Quantum Mechanics Revisited
ZCE305: Atomic and Nuclear Physics
M. R. Omar
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Schrödinger’s Equation in Wave Mechanics
Schrödinger’s Time-Dependent Equation
The time-dependent Schrödinger’s equation for a quantum system:
∂ ℏ2 2
iℏ Ψ(r, t) = ĤΨ(r, t) where Ĥ = − ∇ + V (r, t)
∂t 2m
Wavefunction Ψ(r, t)
Ψ(r, t) represents the quantum state of a system.
It encodes information about the probability amplitude of
finding a particle at position r and time t.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
State Vectors
What is a State Vector?
State vectors, denoted as |Ψ⟩, are virtual vector that represent the quantum
state of a physical system.
Z
|ψ⟩ = d 3 r ψ(r)|r⟩
(1)
ψ(r) = ⟨r | ψ⟩
1 State vectors are represented as column vectors in a complex vector
space, i.e. |Ψ⟩ = (a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · )T where ak ∈ C .
2 They are used to estimate physical properties, such as position, mo-
mentum, spin, or any observable quantity in quantum mechanics.
3 Conventional vectors span in the Euclidean space, but state vectors
span in the Hilbert space.
4 The time evolution of a quantum system is described by Schrödinger’s
equation, and the state vector |Ψ⟩ changes with time.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Eigenstates
Key Point
In general, a quantum state is represented by the superposition of
of multiple different eigenstates.
1 Using bra-ket notation, this linear combination of eigenstates
can be represented as:
X
|Ψ(t)⟩ = Cn (t) |Φn ⟩ (2)
n
2 The coefficient corresponding to a particular state in the linear
combination is a complex number, allowing interference effects
between states.
3 The coefficients are time-dependent.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Algebra of State Vectors
Superposition
Combining states is done through linear combinations. If |ψ1 ⟩ and
|ψ2 ⟩ are valid states, then |Φ⟩ = c1 |ψ1 ⟩ + c2 |ψ2 ⟩ is also a valid
state, where c1 and c2 are complex numbers.
Inner Product
The inner product of two states ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ yields a complex number.
Normalization
A state vector is normalized if ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Schrödinger’s Equation
State Vector Form
Schrödinger’s equation describes the time evolution of quantum
systems. In its state vector form, it is written as:
∂
iℏ |Ψ(t)⟩ = Ĥ |Ψ(t)⟩ (3)
∂t
1 |Ψ(t)⟩ is the state vector of the quantum system, representing
its quantum state at time t.
∂
2 ∂t denotes the time derivative.
3 Ĥ is the Hamiltonian operator, representing the total energy
operator of the system.
This equation describes how the quantum state |Ψ(t)⟩ evolves over
time under the influence of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
The Hamiltonian
Definition
The Hamiltonian operator, denoted as Ĥ, represents the total
energy of a quantum system.
It includes contributions from kinetic energy, potential energy,
and other interactions within the system.
The Hamiltonian provides information about the allowed
energy levels (eigenvalues) and the dynamics of the system.
Understanding the Hamiltonian is crucial for predicting the
behavior and energy spectrum of quantum systems.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
The Hamiltonian: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
In Dirac notation, Ĥ is a rank-2 tensor operator with eigenvalues
and eigenvectors.
Eigenvalues (En ): These are the possible energy levels of the
quantum system. Each eigenvalue represents a distinct energy
level that the system can have.
Eigenvectors (eigenstates) |Ψn ⟩: These are the corresponding
quantum states associated with each eigenvalue. They
describe the state of the system at a specific energy level.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
The Hamiltonian: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
The eigenvalue equation is:
Ĥ |Ψn ⟩ = En |Ψn ⟩ (4)
The Hamiltonian operator Ĥ is a tensor, and solving this
equation allows us to find the allowed energy levels and their
associated quantum states for the system.
Eigenstates are orthonormal, forming a complete basis for
representing any quantum state of the system. (If you don’t
attend my lecture, you will not be able to understand this!)
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
The Conjugate Transpose (†)
Definition
The conjugate transpose, often denoted as † , is an operation that
combines complex conjugation and matrix transposition.
In the context of complex numbers, the complex conjugate of
a number a + bi is a − bi, where a and b are real numbers.
In the context of matrices, the transpose of a matrix swaps its
rows and columns, while the complex conjugate of the matrix
replaces all elements with their complex conjugates.
AT
ij
= [A]ji (5)
The conjugate transpose of a matrix A is denoted as A† and is
obtained by taking the transpose of A and then applying
complex conjugation to each element.
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Expectation Value in Quantum Mechanics
In quantum theory, an experimental setup is described by the
observable A to be measured, and the state σ of the system.
The expectation value of A in the state σ is denoted as ⟨A⟩σ .
The expectation value of A in the state ψ is defined as
⟨A⟩ψ = ⟨ψ|A|ψ⟩
If A has a complete set of eigenvectors ϕj , with eigenvalues
aj , then this expression can be expressed as
X
⟨A⟩ψ = aj |⟨ψ | ϕj ⟩|2
j
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Time Unitary Propagator
Definition
The time unitary propagator, denoted as Û(t, t0 ), describes the
time evolution of a quantum system’s state from an initial time t0
to a later time t.
Û(t, t0 ) is a unitary operator that ensures the preservation of
probability amplitudes and the conservation of quantum
states.
The time-dependent Schrödinger’s equation, which we
previously discussed, is often used to derive Û(t, t0 ).
The time-evolution operator Û(t, t0 ) allows us to calculate the
quantum state at time t if we know the state at the initial
time t0 .
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Properties of Û(t, t0 )
Unitarity: Û(t, t0 ) is a unitary operator, which means that it
preserves the inner product between quantum states and
conserves the probability amplitudes.
Composition: The propagator for a time interval from t0 to t1
followed by a time interval from t1 to t2 is the product of the
propagators for each interval:
J
Y
Û(tJ , t0 ) = Û(tj , tt−1 ) (6)
j=0
Time-reversal symmetry: If the Hamiltonian operator is
time-reversal symmetric, the propagator satisfies:
Û(t, t0 ) = Û † (t0 , t) (7)
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Time Propagator
We know that from Basic Quantum Mechanics, E = ℏω,
where ω is the angular frequency of the quantum wave.
Time solution of Schrodinger’s Equation:
E
|ψ(t)⟩ = |ψ0 ⟩ e −iωt = |ψ0 ⟩ e −i ℏ t (8)
The time propagator operator is simply
U(t, t0 ) = e −i Ĥℏ(t−t0 ) (9)
Here, Ĥ is a rank-2 tensor (matrix), therefore, the above
equation a matrix exponential!
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
Application of Time Propagator
Determining the final state vector
Let’s consider an initial quantum state represented by a state
vector |ψ(t0 )⟩ ≡ |ψ0 ⟩ and a unitary operator Û(t, t0 ). The action
of the unitary operator on the initial state vector determines the
final state vector after time t:
|ψ(t)⟩ = Û(t, t0 ) |ψ0 ⟩ (10)
M. R. Omar Quantum Mechanics Revisited
