INDEX

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1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1

2. CERTIFICATE 2

3. DECLARATION 3

4. INTRODUCTION 5-9

5. EXPERIMENT AND OBSERVATION 10-11

6. CONCLUSION 12

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 13

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 INTRODUCTION

Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjuction with water for washing and cleaning,
which historically comes either in solid bars or in the form of a viscous liquid. Soap
consists of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained by reacti ng
common oils or fats with a strong alkaline in a process known as saponification. The
fats are hydrolyzed by the base, yielding alkali salts of fatty acids(crude soap) and
glycerol.

The general formula of soap is

Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both a hydrophilic end,
which dissolves in water, as well as a hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non
polar grease molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water effectively holds
particles in colloidal suspension so it can be rinsed off with clean water. The
hydrophobic end (made up of long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils, while
the ionic end dissolves in water.

The resultant forms a round structure called micelle. Therefore, it allows water to
remove normally-insoluble matter by emulsification.
HISTORY OF SOAPS
The discovery of soap predates recorded history, going back perhaps as for as
6000years. Excavations of ancient Babylon uncovered cylinders with inscriptions for
making soap around 2800 B.C.E. Later records from ancient Egypt describe how
animal and vegetable oils are combined with alkaline salts to make soaps.

According to Roman Legend, soap got its name from Mount Sapo, where animals
were sacrificed. Rain would wash the fat from the sacrificed animals along with
alkaline wooden ashes from the sacrificial fires into the Tiber River. where people
found the mixture helped clean clothes. This recipe for making soap was relatively
unchanged for centuries, with American colonists collecting and cooking down animal
tallow and then mixing it with an alkali potash solution obtained from the accumulated
hardwood ashes of their winter fires. Similarly, Europeans made something known as
castile soap using olive oil. Only since the mid- nineteenth century has the process
become commercialized and soap become widely available at the local market.

Saponification

Saponification is a process that involve conversion of oils and fats in to soap. and
alcohol by the action of heat in the presence of aqueous alkali (e.g. NaOH). Soaps are
salts of fatty acids whereas fatty acids are saturated monocarboxylic acids that have
long carbon chains (at least 10) e.g. CH₂(CH₂)₁4COOH.

During saponification, ester reacts with an inorganic base to produce alcohol and soap.
Generally, it occurs when triglycerides are reacted with potassium or sodium
hydroxide (lye) to produce glycerol and a fatty acid salt, called "soap". Triglycerides
are generally animal fats and vegetable oils. When they are reacted with sodium
hydroxide, a hard form of soap is created. This is where potassium comes and creates a
softer version of the soap.

The equation can be written as:

Ester + Base →Alcohol + Soap

How does soap works:
Washing up liquid is a kind of soap. Normally, oil and water don't mix, so they
separate in to two different layers. Soap breaks up the oil into smaller drops, which can
mix with the water. It works because soap is made of molecules with two different
ends.

Hydrophobic ends of soap molecule all attach to the oil. Hydrophilic ends stick out
into the water. This causes a drop of oil to form micelle:

These drops of oil are suspended in the water. This is how soap cleans your hands- it
causes drops of grease and dirt to be pulled off your hands and suspended in water.
These drops are washed away when you rinse your hands.

Foaming capacity of Soaps

When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap solution that is colloidal in nature.
Agitating it tends to concentrate the solution on the surface and causes foaming. This
helps the soap molecules make a unimolecular film on the surface of water and to
penetrate the fabric. The long non-polar end of a soap molecule that are hydrophobic,
gravitate towards and surround the dirt (fat or oil with dust absorbed in it). The short
polar end containing the carboxylate ion, face the water away from the dirt. A number
of soap molecules surround or encircle dirt and grease in a clustered structured called
'micelles', which encircles such particles and emulsify them, Cleansing action of soaps
decreases in hard water. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions which react
with sodium carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa+Ca3+ → (C17H35COO)Ca + 2Na+

(White soluble) (ppt)

2C17H35COONa+Mg2+ → (C17H35COO)Mg + 2Na+

This hardness can be removed by addition of Sodium Carbonate,

Ca2++Na2CO3 → CaCO3 +2Na+

Mg2++ Na2CO3 → MgCO3 + 2Na+

Soaps
Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing and lubricating products.
Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping,
where soaps acts as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by
water. In industry they are used as thickeners, components of some lubricants, and
precursors to catalysts.

Types of Soaps
Hard Soaps:

Hard soap is made using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lye. Hard soaps are especially
good cleansers in hard water that contains magnesium, chlorides and calcium ions.
Soft Soaps:-Soft soap is made using potassium hydroxide (KOH) rather than sodium
hydroxide. In addition to being softer, this type of soap has a lower melting point.
They readily dissolve, yet also tend not to last as long.

Lithium Soaps:

Lithium soap is made using lithium hydroxide (LiOH). They are used as a lubricating
grease, Sometimes complex soaps are made using lithium soap and also calcium soap.
Preparation of soap
There are two basic ways to make solid bar soap: hot process or cold process. The
differences include using external heat, the time it takes to saponify, curing time and
the finish of the soap. External heat and saponification time

In cold process

When making cold process soaps you may have initially melted your solid oils in to
liquid form so that you can adequately mix the lye solution with the soap recipe fatty
acids. No additional heat is used to actually facilitate the saponification process.
Saponification takes about 18 to 24 hours to complete.

In hot process

With hot process soap making, an external heat source is used to accelerate
saponification. The external heat source can be a crock pot, a double boiler or the
oven. Saponification will be complete in approximately 2 hours.
 EXPERIMENT
AIM: To compare, the foaming capacity of 5 different commercial soaps,

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. 5 Conical flask,
2. 5 test tube,
3. 100ml measuring cylinder,
4. test tube stand,
5. weighing machine,
6. Stop watch.

CHEMICALS REQUIRED

1. 5 different soap samples

2. Distilled water
3. Tap water

PROCEDURE

 5 conical flask are taken and numbered Ito 5. 2.

 In each of these flask equal amounts of given sample of soap is taken 50ml of
distilled water is added.
 Each conical flask is heated for few minutes to dissolve soap completely. 4. In a
test-tube stand, 5 big clean and dry test-tubes are taken and numbered 1 to 5.
 1 ml of soap solution is then poured in the test-tubes of corresponding number.
 10ml of distilled water is taken in each test-tube.
 Test-tube no.1 is then shaken vigorously 5 times.
 The foam would be formed in the empty space above the container.
 Stop watch is started immediately and time taken for disappearance of foam is
noted.
 Similarly the other test-tubes are shaken vigorously for equal number of times
and approximately with the same force. Less the time taken for disappearance
of foam, lower is foaming capacity.
 OBSERVATION

 Amount of each soap sample- 2gm

 Amount of distilled water- 50ml
 Volume of soap solution taken- 1 ml
 Volume of distilled water added- 10ml

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sl NO Name of the soap Time taken

1. Pears 35 min 40 sec

2. Ghadi 23 min 46 sec

3. Rin 18 min 45 sec

4. Lux 16 min 30 sec

5. Glori 15 min 15 sec

 CONCLUSION

The cleansing capacity of soaps taken is in the order Pears > Ghadi> Rin > Lux >

Glori

From this experiment we can infer that Pears has the highest foaming capacity, in

other words, highest cleansing capacity.

Glori on the other hand is found to have taken the least amount of time for the

disappearance of foam produced and this is said to be having the least foaming

capacity.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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