ Some are the structural component used to build cell walls or combine with proteins to form
other
▪ cellular structure
➢ Cellular Respiration
▪ cellular respiration is the process by which sugar and oxygen are converted to carbon dioxide
and water to provide energy for the cell
▪ Consumer in organism that obtains its energy from consuming other organisms
▪ All living things must use cellular respiration to survive
▪ Oxygen plus sugar equals carbon dioxide plus water
❖ 2.5 Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids
➢ Ecological Niches
▪ Ecological Niches are the function a species serves in its ecosystem including what it eats and
how it behaves
▪ The way species interact with each other and their environment in their ecological niche
▪ The role in which an organism participated in its ecosystem is its niche what it feeds in what it
eats and its behaviour
▪ A key feature of any ecosystem is the species feeding relationships
▪ Producer consumer
▪ Herbivore eats plants and producers
▪ Carnivore eats only other animals
▪ Omnivore eats both plants and animals
▪ Scavenger feeds on remains of other organisms
➢ Food Chains and Food Webs
▪ Food web is a representation of the feeding relationships within a community
▪ Food chain is a sequence of organisms each feeding on the next showing energy transfer
▪ Trophic level the level of an organism in an ecosystem depending on its feeding position
along a food chain
▪ Easy=food chain=linear

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 ▪ Food chain identifies who eats who as energy moves up the chain
▪ A food chain always starts with a producer, herbivore, carnivore.
▪ Arrows show energy movement between trophic levels
▪ Organisms use and release energy into the environment
▪ Energy is always lost as heat(waste energy)
▪ Trophic levels identify the position an organism possesses in the food chain
▪ Producers are in the first trophic level
▪ Herbivores are in the second trophic level (first order consumer)
▪ Carnivores are in the sequential trophic levels (second, third, fourth order consumers)
▪ Food chains are artificial and not found in nature but they simplify feeding relationships
▪ 1pine tree 2squirrel 3goshawk 4owl
▪ Food webs show many different feeding relationships
▪ There are many paths expressed at once
▪ More complex than food web the more sustainable
➢ Ecological Pyramids
▪ Is a representation of energy numbers or mass of living organisms in an ecosystem
▪ Biomass is the mass of living organisms in a given area
▪ Pyramids show relationships between trophic levels in energy numbers or biomass
▪ Energy is lost in thermal energy
▪ 10% rule is used to show the amount of energy taken by each individual at each trophic level
species in upper levels have less energy
❖ 2.6 Cycling of Matter In Ecosystems
➢ Biogeochemical Cycle
▪ Is the movement of matter through the biotic and abiotic environment
▪ Remember particle theory
▪ Chemicals and nutrients are continually rearranged stored and used then released
▪ Chemical movement nutrients is a cycle
➢ Water Cycle
▪ Series of processes that cycle water through the abiotic environment
▪ Water is evaporated from lakes rivers streams oceans as water vapour in the atmosphere
▪ Water condensed and falls precipitation snow hail rain
▪ Organisms need water plants loose water with transpiration and goes back into the
atmosphere
➢ The Carbon Cycle
▪ Is the biochemical cycle in which carbon is cycles through the lithosphere atmosphere
hydrosphere
▪ and biosphere
▪ Carbon is cycled between abiotic and biotic parts of an ecosystem
▪ Carbon dioxide from the air is used by plants for photosynthesis and returned form cellular
▪ respiration
▪ Animals have carbon form food they it it goes into the atmosphere by cellular respiration
▪ Carbon is not cycled but trapped in decomposing organisms
➢ The Nitrogen Cycle
▪ Is the series of processes that nitrogen compounds are moved through the biotic and abiotic
environment
▪ Atmosphere is 78% nitrogen this is unusable for organisms
▪ Lighting and ultraviolet light can convert nitrogen gas to nitrate(s)
▪ 2.7 Biotic and Abiotic Influences In Ecosystems

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 ▪ Limiting factor is any factor that restricts the size of the population
▪ Tolerance range is the abiotic conditions within which a species can survive
▪ Terrestrial ecosystems key biotic factors light availability water availability nutrient availability
▪ temperature
▪ Aquatic ecosystems key biotic factors light availability nutrient availability acidity temperature
▪ salinity
➢ Influence of Biotic Factors
▪ The ability for a species to live in a given ecosystem can be determined by abiotic factors
▪ Biotic factors involve interactions
▪ Completion for limiting resources between the same species is intraspecific and two different
▪ species is interspecific this can impact survival
▪ Other interactions include
▪ Competition 2 individuals fight for the same resource
▪ Predation 1 individual feeds on another
▪ Mutualism 2 individuals benefiting each other
▪ Paratism 1 individual lives in or on and feed in its host organism
▪ Commensalism 1 individual benefits the other is not benefiting or harmed
➢ Carrying Capacity
▪ Is the maximum population size of a particular species that a given ecosystem can sustain
▪ The upper sustainable limit of an ecosystem can support is called carry capacity
❖ 2.8 Major Terrestrial Ecosystems
➢ Earth has millions of species so there are ecosystems they are observable without knowing the
species
➢ Terrestrial Biomes
▪ Factor that determines location and climate
▪ Globally patterns and temperature range cause similarities Biomes
➢ Canada has 4 major Biomes
▪ Tundra most northern cold dessert short growing season low temperatures limits plants
permafrost
▪ in the summer only soil tops defrost caribou polar bear migrating species
▪ Boreal forest largest rain warm summers a disco soil limits plant growth types slows
decomposition
▪ trees misses ferns trees for winters
▪ Grassland parties moderate rain can’t grow most trees fertile soil fires high temperature
▪ Temperature Deciduous Deciduous trees longer growing season none tread temperatures
fast
▪ decomposition diverse rich plant life human attraction species
❖ 2.9 Major Aquatic Ecosystems
➢ Two Categories
➢ Fresh water 1% salt less buoyancy
➢ Ocean marine 3% salt more buoyancy
➢ Freshwater
▪ Bodies of water lakes rivers
▪ Continually have fresh water put in
▪ Classified 2 ways
▪ Oligotrophic low nutrients
▪ Eutrophic high nutrients
▪ Use microscopic clouding water and wetlands

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 ➢ Large saturated soil
➢ Aquatic plants growing quickly for larger consumers
➢ Water Sheds
▪ Important to freshwater
▪ Holds water
▪ If pollution enters water leaving is contaminated
▪ Marine ecosystems
▪ 70% of the earth is water covered
▪ Water cycle
▪ Water algae make water oxygen
▪ Ocean life needs nutrients
➢ Coral reefs are in shallows
➢ Estuaries are I closed bodies of water where fresh meets salt
➢ Mangroves communities along tropical lines trees adapted to live and grow there
➢ Erosion Damages ecosystems
➢ Intertidal Zones
▪ Part terrestrial part aquatic
▪ Are low and high tides
▪ Ex bay of funds
▪ Sea weed starfish etc have tough tissues
▪ Highly adaptable cold winters warm summers
3.2 Equilibrium & Change
• Equilibrium → describes the state of an ecosystem with relatively constant conditions (abiotic and
biotic) over a period of time
o Most natural ecosystems are in this state
o Changes on a large scale are slow and caused by climatic changes
o On a small scale small ecosystems are in constant state of short term changes
▪ E.g. forest fires, disease outbreaks
• Equilibrium is established when abiotic conditions are stable
• Succession → the gradual and usually predictable changes in the composition of a community and
the abiotic conditions following a disturbance

Ecological Succession
• Succession is initiated by a disturbance
• Primary succession → succession on newly exposed ground (e.g. soil or bare rock)
o Occurs where no life previously existed
o E.g. volcanic eruption
• Secondary succession → succession in a partially disturbed ecosystem
o Occurs when the community is disturbed not destroy
o E.g. forest fire, pollution
• Succession results in gradual changes as plants, animals, fungi, and micro-organisms become
established in an area
• Timeline of succession for plants (since most obvious to see):
Hardy plants (grass) → shrubs and small trees → large trees
• Succession also occurs in aquatic ecosystems
o E.g. bogs→ small lakes of non-flowing water are gradually covered over and filled with
vegetation

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Benefits of Succession
• Provides a mechanism by which ecosystems maintain their long term sustainability
• Allows ecosystems to recover from disturbances
• Offers hope
• Often disturbances may be repaired by humans
Rest of chapter we will be looking at human caused disturbances
3.3 Biodiversity
• Approximately 1.5 million species have been studied
o There are said to be about 5-50 million species in total
• Biodiversity → the variety of life in a particular ecosystem; also known as biological diversity
• Species richness tends to be higher close to the equator
o Tropical rainforest have the highest biodiversity
o E.g. Peruvian rainforest is home to 283 tree species; Amazon rainforest is home to 200
species of hummingbirds
Biodiversity under Attack
• Many species are becoming extinct
• Extinct → refers to a species that has died out and no longer occurs on earth
• Negative effect of extinction: some of these species have not been studied
• Extinction occurs by natural processes that takes thousands/millions of years
o But also occur naturally by extinction events → asteroid impact, massive volcanic eruption
• Human activity has actually increased the rate of extinction
o Result of habitats being destroyed (e.g. deforestation, urban and agricultural expansion,
pollution, climate change)
o When humans encounter a new species they often overexploit them
▪ E.g. within 200 years upon arrival in New Zealand humans caused the extinction of 50
species
• Some species that are now extinct:
o Giant moa, sea cow, sabre tooth tigers, mammoths
• Species do not need to be extinct to have ecological consequences
o When a population declines below a critical level, the species will no longer be able to fill its
niche, there are consequences for biotic and abiotic features of the ecosystem, and there will
be changes to the food web
• In Canada the status of species is monitored and species are classified based on the table below
Classification Description

Extinct No longer exist

Extirpated Species no longer exist in a

specific region – but may be
found elsewhere in the world

Endangered Close to extinction in specific

areas of the country

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 Threatened Species likely to become
endangered unless corrective
measures are taken

Vulnerable/special Are at risk because their

Concern numbers are low or declining,
may become threatened if
numbers do not increase

3.4 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

• Habitat loss occurs when humans replace natural habitats (forests, meadows, etc.) with artificial
ones (cities, farmland, transportation routes, etc.)
• This puts species at risk and decreases biodiversity
• Fragmentation is the dividing up of a region into smaller parcels or fragments
• Ex: building a road through a forest
• Fragmentation reduces the sustainability of the ecosystem
3.5 The Introduction of Non-Native Species

• A native species is a species that naturally belongs in an ecosystem

• A non-native species (also called exotic species or alien species or introduced species) is one that has
arrived in an ecosystem due to human activity, either deliberate or accidental.
• Example: Most of the toppings on a pizza are grown in Canada, but none are from species that are
native to Canada
• Invasive species are non-native species with growing populations that spread and have a negative
effect on their environment.
• There are over 3000 invasive species living in Canada and they have serious environmental and
economic impacts
a) ecological:

• compete with or feed on native species, leading to population decline or destruction

• change ecosystem dynamics by altering nutrient cycles or energy flow
b) economic:

• damage to forests and agricultural crops

• competition with invasive plants lowers crop yield
• diseases and pests may destroy livestock, crops, trees, and harm other important species
(honeybees)
c) tourism:

• species loss and lower water quality have negative impacts

• waterways become choked with invasive aquatic plants (water sports and boating are affected)
d) health:

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 • disease causing organisms (West Nile)
• pesticides used to control these species cause pollution and health risk
Controlling Introduced Species

• It is impossible to predict which introduced species will become invasive

• Preventing the accidental introduction of a non-native species is ideal but difficult
• Species that are introduced intentionally should be studied in advance to determine if they pose a
risk
• Complete elimination of an invasive species is very rare, however, three control measures are used to
reduce population sizes to ecologically tolerable level
a) Chemical Control

• use of pesticides
• most widely used control method
• huge environmental risks (may kill non-target species, and pollute air, water, and soil)

b) Mechanical Control

• physical barriers or removal of invasive species

• ex: pulling out weeds in a garden, hunting or trapping animals
c) Biological Control

• intentionally introducing species to control the invasive species

• ex: farmers build bird houses in their crops to attract insect-eating birds
• challenging to test and predict results
3.6 Pollution

• Pollution → harmful contaminants released into the environment

o E.g. pesticides, fertilizers, car exhaust, product packaging

Acid Precipitation

• When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air it combines with water vapour to
form acids
o This acid moves through the water cycle and return to earth as acid precipitation/acid rain
• Acid Precipitation → precipitation that has been made more acidic than usual by the combination of
certain chemical in the air with water vapour
• These chemical are released by industrial factories, and burning petroleum and coal

Effects of Acid Precipitation

• Impacts: aquatic & terrestrial ecosystems

• Aquatic ecosystems (rivers, and lakes)
o Some organisms (such as plankton) cannot handle acidity and populations decrease
▪ This in turn effects other organisms in that food web

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 ▪ Lime deposits near lakes and rivers can

• Neutralize (counteract the chemical properties of acid) the acid rain

o Southwestern Ontario water is protected by this
• Acid rain changes the soil in terrestrial ecosystems
o This depletes nutrients for plants
o slower growth of plants
o Damage to vegetation
o Has affected soils in parts of Ontario and Quebec
• Acid rain also impacts humans
o Dissolves statues (marble, concrete, limestone) = cost to repair these damages
o Aggravates respiratory problems (asthma)
o Speeds up corrosion of metals (causing cars and iron structures to rust)

• It could take hundreds of years for ecosystem to recover from acid rain
• In Canada, emissions of sulfur dioxide declined by over 60%
o But in Muskoka Halburton area still has rain 40x more acidic than natural rain
Water Pollution
Oil Spills
• The most dramatic source of water pollution are large oil spills
• Oil tankers navigate the oceans and sometimes get into accidents
• Why is oil so bad?
o Toxic
o Slow to break down
o Difficult to clean up
o Cover the oceans, beach and seabed
o Harmful to animal life
▪ Sea birds ingest it while cleaning themselves causing damage to organ systems
▪ Sea birds and seals lose their insulation = die of the cold
• Ways to clean up the oil:
o Skimming/vacuuming – oil floats can be contained or vacuumed up into a vessel (can only be
done if weather permits)

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 o Bioremediation – the use of micro-organisms to consume and break down environmental
pollutants
o Burning – allows the oil to burn away before it sinks
▪ But it pollutes the air
o Dispersal agents – oil can be broken down by detergents
▪ However can spread and be taken in more readily by organisms
Plastics at Sea
• The qualities that make plastics useful also makes plastic a harmful waste
o Light weight
o Non degradable
• Each year over 1 billion kg of plastics are produced worldwide
• Some of this plastic ends up in the water by: wind, washed into sewers by storms or dumped on
purpose
• Plastics are harmful
o Trap fish, birds and other wildlife
o Some wildlife accidently eat it
• North Pacific Oceans contains one of several large areas of floating debris made up of massive
mats of plastic trash
o Called the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
o Twice the size of Texas and 100 m deep
• Proper recycling and disposal of plastics would reduce ocean pollution
• Creating plastic is also bad for the environment because there is consumption of fossil fuels

4.1 Engineered Ecosystems and Modern Agriculture

• Unlike most species, humans spend little time in natural ecosystems

• An engineered ecosystem is an ecosystem in which the natural environment has been replaced with
land uses that support our modern lifestyle (Ex: farms, roads, parks, parking lots, housing)
• In an engineered ecosystem abiotic and biotic features have been changed, and biogeochemical and
water cycles are changed too
• Engineered ecosystems cover a large portion of Earth’s land area and they grow as the human
population grows
• Humans have the ability to manipulate our environment through the use of tools and fuels
• To live sustainably, we must not disrupt the biotic and abiotic conditions we need to survive
• If we disrupt water and nutrient cycles, threaten biodiversity, or alter climate patterns, our
engineered ecosystems will no longer be sustainable and we will not survive
Modern Agriculture – Food for Thought

• Unlike most species, humans obtain very little of their food from natural ecosystems, most of our
food is produced on farms and is available to us in grocery stores
• A farm is an engineered ecosystem called an agroecosystem
• Agroecosystems differ from natural ecosystems in four major ways:

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1) Canadian agroecosystems have many non-native species
Non-Native species Native Species

plant crops corn, wheat, potatoes, beans, barley, rye, strawberries, maple sap,
oats, soybeans, canola, tomatoes, apples, wild rice, blueberries
squash, beans, peanuts, carrots

livestock species cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens, goats turkeys

2) agroecosystems have more uniform abiotic features

3) agroecosystems have lower biodiversity
most farms are monocultures where only one species of plant is growing in an area
4) agroecosystems are more intensively used by humans and require humans to maintain them
• natural ecosystems sustain themselves over thousands of years, but engineered ecosystems such as
farmland must be managed (ploughing, weeding, fertilizing, irrigating, spraying pesticides, etc.)
4.2 Managing the Soil
Managing Soil Nutrients
• Plants are dependent on the nutrient cycles because plants require nutrients to grow (nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium)
• Farms/agroecosystems disrupt the nutrient cycle
o As crops grow, they take up nutrients and incorporate it into their tissue
o When a farmer harvests the crops the nutrients in the plant tissue is taken away from that
ecosystem
o If human and animal waste (which ate the crops) do not return to the original farmland the
nutrients are lost and the soil will be depleted of essential nutrients
Fertilizers
• Farmers use fertilizers to replace the lost nutrients
• Natural Fertilizers → plant nutrients that have been obtained from natural sources and have not
been chemically altered by humans
o E.g. animal and plant waste
• Synthetic Fertilizers → fertilizers that are manufactured using chemical processes
Environmental Impact of Fertilizers
• Synthetic fertilizers create the most impact because these fertilizers are highly concentrated (release
nutrients faster)
• Using natural fertilizers release nutrients slower but it has less effect on soil quality

• Lose natural organic matter

• Soil becomes dependent only on synthetic fertilizers
• Soil becomes susceptible to soil erosion
• Groundwater rich in nitrogen can cause health problems in infants
• Increase growth of algae – leading to algal blooms (review note on nitrogen cycle for effects of
fertilizers)
o This is due to synthetic and natural fertilizers

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Controlling the Flow of Water
• Farmers alter the water cycle by irrigating fields or using drainage pipes to add or remove water to
improve farm land conditions
o Both have negative effects
Alternative Farming Practices
1) No-Tillage → ground is left undisturbed after harvesting of crops (stubs, left over vegetation all left
undisturbed)
• Helps soil retain nutrients, stalks protect soil from wind and water erosion
• Negative effect – more pesticides need to be used
2) Crop Rotation → change the crop they plant on a certain area on a regular basis
• Reduces dependency on fertilizers
• For example rotating soybeans, corn and wheat in a three year period
3) Crop Selection → when farmers choose to grow crops that are better suited to the local growing
conditions

4.4 Pests and Poisons

• Pests are organisms that humans consider harmful or inconvenient (ex: mosquitoes that can
cause malaria)
• When farmers plant a monoculture, they often create an ideal environment for pests (ex: a field
of potato plants will attract potato beetles). Pests might compete with or damage crop species
and may reduce crop yields
• Pesticides are chemical poisons that are designed to kill pests (ex: herbicides, insecticides,
rodenticides, fungicides, mulluscicides, piscicides)
• Some pesticides are natural, meaning that they are made naturally in plants (ex: poison ivy)
• Most pesticides are synthetic, meaning that they are made by humans in a lab (ex: RAID)
• Broad-spectrum pesticides are pesticides that are effective against many types of pests (ex: DDT
is toxic to most insect species)
• Narrow-spectrum pesticides are pesticides that are effective against only a few types of pests (ex:
Bt is toxic to only caterpillars, beetle larvae and fly larvae)

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 • Pesticides work by causing physical or biological harm to the pest organism (ex: some cause
dehydration, others interfere with photosynthesis, others damage organs)
• Some pesticides are delivered by contact (the pest must be touched by the pesticide in order for
it to work), others are applied indirectly (ex: herbicides sprayed on the soil will be taken in
through the roots of the weeds, insecticides can be sprayed on a plant which will later be eaten
by the insect.
4.5 Issues With Pesticides

1) Pollution
• Pesticides are often applied by spraying
• Some of the pesticide can be carried away by the air, or land on soil or water
2) Elimination of Non-Target Species
• Pesticides (especially broad-spectrum pesticides) often kill species they were not intended to kill
• For example, if a farmer is having a problem with fruit flies destroying his strawberry crop,
spraying a broad-spectrum insecticide will kill not only the fruit flies, but also the spiders who are
natural predators of the fruit flies, and the honeybees who help to pollinate the crop
3) Bioaccumulation and Bioamplification
• Bioaccumulation is a process in which materials, especially toxins, are ingested by an organism at
a rate greater than they are eliminated.
• Often the toxins are soluble in fat but not in water
• As a result these toxins can not be released in urine or sweat, so they accumulate in the fatty
tissues of animals
• Bioaccumulation can happen naturally
• For example: As a caterpillar, the monarch butterfly feeds on a plant called milkweed. The
milkweed contains toxins which do not harm the butterfly, but are stored in its tissues. The
accumulation of these toxins in the body of the butterfly makes it poisonous to eat. This helps
the species to defend itself from predators.
• More often, bioaccumulation occurs because of toxins that humans introduce into the ecosystem
(such as environmental pollution and pesticides)
• When these toxins are introduced into the ecosystem they spread through the food chain
• Bioamplification is the increase in the concentration of a toxin as it moves from one trophic level
to the next in a food chain.
• The toxins enter animals that are low on the food chain
• When a predator eats its prey the toxins enter the body of the predator
• Since larger organisms (predators) need to eat many smaller organisms (prey), the amount of
toxins increase
• Therefore, the higher the trophic level, the greater the concentration of toxins.
4) Pesticide Resistance
• Over time pests become resistant to the chemical pesticide
• The first application of a pesticide kills 90% of the insects (that still leaves 10% that survive)
• Some of the surviving insects have genes that helped them to survive (they are resistant to the
pesticide)
• Now these few insects have less competition for food and resources and can reproduce offspring
that are also resistant to the pesticide

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 • Researchers must constantly search for new chemical poisons
Reducing our Dependence on Pesticides
• Organic Farming is the system of agriculture that relies on non-synthetic pesticides and fertilizers
• It is more expensive to buy organic food because the farmers lose some of their crops to naturally
occurring pests
• Integrated pest management (IPM) is a strategy to control pests that uses a combination of
physical, chemical, and biological controls
• IPM farmers may use synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, but only when necessary
• The goal is to maximize efficiency, keep costs low, and reduce harm to the environment

4.7 Urban Ecosystem

• Cities are major sources of air and water pollution
o Car exhaust, burning fossil fuels, gases from industry = air pollution
o Biological, commercial and industrial waste = water pollution
• People in cities rely on forestry and mining for material, agroecosystems for food and natural
ecosystems for recreation
• In cities natural vegetation is replaced by human structure
o Remaining vegetation are monocultures
• Humans cannot survive in an isolated urban environment

Greener Cities
• City planners and politicians are becoming concerned with the environment and began developing
strategies to make cities more sustainable
o They must consider the impact of human actions on cities, and surrounding ecosystems.
▪ This makes planning difficult because it crosses political boundaries
▪ Every city requires different planning
• Urban settings also offer some environmental benefits. For example, by living close to together we
can save energy, resources and space.
• One promising option is to make public transit free. If successful this approach would reduce traffic,
pollution, accidents, road costs, and space used for parking

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 Ecological Footprint
• Humans depend on the environment for air, water, shelter, improve quality of life,
• These demands affect the environment
• Ecologists use the term “ecological footprint” to measure the impact of an individual or
population on the environment
• It is usually stated as the equivalent surface area of Earth that a person needs to support his or
her current life style
• Today’s society must find ways to use Earth’s land and water levels that can be used forever (are
sustainable)
• Developed countries have the largest ecological footprint
o Canada has an average of 7.7 hectares per person
o The global average is 2.2
We must all reduce our ecological footprint by consuming fewer resources, using existing resources more
efficiently, us.

Space
❖ 8.1 Touring the night sky
▪ Astronomy: the scientific study of what is beyond earth
▪ Celestial object: any object that exists in space
▪ Universe:everything that exists including all energy matter and space
o Stars
▪ Star: a massive collection of gases held together by its own gravity and emoting
huge amounts of energy
▪ Stars are luminous produce and give off light
▪ Constellations:a group of stars as observed from earth
▪ Shapes noticed by ancient civilizations named after heroes animals etc used as
calendars time
o Planets
▪ Planet:a large, round celestial object that travels around the sun
▪ 8 planets traveling around the sun each differs in size composition atmosphere
and day/year length
▪ Mercury rocky, dry, many crater, no moons, no atmosphere

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 ▪ Venus rocky, cloud covered, retrograde moon, no moons, thick acidic CO2
atmosphere
▪ Earth Rocky, blue liquid H2O, polar ice caps, inclined axis, geologic activity, one
moon, O2 atmosphere
▪ Mars rock, red, dust storms, Old River Valley, large dead volcano, two moons,
then 95% CO2 atmosphere with h2O has N Ar O
▪ Jupiter gas giant, largest planet, coloured gas bands, great red spot, magnetic
field, 63 moons, 90% H 10%He Atmosphere
▪ Saturn gas giant wide thin rings yellow white gas bands, 31 moons,94% H 6% He
H2O gas methane ammonia atmosphere
▪ Uranus gas giant, blue, axis tilted 90°, faint rings, 27 moons, 85% H 12% He 3%
methane Atmosphere
▪ Neptune Gas giant blue faint rings giant dark spot, 13 moons, 85% H 13% He 2%
methane
o Moons
▪ A moon is a natural satellite- celestial object that travels around a planet in a
closed path
▪ It takes one month for noon to orbit earth
▪ Planets may have 0 moons or many
o Solar system
▪ Solar system: consists of the sun and all of the objects that travel around it
▪ Planets travel in paths, orbits
▪ Orbits are nearly circular
▪ Planets are held in place by the suns gravitational pull
o Galaxies
▪ Galaxy: a huge rotating collection of gas dust and billions of stars, planets and
other celestial objects
▪ Milky Way galaxy: the galaxy that earth is a part of contains more that 2 billion
stars appears as a hazy band is white light in the sky
❖ The Solar System
o Distances in the Solar System
▪ Distance in the solar systems are big that astronomers use different units
▪ Astronomical unit AU is the average distance between he sun and earth about
150 million km so 1AU is 150 million km
o Planets Big and Small
▪ Sun is the biggest object in the solar system
▪ Next largest are the 8 planets
▪ 4 inner planets are terrestrial mercury Venus earth mars
▪ 4 outer planets are gas giants Jupiter Saturn Uranus
o Definition of a planet
▪ To be considered a planet
▪ It must orbit around a star
▪ Must be enough mass to be pulled into a sphere
▪ Must dominate its orbit and have more mass than other objects in its orbit

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 o Dwarf Planets
▪ Dwarf planet: orbit the sun and have a spherical shape but do don’t dominate
their orbit
❖ Hertz sprung Russel Diagram
o A star mass determines its brightness size colour and how long it will live
o 2 astronomers organized this I formation into a Diagram HR diagram
o It plots magnitude against star surface temperature
o Can be used to describe how stars have come to be
o Absolute magnitude: measures brightness of a star refers to the actual amount of light
given off by a star at a standard distance; how bright the star would be if it was be same
distance from earth
o Luminosity:is a measure of the total amount of energy a star produces per second, the
luminosity of a start is measured by comparing it with the luminosity of the sun, 1
o Star Spectrum
▪ Lines that show gases in a star like a bar code making it unique to tell which gas is
present

Blue giants

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