MA1104 Week 9

Line Integrals

1. Line Integral of Scalar Field

Line integrals were invented in the early 19th century to solve problems
involving:

• Fluid flow

• Forces

• Electricity

• Magnetism

There are two types of line integrals:

• line integrals of scalar function/field (f (x, y) or f (x, y, z)) over a curve

C in the domain

• line integrals of vector field (F(x, y) or F(x, y, z)) over a curve C in the
domain

Let us begin with line integrals of scalar field. Consider a scalar function
f (x, y) and a curve C on the xy-plane. We want to define the line integral
Z
f (x, y) ds.
C

We follow the same procedure as before:

Step 1: Partition the domain C
Step 2: Form Riemann sum
Step 3: Take limit.

1
Step 1: Partition the domain C:

We represent the curve C by a parametrisation:

r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b.

We then partition C by partitioning the interval [a, b] for t:

Step 2: Form Riemann sum

Choose a sample point Pi∗ (x∗i , yi∗ ) in the i-th subarc.

This corresponds to a point t∗i in [ti−1 , ti ].
Form the Riemann sum:
n
X
f (x∗i , yi∗ )4si
i

Here, 4si is the length of the i-th sub arc.

Step 3: Take limit and make the following definition by analogy with a
single integral.

Z n
X
f (x, y) ds = lim f (x∗i , yi∗ )4si ,
C n→∞
i=1

2
Definition 1 (Line Integrals of Scalar Field). If f is defined on a smooth
curve C given by r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b. Then the line integral of f
along C is
Z n
X
f (x, y) ds = lim f (x∗i , yi∗ )4si ,
C n→∞
i=1

provided this limit exists and is the same for every choice of (x∗i , yi∗ ).

To evaluate a line integral, we replace

p
4si = x0 (t∗i )2 + y 0 (t∗i )2 4ti

Z n
X
f (x, y) ds = lim f (x∗i , yi∗ )4si
C n→∞
i=1
n
X p
= lim f (x∗i , yi∗ ) x0 (t∗i )2 + y 0 (t∗i )2 4ti
n→∞
i=1
s 
Z b 2  2
dx dy
= f (x(t), y(t)) + dt.
a dt dt

We summarise this in the following theorem.

Theorem 2 (Formula for Line Integral of Scalar Field in 2D). Suppose C is

given by r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b.

s 
Z Z b 2  2
dx dy
f (x, y) ds = f (x(t), y(t)) + dt.
C a dt dt
Z b
= f (x(t), y(t)) ||r0 (t)|| dt
a

Remark. The line integral of scalar field is independent of the orientation

of r(t).

3
Special Case:

• Choose
f (x, y) = 1 for all x, y.

• The line integral formula reduces to

Z Z Z b Z b
0
f (x, y) ds = 1 ds = 1 · ||r (t)|| dt = ||r0 (t)|| dt
C C a a

= arc length of C.
R
Hence, the line integral C 1 ds can be interpreted as the arc length of C.
Here is another interpretation Rof line interval of scalar field in the case when
f (x, y) ≥ 0. The line integral C f (x, y) ds represents the area of the ‘fence’
or ‘curtain’ shown below, whose:

• Base is C.

• Height above the point (x, y) is f (x, y).

Z
Example 1. Evaluate (2 + x2 y) ds where C is the upper half of the unit
C
circle x2 + y 2 = 1.

4
Solution. The upper half of the unit circle has the following parametrization

x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

s 2 2
Z Z π 
2 2 dx dy
(2 + x y) ds = (2 + cos t sin t) + dt
C 0 dt dt
Z π p
= (2 + cos2 t sin t) sin2 t + cos2 t dt
Z0 π
= (2 + cos2 t sin t) dt
0 π
cos3 t
= 2t −
3 0
2
= 2π + .
3


2. More Examples: Line Integral of Scalar Field

Suppose C is a union of a finite number of smooth curves C1 , C2 , . . ., Cn ,

where the initial point of Ci+1 is the terminal point of Ci .

5
Then Z Z Z
f (x, y) ds = f (x, y) ds + · · · + f (x, y) ds.
C C1 Cn

Very common in practice, we need to parametrize line segments. Here we

want to do this once and for all.

Parametrization of a line segment:

A vector representation of the line segment that starts from r0 and ends at
r1 is given by

r(t) = r0 + t(r1 − r0 ), 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Example 2. Give a parametrization of the line segment from (−5, −3) to

(0, 2).
Solution. Take r0 = h−5, −3i and r1 = h0, 2i. Then, a vector equation of
the line is

r(t) = h−5, −3i + t(h0, 2i − h−5, −3i)

= h5t − 5, 5t − 3i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Z 
Example 3. Evaluate 2x ds where C consists of the arc C1 of the parabola
C
y = x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 1) followed by the vertical line segment C2 from (1, 1)
to (1, 2).

6
Solution. We can parameterize C1 as

x = t, y = t2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Therefore,

s 2 2
Z Z 1 
dx dy
2x ds = 2t + dt
C1 0 dt dt
Z 1 √
= 2t 1 + 4t2 dt
0
√
5 5−1
= .
6
We can parametrize C2 as follows:

x = 1, y = t, 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Therefore,
s 
Z Z 2 2  2
dx dy
2x ds = 2(1) + dt
C2 1 dt dt
Z 2
= 2 dt
1
= 2.

Combining the results:

√
5 5−1
Z Z Z
2x ds = 2x ds + 2x ds = + 2.
C C1 C2 6


So far we have looked at line integral of scalar field f (x, y). We can also
define the line integral of f (x, y, z) along space curve C in a manner similar
to that for plane curves:
Z n
X
f (x, y, z) ds = lim f (x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ )4si
C n→∞
i=1

7
Theorem 3 (Formula for Line Integral of Scalar Field in 3D). Suppose that
C is a smooth space curve given by r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b. Then
Z
f (x, y, z) ds
C
s 
Z b 2  2  2
dx dy dz
= f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) + + dt
a dt dt dt
Z b
= f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) ||r0 (t)|| dt.
a

3. Vector Field

We now introduce vector fields:

function Domain D Range R
(vector field) F(x, y) D ⊆ R2 R ⊆ V2
(vector field) F(x, y, z) D ⊆ R3 R ⊆ V3

Definition 4 (Vector field on R2 ). Let D ⊆ R2 . A vector field on D is a

function F that assigns to each point (x, y) ∈ D a 2-D vector F(x, y).

Definition 5 (Vector field on R3 ). Let D ⊆ R3 . A vector field on D is a

function F that assigns to each point (x, y, z) ∈ D a 3-D vector F(x, y, z).

We can express vector fields in component form:

Component Form (2D):

F(x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j = hP (x, y), Q(x, y)i

or for short (by suppressing the variables x, y)

F = P i + Qj = hP, Qi.

Component Form (3D):

8
 F(x, y, z) = P (x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k
= hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i

or for short (by suppressing the variables x, y, z)

F = P i + Qj + Rk = hP, Q, Ri

How can we visualize a vector field?

The best way to picture a vector field F(x, y) is to draw the arrow represent-
ing the vector F(x, y) starting at the point (x, y).

For F(x, y, z), we visualize it by drawing arrows starting from (x, y, z):

Here are some examples of computer plots of vector fields:

9
 F(x, y) = −yi + xj

F(x, y) = yi + sin xj

F(x, y) = ln(1 + y 2 )i + ln(1 + x2 )j

Most 3-D vector fields, however, are virtually impossible to sketch by hand.

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The gravitational field is pictured here.

mM G
F(x, y, z) = − r, where r = hx, y, zi.
||r||3

11
4. Work Done & Line Integral of Vector Field

We now consider the problem of calculating work done which leads us to the
definition of line integral of vector field.
Problem:
Let us suppose we want to find the work done by a constant force F in moving
the object from a point A to B in a straight line. From elementary physics,
we know that this work done is given by the following dot product:

Work done = F · D

−→
where D = AB is the displacement vector.

More Difficult Problem:

Perhaos a more difficult problem is to calculate the work done if

• The force F is 3D (or 2D) and is NOT constant?

• The path of the object is curve which is NOT a straight line?

Let us assume the following settings:

• F(x, y, z) = hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i is continuous on R3 (that

is P (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z) and R(x, y, z) are continuous (scalar) functions).
• The path of the object being moved is a smooth curve C.

What is the work done by F? We shall find this by using the following pro-
cedure:

Step 1: Partition the domain (the curve C)

Step 2: Form Riemann sums
(work done over little subarc)
Step 3: Take limit

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Step 1: Partition the domain.

We divide C into subarcs Pi−1 Pi with lengths 4si by partitioning the pa-
rameter domain [a, b].

Step 2: Form Riemann sum.

Choose a point Pi∗ (x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ ) on the i-th subarc corresponding to the param-
eter value t∗i .

Since 4si is very small, we can make the following approximations:

• the particle moves from Pi−1 to Pi along the curve approximately in

the direction of T(t∗i ) (the unit tangent vector at Pi∗ ).

• the force is approximately constant along the small subarc.

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Calculating work done ove little subarc:

The work done by the force F in moving the particle Pi−1 from to Pi is
approximately

F(x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ ) · 4si T(t∗i ) = (F(x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ ) · T(t∗i )) 4si .
The total work done in moving the particle along C is approximately
n
X
(F(x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ ) · T(x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ )) 4si
i

where T(x, y, z) is the unit tangent vector at the point (x, y, z) on C.

Step 3: Take Limit.

Thus, we define the work W done by the force field F as the limit of the
Riemann sums in the preceding formula, namely,
n
X
W = lim (F(x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ ) · T(x∗i , yi∗ , zi∗ )) 4si
n→∞
i

We denote this by
Z Z
W = F(x, y, z) · T(x, y, z) ds = F · T ds.
C C

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To compute the work done, we shall parameterize the curve C, say by

r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b.

As shown below, we can turn the line integral into ordinary single integral:

First, notice that using r(t), we can now write

r0 (t)
• T(t) = 0
||r (t)||
ds
• = ||r0 (t)||
dt
Thus,
Z
W = F(x, y, z) · T(x, y, z) ds
C
Z b
r0 (t)
= F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) · ||r0 (t)|| dt
a ||r0 (t)||
Z b
= F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r0 (t) dt
a

The formula
Z b
W = F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r0 (t) dt
a

is often abbreviated as (by suppressing the notation for t)

Z
W = F · dr.
C

The above example of work done motivates the following definition of line
integral of vector field.

15
Definition 6 (Line Integral of Vector Field). Let F be a continuous vec-
tor field defined on a smooth curve C given by a vector function r(t) =
hx(t), y(t), z(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b.

Then, the line integral of F(x, y, z) along C is:

Z Z Z b
F · dr = F · T ds = F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r0 (t) dt.
C C a

The 2D version is the following: Suppose C is a plane curve given by

r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b.

Then the line integral of F(x, y) along C is:

Z Z Z b
F · dr = F · T ds = F(x(t), y(t)) · r0 (t) dt.
C C a

R
Does the value of the line integral C
F · dr depend on different parametriza-
tions?

• NO if the parametrizations have the same orientation.

• YES if the parametrization have opposite orientations.

Suppose r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, traces out C. Let −C denotes the curve consisting

of the same points as C but with the opposite orientation.

16
Theorem 7. We have
Z Z
F · dr = − F · dr
−C C

because the unit tangent vector T is replaced by its negative when C is

replaced by −C.

5. Example: Line Integral of 2D Vector Field

Example 4. Compute the work done by the force field F(x, y) = hy, −xi
acting on an object as it moves along the parabola y = x2 − 1 from (1, 0) to
(−2, 3).

Solution. A parametrization r(t) of the curve:

17
 x = t, y = t2 − 1, − 2 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Note that the orientation of this parametrization is the opposite of that given
by the question.

Thus, if C is the curve whose orientation is given by the question , then r(t)
here traces −C instead of C.

x = t, y = t2 − 1, − 2 ≤ t ≤ 1.
r(t) = ht, t2 − 1i, −2≤t≤1
r0 (t) = h1, 2ti.
Therefore, the work done is

Z Z
W = F · dr = − F(x(t), y(t)) · r0 (t) dt
C −C
Z 1
= − ht2 − 1, −ti · h1, 2ti dt
−2
Z 1
= − (t2 − 1 − 2t2 ) dt
−2
Z 1
= t2 + 1 dt
−2
= 6.

6. Example: Line Integral of 3D Vector Field

Suppose we are given

• The vector field

F(x, y, z) = P (x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)j

18
 • The curve C is parametriced by

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b.

Z
We are going to write F · dr in terms of the components (scalar fields) P ,
C
Q and R as follows:

Z Z b
F · dr = F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r0 (t) dt
C a
Z b
= hP, Q, Ri · hx0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t)i dt
a
Z b Z b Z b
0 0
= P x (t) dt + Qy (t) dt + Rz 0 (t) dt
a a a

It is customary to write

x0 (t) dt = dx, y 0 (t) dt = dy, z 0 (t) dt = dz

and abbreviate the line integral as
Z Z
F · dr = P dx + Q dy + R dz
C C
We summarise this as follows.

Theorem 8 (Component Form). If F(x, y, z) = hP, Q, Ri then we can write

Z Z
F · dr = P dx + Q dy + R dz
C C

If F(x, y) = hP, Qi then we can write

Z Z
F · dr = P dx + Q dy.
C C

19
Sometimes a curve C is not smooth but it is a union of finitely many smooth
curves C1 , . . ., Cn , as shown in the figure above. In such cases, we can
compute the line integrals as sum of the line integrals over C1 , . . ., Cn :
Z Z Z
F · dr = F · dr + · · · + F · dr.
C C1 Cn

R
Example 5. Let F(x, y, z) = hy, z, xi. Evaluate C F · dr over C where C
consists of part of the twisted cubic C1 : x = t, y = t2 , z = t3 where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,
followed by the line segment (straight line) C2 from (1, 1, 1) to (0, 1, 0).
Solution. Over C1 : We have

r(t) = ht, t2 , t3 i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
r0 (t) = h1, 2t, 3t2 i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Z Z 1
F · dr = ht2 , t3 , ti · h1, 2t, 3t2 i dt
C1 0
Z 1
= t2 + t3 (2t) + t(3t2 ) dt
0
 3 1
t 2t5 3t4 89
= + + = .
3 5 4 0 60
Over C2 : We have

r(t) = h1, 1, 1i + th−1, 0, −1i

= h1 − t, 1, 1 − ti, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

20
 r0 (t) = h−1, 0, −1i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Z Z 1
F · dr = h1, 1 − t, 1 − ti · h−1, 0, −1i dt
C2 0
Z 1
= 1(−1) + (1 − t)(0) + (1 − t)(−1) dt
0
Z 1
= (t − 2) dt
0
 2 1
t 3
= − 2t =− .
2 0 2

Finally, putting these results together, we have

Z Z Z
F · dr = F · dr + F · dr
C C1 C2

89 3 1
= − =− .
60 2 60


7. Conservative Vector Field

Definition 9. A vector field F is conservative vector field on D if we can

write
F = Of
for some scalar function f on D.

The function f is called the potential function of F.

Example 6. Let F(x, y) = 2xyi + (1 + x2 − y 2 )j. Show that F is conservative

by finding a potential function f such that F = Of .

21
Solution. Notice that

F(x, y) = 2xyi + (1 + x2 − y 2 )j = Of = hfx , fy i

fx = 2xy, fy = 1 + x2 − y 2 .
Idea: Recover f from fx an fy by partial integrations.
Integrating fx with respect to x (so that y is treated as a constant), we have

f (x, y) = x2 y + g(y)

for some function g(y) of y.

To determine g(y), we differentiate f (x, y) = x2 y + g(y) with respect to y,

obtaining

fy = x2 + g 0 (y)

Comparing the above with fy = 1 + x2 − y 2 , we have

g 0 (y) = 1 − y 2 .
Integrating g 0 (y) with respect to y, we have
1
g(y) = y − y 3 + C
3
where C is a constant.

We may take C = 0. Hence

1
f (x, y) = x2 y + y − y 3
3
is a potential function. 

22
Question: How to determine whether or not a vector field is conservative?
Answer.

• If we can find a potential function f such that F = Of (like we did in

the last example), then F is conservative.

• As given by the folllwoing theorems, we can also do this without finding

the potential function!

Theorem 10 (Test for Conservative Field in the Plane). Suppose F(x, y) =

P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j is a vector field in an open and simply-connected region
D and both P and Q have continuous first-order partial derivatives on D.
Then
∂Q ∂P
=
∂x ∂y
at each point (x, y) in D if and only if F is conservative on D.

Here, an open and simply connected region D is a region on the xy-plane

without any holes such that any two points in it can be joined by a path
entirely in D, and that it does not contain any of its boundary points.

Proof. We will only prove the implication ⇐=.

Since F is conservative, there exists a function f such that F = Of , that is

P i + Qj = fx i + fy j.
Since Py and Qx are continuous by assumption, it follows from Clairaut’s
theorem that
∂P ∂Q
= fxy = fyx = .
∂y ∂x


Theorem 11 (Test for Conservative Field in Space). Suppose F(x, y, z) =

hP, Q, Ri is a vector field in an open and simply-connected region D in space

23
and both P , Q and R have continuous first-order partial derivatives on D.
Then
∂R ∂Q ∂R ∂P ∂Q ∂P
= , = , =
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
for each point (x, y, z) in D if and only if F is conservative on D.

Example 7. Determine whether or not the vector field

F(x, y) = (3 + 2xy)i + (x2 − 3y 2 )j

is conservative.

Solution. Let P (x, y) = 3 + 2xy and Q(x, y) = x2 − 3y 2 . Then

∂P ∂Q
= 2x = .
∂y ∂x

Also, the domain of F is the entire plane D = R2 which is open and simply-
connected. Hence F is conservative.


8. Fundamental Theorem for Line Integral

The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals says that we can evaluate
the line integral of a conservative vector field by only knowing the potential
function at the endpoints!

Theorem 12 (Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals). Suppose F is a

conservative vector field with potential function f , and C is a smooth curve
with initial point A and terminal point B. Then
Z Z
F · dr = Of · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C C

Z
Of · dr = f (x2 , y2 ) − f (x1 , y1 ).
C

24
 Z
Of · dr = f (x2 , y2 , z2 ) − f (x1 , y1 , z1 ).
C

The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals says that line integral
of conservative field is INDEPENDENT of paths with the same initial point
and terminal point.

The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals gives another test for non-
conservativeness:

There are two paths with the

same initial and terminal points Vector field is NOT
=⇒
but their line integrals are differ- conservative.
ent.
In this course, we shall not provide a proof of the Fundamental Theorem.

25
Example 8. Let F = h2xey + 1, x2 ey + 2y + xi.

(a) Is F a conservative vector field?

(b) Find a function f (x, y) such that F = h0, xi + Of .

Z
(c) Evaluate F · dr, where C is the curve y = sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π, oriented
C
in the clockwise direction.

Solution. Let

P (x, y) = 2xey + 1, Q(x, y) = x2 ey + 2y + x.

(a) Qx = 2xey + 1, Py = 2xey .

So Qx − Py = 1 6= 0.

So F is NOT conservative.

(b) We want to find f such that

fx = 2xey + 1, fy = x2 ey + 2y.

Integrating fx with respect to x:

f = x2 ey + x + g(y).

Differentiating with respect to y:

fy = x2 ey + g 0 (y).

Thus,
g 0 (y) = 2y,
whence
g(y) = y 2 + C
for some constant C. We set C = 0, and so

f = x2 e y + x + y 2 .

26
(c) We parameterise C as follows:

r(t) = ht, sin ti, 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

Then, by part (b),

Z Z Z
F · dr = h0, xi · dr + Of · dr
C C C
Z π
= h0, ti · h1, cos ti dt + f (π, 0) − f (0, 0)
0
Z π
= t cos t dt + π 2 + π
0
Z π
π
= [t sin t]0 − sin t dt + π 2 + π
0
= [cos t]π0
+π +π 2

2
= π + π − 2.

27
 MA1104 Week 10
Green’s Theorem & Surface Integral of
Scalar Field

1. Green’s Theorem

In this section, we only consider 2D vector fields.

R
So far we have learned how to evaluate the line integral C F · dr along
smooth (or piecewise smooth) curve C with initial point A and terminal
point B using the following methods:

Method 1. Parameterize C by r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i, a ≤ t ≤ b, then

Z Z b
F · dr = F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r0 (t) dt.
C a

• This method is universal: applicable to both 2D and 3D vector fields

and to any curve C.

• The downside is that sometimes it may be difficult to come up with

r(t).

Method 2. If F is conservative then use Fundamental Theorem for Line

Integrals:
Z
F · dr = f (B) − f (A)
C

• F = Of for some scalar function f , B is the terminal point of C and

A is the initial point of C.

• Applicable to both 2D and 3D vector fields.

1
Now we shall learn a new method to evaluate line integral – Green’s The-
orem.
R
This method only applies to C
F · dr where

• F(x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j is a two-dimensional vector field

• C is a oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple closed curve

To state Green’s Theorem, we require to use the convention that the positive
orientation of a simple closed curve C refers to a single counterclockwise
traversal of C. We can think of this being given by the right-hand-rule.

Thus, if the positively oriented C is given by the vector function r(t), a ≤

t ≤ b, then the region D enclosed by C is always on the left as we walk
around C.

Theorem 1 (Green’s Theorem). Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-

smooth, simple closed curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded
by C. Let F(x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j.
If P (x, y) and Q(x, y) have continuous partial derivatives on an open region
that contains D, then

Z Z ZZ  
∂Q ∂P
F · dr = P dx + Q dy = − dA.
C C D ∂x ∂y

2
Notice that the first equality in Green’s Theorem is straightforward:

Z Z
F · dr = F · T ds
C C
r0 (t)
Z
= hP, Qi ·
0 (t)||
||r0 (t)|| dt
||r
ZC
dx dy
= hP, Qi · h , i dt
dt dt
ZC
dx dy
= P dt + Q dt
dt dt
ZC
= P dx + Q dy
C
 
∂Q ∂P
The term ∂x
− ∂y
can be regarded as some measure of circulation at point
(x, y).
Z ZZ  
∂Q ∂P
F · dr = − dA.
C D ∂x ∂y
If we think of F as force field,
R
• the term C F · dr ican be regarded the work done by F over curve C.
RR  
• the D ∂Q ∂x
− ∂P
∂y
dA is the ‘sum’ of all the circulations

Notice the closed curve C and D in Green’s Theorem are closely related: C is
the positively oriented boundary of the region D. Sometimes we also denote
C by ∂D which means the positively oriented boundary of the region D.

This way, the equation in Green’s Theorem can be written as

ZZ   Z Z
∂Q ∂P
− dA = P dx + Q dy = F · dr
D ∂x ∂y ∂D ∂D

Remark. Green’s Theorem should be regarded as the counterpart of the

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) for double integrals.
Compare the Green’s Equation:

3
 ZZ   Z
∂Q ∂P
− dA = P dx + Q dy.
D ∂x ∂y ∂D

with the statement of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part I):

Z b
F 0 (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a
In both cases
∂Q
• there is an integral involving derivatives (F 0 , ∂x
and ∂P
∂y
) on the left
hand side.

• the right hand side involves the values of the original functions (F , Q,
and P ) only on the boundary of the domain.

2. Examples: Green’s Theorem

Example 1. Evaluate
Z
hx4 , xyi · dr
C

where C is the triangular curve consisting of the line segments from (0, 0) to
(1, 0) from (1, 0) to (0, 1) from (0, 1) to (0, 0).

4
Solution. By Green’s Theorem, the line integral is just a double integral:
here P = x4 , Q = xy

Z ZZ  
4 ∂Q ∂P
hx , xyi · dr = − dA
C D ∂x ∂y
Z 1 Z 1−x
= (y − 0) dy dx
0 0
Z 1 y=1−x
1 2
= y dx
0 2 y=0
1 1
Z
= (1 − x)2 dx
2 0
1
= .
6

Example 2. Evaluate
Z p
(3y − esin x ) dx + (7x + y 4 + 1) dy
C

where C is the circle x2 + y 2 = 9 with positive orientation.

Solution. The region D enclosed by C is the disk x2 + y 2 ≤ 9, so changing
to polar coordinates and applying Green’s Theorem:
Z p
(3y − esin x ) dx + (7x + y 4 + 1) dy
C

ZZ  
∂ p
4
∂ sin x
= (7x + y + 1) − (3y − e ) dA
D ∂x ∂y
Z 2π Z 3
= (7 − 3)r dr dθ
0 0
Z 2π Z 3
= 4 dθ r dr
0 0
= 36π.

5
3. Application of Green’s Theorem: Area of Plane Region

Though we use Green’s Theorem to evaluate a line integral by turning it into

a double integral, sometimes we can also use it to compute a double integral
by turning it into a line integral.

One of such application is to compute areas of plane regions.

Suppose we want to compute an area A of D. We know that it is given by
ZZ
1 dA.
D
To use Green’s Theorem, we need to find P and Q so that
∂Q ∂P
− = 1.
∂x ∂y
There are several possibilities:

P (x, y) = 0, Q(x, y) = x.
or

P (x, y) = −y, Q(x, y) = 0.

or
1 1
P (x, y) = − y, Q(x, y) = x.
2 2
The Green’s Theorem gives the following formula for the area of D:

Theorem 2. Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple closed

curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by C. Suppose A is the
area of the region D. Then
Z Z Z 
1
A= x dy = − y dx = x dy − y dx
C C 2 C

x2 y 2
Example 3. Find the area enclosed by the ellipse + 2 = 1.
a2 b

6
Solution. The ellipse has parametric equations:

x = a cos t, y = b sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

So, we have

Z
1
A = x dy − y dx
2 C
1 2π
Z
= (a cos t)(b cos t) dt − (b sin t)(−a sin t) dt
2 0
ab 2π
Z
= dt = πab.
2 0


4. Parametric Surfaces

Recall that a vector function r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i traces out a curve in
space.

In this section, we shall consider vector function r(u, v) = hx(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)i
which will trace out a surface in space.
Definition 3 (Parametric Surface). The vector function

r(u, v) = hx(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)i, (u, v) ∈ D

parametrizes a surface S in the xyz-space.

Given the above r(u, v), the following is called a set of parametric equations
for the surface S:

x = x(u, v)
y = y(u, v)
z = z(u, v)

Each choice of (u, v) in the domain D gives a point on S. By making all

choices, we get all of S.

7
Example 4. Identify and sketch the surface with vector equation

r(u, v) = 2 cos ui + vj + 2 sin uk,

where 0 ≤ u ≤ 2π and −∞ < v < ∞.

Solution. The parametric equations for this surface are:

x = 2 cos u, y = v, z = 2 sin u

So, for any point (x, y, z) on the surface, we have:

x2 + z 2 = 4 cos2 u + 4 sin2 u = 4 = 22 ,
which is the cylinder shown in the figure below:


In the preceding example, if we restrict u and v, say by setting

0 ≤ u ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ v ≤ 3
then
x ≥ 0, z ≥ 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3
So we get the following surface:

8
In general, by restricting the values of the underlying parameters, we are
‘cutting out’ part of the entire surface.
Example 5. Write a set of parametric equations for the cone given by
p
z = x2 + y 2 .

Solution.

1st Way:

Since this surface is in the form z = f (x, y), we can choose x and y as
parameters:

x = u
y = v
√
z = u2 + v 2

where (u, v) ∈ R2 .
2nd Way:

x = u cos v
y = u sin v
z = u

0 ≤ u < ∞, 0 ≤ v ≤ 2π.

Example 6. Write a set of parametric equations for the sphere given by

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 22 .

9
Solution. We can use the spherical coordinates as parameters:

x = 2 sin φ cos θ
y = 2 sin φ sin θ
z = 2 cos φ

where 0 ≤ φ ≤ π, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.


5. Surface Integral of Scalar Field

Given a scalar field f (x, y, z) and a surface S, our aim is to define a surface
integral: ZZ
f (x, y, z) dS.
S
To do this, we shall repeat the following familiar procedures:

• Partition the domain (surface) S;

• Form Riemann sums;

• Take limit.

STEP 1: Partitioning the domain

We assume that S has a vector equation

r(u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k, (u, v) ∈ D.

Assuming D is a rectangle, we divide it into subrectangles Rij with dimen-
sions 4u and 4v.

10
Then, the surface S is divided into corresponding patches Sij .

STEP 2: Form Riemann sums

We evaluate f at a sample point Pij∗ in each patch, multiply the resulting

value by the area 4Sij of the patch to form the (double) Riemann sum
m X
X n
f (Pij∗ )4Sij
i=1 j=1

STEP 3: Take limit

We define the surface integral by taking the limit of the above Riemann sums:
Definition 4 (Surface Integral of Scalar Field).
ZZ Xm X n
f (x, y, z) dS = lim f (Pij∗ )4Sij
S m,n→∞
i=1 j=1

provided the limit exists and is the same for all choices of the evaluation
(sample) points Pij∗ .
For our purpose, we also require the parametric surface to be smooth.

11
Definition 5 (Smooth Surface). A surface S is smooth if it has a parametriza-
tion r(u, v), (u, v) ∈ D, such that ru and rv are continuous and ru × rv 6= 0
for all (u, v) ∈ D.

Do not worry too much about this definition! All surfaces we consider will
be smooth. Even if they are not, they can be partitioned into several pieces
that are smooth.

In order to compute the surface integral using the parametrization, we now

investigate the vectors ru and rv . There are two useful properties of these
vectors:

1st Property:
ru × rv is normal to the surface.
2nd Property: We can approximate the patch area
4Sij as follows:

4Sij ≈ ||ru × rv || 4u4v

To verify the above properties, let us fix a point (ui , vj ) in D.

Suppose P0 is the point on S whose position vector is r(ui , vj ).

Consider the vertical line L1 passing through (ui .vj ) on D.

Let C1 be the curve which is the image of L1 on S under r.

Then the vector rv (ui , vj ) is tangential to C1 at P0 .

12
Similarly, consider the horizontal line L2 passing through (ui .vj ) on D.

Let C2 be the curve which is the image of L2 on S under r.

Then the vector ru (ui , vj ) is tangential to C2 at P0 .

Since both ru (ui , vj ) and rv (ui , vj ) lie on the tangent plane to the surface S
at P0 , the following property holds:

1st Property:
ru × rv is normal to the surface.

Consequently, we have the following:

Theorem 6 (Tangent Plane of Smooth Surface). Suppose a surface S is

smooth and has a parametrization r(u, v) = hx(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)i, (u, v) ∈
D.

Then ru (a, b) × rv (a, b) is normal to the tangent plane of S at the point

(x(a, b), y(a, b), z(a, b)).

13
Notice that we can approximate Sij by the parallelogram determined by the
vectors 4uru (ui , vj ) and 4vrv (ui , vj ).

Hence, we have the following approximation of the area 4Sij :

2nd Property:

4Sij ≈ ||ru × rv || 4u4v

In the limit, we can write:

dS = ||ru × rv || du dv = ||ru × rv || dA

With this, we arrive at the following formula for computing surface integral
of scalar field by means of paramterization.
Theorem 7 (Surface Integral Formula).
ZZ
f (x, y, z) dS
S
ZZ
= f (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) ||ru × rv || dA.
D

14
Here, D is the parameter domain of the vector function r(u, v) that parametrizes
S.
In the formula,
• replace dS by ||ru × rv || dA

• replace x, y and z by x(u, v), y(u, v) and z(u, v) as given by r(u, v) =

hx(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)i

• replace S by the parameter domain D

Compare the above Surface Integral Formula with the Line Integral Formula:
Z Z b
f (x, y, z) ds = f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) ||r0 (t)|| dt
C a

6. Examples: Surface Integral of Scalar Field

If S is a union of finitely many smooth surfaces S1 , S2 , . . ., Sn that intersect

only along their boundaries then the surface integral of f over S is the sum
of the surface integrals over each Si .
Theorem 8. ZZ
f (x, y, z) dS
S
ZZ ZZ
= f (x, y, z) dS + · · · + f (x, y, z) dS
S1 Sn
ZZ
Example 7. Evaluate z dS, where S is the surface whose:
S

• Sides S1 are given by the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1.

• Bottom S2 is the disk x2 + y 2 = 1 in the plane z = 0.

• Top S3 is the part of the plane z = 1 + x that lies above S2 .

Solution. The surface S is shown below. We have changed the usual position
of the axes to get a better look at S.

15
For the surface S1 :

We can parametrize S1 using

r(θ, z) = hcos θ, sin θ, zi

where

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 + x = 1 + cos θ

Therefore,
ZZ ZZ
z dS = z ||rθ × rz || dA
S1 D
Z 2π Z 1+cos θ
= z dz dθ
0 0
Z 2π
1
= (1 + cos θ)2 dθ
0 2

16
 Z 2π
 
1 1
= 1 + 2 cos θ + (1 + cos 2θ) dθ
2 0 2
 2π
1 3 1
= θ + 2 sin θ + sin 2θ
2 2 4 0
3π
= .
2
For the surface S2 :

Since S2 lies in the plane z = 0, we have

ZZ ZZ
z dS = 0 dS = 0.
S2 S2

For the surface S3 :

We can parameterize S3 using x and y as parameter:

r(x, y) = hx, y, 1 + xi, (x, y) ∈ D.

so that rx = h1, 0, 1i and ry = h0, 1, 0i.

17
Converting to polar coordinates, we have

ZZ ZZ
z dS = (1 + x) ||h1, 0, 1i × h0, 1, 0i|| dA
S3 D
Z 2π Z 1 √
= (1 + r cos θ) 2 r dr dθ
0 0
√ Z 2π Z 1
= 2 (r + r2 cos θ) dr dθ
0
0
√ Z 2π 1 1

= 2 + cos θ dθ
0 2 3
√ θ sin θ 2π
 
= 2 +
2 3 0
√
= 2π.

Together:

ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ
z dS = z dS + z dS + z dS
S S1 S2 S3
3π √
= + 0 + 2π
2
3 √

= + 2 π.
2

18
 MA1104 Week 11
Surface Integral of Vector Field

1. Surface Area

If the surface is given by z = g(x, y), (x, y) ∈ D, we can take x and y to be

parameters:

r(x, y) = xi + yj + g(x, y)k = hx, y, g(x, y)i

Then
∂g ∂g
rx = h1, 0, i, ry = h0, 1, i
∂x ∂y
∂g ∂g
rx × ry = − i − j + k = h−gx , −gy , 1i.
∂x ∂y
Therefore, in the case where S is the surface z = g(x, y) where (x, y) ∈ D,
we have
Theorem 1. ZZ
f (x, y, z) dS =
S
s 
ZZ  2  2
∂g ∂g
f (x, y, g(x, y))  + + 1 dA
D ∂x ∂y

Theorem 2 (Surface Area). Suppose a smooth parametric surface S is

r(u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k, (u, v) ∈ D

such that S is covered just once as (u, v) ranges throughout the parameter
domain D. Then the surface area of S is
ZZ ZZ
A(S) = 1 dS = ||ru × rv || dA
S D

Example 1. Find the area of the part of the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 that lies
under the plane z = 9.

1
Solution.
The given surface lies above the disk D with center the origin and radius 3.

Parameterize the surface as follows (just use x and y as parameters):

r(x, y) = hx, y, x2 + y 2 i, (x, y) ∈ D

ZZ
A(S) = ||rx × ry || dA
D

ZZ
= ||h1, 0, 2xi × h0, 1, 2yi|| dA
Z ZD p
= 1 + (2x)2 + (2y)2 dA
Z ZD p
= 1 + 4(x2 + y 2 ) dA
D

Converting to polar coordinates, we obtain

Z 2π Z 3 √
Area = 1 + 4r2 r dr dθ
0 0
Z 2π Z 3 √
= dθ r 1 + 4r2 dr
0 0
1 2 3
= 2π · · (1 + 4r2 )3/2 0
8 3
π √
= (37 37 − 1).
6
2
 

2. Surface with Orientation

To define surface integral over vector field, we require the surface to be ORI-
ENTABLE.

Definition 3 (Oriented Surface). A surface S is orientable (or two-sided) if

it is possible to define a unit normal vector n at each point (x, y, z) not on
the boundary of the surface such that n is a continuous function of (x, y, z).

There are two possible orientations for any orientable surface.

An orientable surface S has two identifiable sides:

• Open Surface: a top and a bottom (or left and right or front and
back

• Closed Surface: an inside and an outside

QUESTION: How do we find these unit normal vectors?

ANSWER: Use the parametrization r(u, v) of the surface.

ru × rv
n= .
||ru × rv ||

3
The opposite orientation is given by
−n.
In the special case when S is the surface given by z = g(x, y), there is a
natural orientation given by
∂g ∂g
rx × ry h− ∂x , − ∂y , 1i
n= =r
||rx × ry || ∂g 2

 2
∂g
1 + ∂x + ∂y

As the k-component is positive, this gives the upward orientation of the

surface.
The downward orientation is given by −n.
Definition 4 (Positive Orientation for Closed Surface). For a closed sur-
face that is the boundary of a solid region E, the convention is that:
The positive orientation is the one for which the normal vectors point out-
ward from E. Inward-pointing normals give the negative orientation.

Example 2. Find the unit normal n for the surface S which is that part
of the plane 2x + y + z = 2 in the first octant, with downward pointing
orientation.
Solution. A vector function tracing out the surface is
r(x, y) = hx, y, 2 − 2x − yi.
Then the unit normal
hry × rx i
n=
||ry × rx ||
is downward pointing.
Let g(x, y) = 2 − 2x − y. Then
ry × rx = hgx , gy , −1i = h−2, −1, −1i.
Thus,
h−2, −1, −1i h−2, −1, −1i
n= p = √ .
2 2
(−2) + (−1) + (−1) 2 6


4
Example 3. Find the unit normal n for the surface S satisfying the follow-
ing:

• S is that part of the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1, y ≥ 0, −5 ≤ z ≤ 5.

• n is pointing towards the positive direction of y.

Solution. A vector function tracing out the surface is

r(θ, z) = hcos θ, sin θ, zi

where
0 ≤ θ ≤ π, − 5 ≤ z ≤ 5.
Therefore,
rθ = h− sin θ, cos θ, 0i
rz = h0, 0, 1i.
rθ × rz = h− cos θ, sin θ, 0i
Set
rθ × rz
n= = h− cos θ, sin θ, 0i.
||rθ × rz ||
Since sin θ > 0 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, these unit normals are indeed pointing in the
direction of positive y. 

3. Surface Integral of Vector Field

In this section, we want to define surface integral of vector field. Throughout,

we assume that

• F(x, y, z) = hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i

• a surface S with given orientation n.

The formal definition of a surface integral of vector filed is given below. At

the outset, it is not clear why it is defined this way. For a motivation, please
watch the lecture video.

5
Definition 5 (Surface Integral of Vector Field). If F is a continuous vector
field defined on an oriented surface S with unit normal vector n, then the
surface integral of F over S is:
ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · n dS
S S
This integral is also called the flux of F across S.
REMARK 1.
Surface integrals of vector fields F are just surface integrals of a special kind
of scalar function, namely F · n (which is related to the vector field F and
oriented surface S given).

REMARK 2.
The integrand F · n (scalar function) gives (at any given point S) the com-
ponent of F in the direction of n.

Question: In practice, how do we compute surface integral

ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · n dS
S S
Answer: Suppose S is given by r(u, v), (u, v) ∈ D where D is the parameter
domain. Then either
ru × rv ru × rv
n= , or n = − .
||ru × rv || ||ru × rv ||
Which one to choose will be determined by context of the question.
Let say
ru × rv
n= .
||ru × rv ||
Then
ru × rv
ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F· dS
S ||ru × rv ||
Z ZS
ru × rv
= F· ||ru × rv || dA
D ||ru × rv ||
ZZ
= F · (ru × rv ) dA
D

6
Theorem 6 (Formula for Surface Integral of Vector Field).
ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · (ru × rv ) dA
S D

WARNING!!
Do not blindly apply this formula; remember to check the conditions:

• That surface S is traced out by r(u, v), (u, v) ∈ D where D is the

parameter domain.
• That the orientation n of S prescribed by the question is indeed given
×rv
by ||rruu ×rv ||

Special Case: Suppose that S is given by

r(x, y) = hx, y, g(x, y)i, (x, y) ∈ D.

h−gx , −gy , 1i
• Upward pointing normals: p 2
gx + gy2 + 1
hgx , gy , −1i
• Downward pointing normals: p 2
gx + gy2 + 1

Theorem 7. Let F = hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i. and suppose that S
is given by
r(x, y) = hx, y, g(x, y)i, (x, y) ∈ D.
Then the flux across S in the upward orientation:
ZZ ZZ  
∂g ∂g
F · dS = −P −Q + R dA
S D ∂x ∂y

Theorem 8. Let F = hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i. and suppose that S
is given by
r(x, y) = hx, y, g(x, y)i, (x, y) ∈ D.
Then the flux across S in the downward orientation:
ZZ ZZ  
∂g ∂g
F · dS = P +Q − R dA
S D ∂x ∂y

7
4. Example 1: Surface Integral of Vector Field

Example 4. Evaluate ZZ
F · dS
S
where:

• F(x, y, z) = yi + xj + zk;

• S is the boundary of the solid region E enclosed by the paraboloid z =

1 − x2 − y 2 and the plane z = 0;

• S has positive orientation.

Solution. Notice that S consists of

• a parabolic top surface S1

• a circular bottom surface S2 .

Flux across S1 :
S1 is part of the surface z = g(x, y) where

8
 g(x, y) = 1 − x2 − y 2 .
We can use x and y as parameters for S1 :

r(x, y) = hx, y, 1 − x2 − y 2 i
where the parameter domain is

D = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 1}.

Moreover, the vector rx × ry is upward-pointing:

rx × ry = h−gx , −gy , 1i

Note that F = hy, x, zi

F = hy, x, 1 − x2 − y 2 i.
Our formula yields

ZZ ZZ  
∂g ∂g
F · dS = −P −Q + R dA
S1 D ∂x ∂y
ZZ
= (1 + 4xy − x2 − y 2 ) dA
D
Z 2π Z 1
= (1 + 4r2 sin θ cos θ − r2 )r dr dθ
Z0 2π Z0 1
= (r + 4r3 sin θ cos θ − r3 ) dr dθ
0 0
π
=
2
Flux across S2 :
The disk S2 is oriented downwards, so its unit normal vector is n = −k.

9
 ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · (−k) dS
S2 S2
ZZ
= (−z) dS
S2
ZZ
= 0 dA
D
= 0.

Putting things together:

ZZ ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · dS + F · dS
S S1 S2
π
= +0
2
π
= .
2
The flux of F across S is the sum the flux of F across S1 and S2 :
ZZ ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · dS + F · dS
S S1 S2
π
= +0
2
π
= .
2


10
5. Example 2: Surface Integral of Vector Field

Example 5. Evaluate ZZ
F · dS
S

where S is the top half of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 36 with upward-pointing

normals, and F = h0, 0, zi.

Solution. In spherical co-ordinates, the upper hemisphere S is

ρ = 6, where 0 ≤ φ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

A parameterisation of S is

r(φ, θ) = h6 sin φ cos θ, 6 sin φ sin θ, 6 cos φi

where
0 ≤ φ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Note that
rφ × rθ
= h36 sin2 φ cos θ, 36 sin2 φ sin θ, 36 sin φ cos φi
which is upward-pointing.

F · (rφ × rθ ) = z(36 sin φ cos φ),

= 6 cos φ × 36 sin φ cos φ,

= 216 sin φ cos2 φ.

Therefore,

11
 ZZ Z π/2 Z 2π
F · dS = 216 sin φ cos2 φ dθ dφ,
S 0 0
Z π/2
= 2π 216 sin φ cos2 φ dφ,
0

π/2
cos3 φ

= 2π −216
3 0

= 144π.

6. Example 3: Surface Integral of Vector Field

p
Example 6. Let E be p the solid bounded above by z = 8 − x2 − y 2 and
bounded below by z = x2 + y 2 . Let S be the closed boundary of E with
positive orientation.

Compute the flux of the vector field F = hy, 0, 2i over the surface S.
Solution.
p The surface S consists of two p parts: S1 which is part of z =
8 − x − y and S2 which is part of z = x2 + y 2 . We shall calculate the
2 2

flux across S1 and S2 separately and add them up later to give the flux across
S.

Flux over S1 :

A parametrization of the surface S1 :

√ √ √
S1 : r(φ, θ) = h 8 sin φ cos θ, 8 sin φ sin θ, 8 cos φi,
0 ≤ φ ≤ π/4, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Since S1 is oriented upwards, we use the normal vector rφ × rθ :

rφ × rθ = h8 sin2 φ cos θ, 8 sin2 φ sin θ, 8 sin φ cos φi.

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 √
F · (rφ × rθ ) = 16 2 sin3 φ sin θ cos θ + 16 sin φ cos φ.

It follows that ZZ
F · dS
S1

Z 2π Z π/4  √ 
= 16 2 sin3 φ sin θ cos θ + 16 sin φ cos φ dφ dθ
0 0

= 8π.
Flux over S2 :

A parametrization of the surface S2 :

S2 : r(u, v) = hu cos v, u sin v, ui,

0 ≤ v ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ u ≤ 2.
Since S2 is oriented downward, we use the normal vectors:
rv × ru = hu cos v, u sin v, − ui.

F · (rv × ru ) = u2 sin v cos v − 2u.

It follows that
ZZ
F · dS
S2

Z 2π Z 2
u2 sin v cos v − 2u du dv


=
0 0

= −8π.
Combining the flux over S1 and S2 :
ZZ ZZ ZZ
F · dS = F · dS + F · dS = 8π + (−8π) = 0.
S S1 S2


13
 MA1104 Week 12
Divergence & Curl

1. Divergence

Divergence can be regarded as some kind of rate of change of vector field.

In particular, it measures the net outward flux of vector field. Formally, it is
defined as follows.
Definition 1 (Divergence). Let F(x, y, z) = P (x, y, z) i + Q(x, y, z) j +
R(x, y, z) k be a vector field in space, where P , Q and R have first order
derivatives in some region D. The divergence of F is the scalar function
defined by
∂P ∂Q ∂R
div F = + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
In 2-dimensional space, we have

F(x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j

∂P ∂Q
div F = + .
∂x ∂y
In vector calculus, the vector differential operator O (read as ‘del’) is defined
by
∂ ∂ ∂
O= i+ j + k.
∂x ∂y ∂z

Divergence can be expressed in terms of the del operator as follows:

∂ ∂ ∂
O·F=h , , i · hP, Q, Ri
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂P ∂Q ∂R
= + + = div F.
∂x ∂y ∂z

1
Divergence is measure of net outflow of vector field:

• For 2D vector field, it is the net outflow through small closed curve.

• For 3D vector field, it is the net outflow through small closed surface.

Interpretation of divergence:

The field in the figure above is F = hx, yi. Note that div F = 2. There is a
net outflow through every circle.

The field in the figure above is F = hy − 2x, x − 2yi. Note that div F = −4.
There is a net inflow into every circle.
The above examples suggests the following:

Divergence is positive =⇒ There is a net outflow.

Divergence is negative =⇒ There is a net inflow.

2
2. Gauss’ Theorem

Theorem 2 (The Divergence Theorem / Gauss’ Theorem). Let E be a solid

region where the boundary surface S of E is piecewise smooth with positive
(outward) orientation.
Let F(x, y, z) be a vector field whose component functions have continuous
partial derivatives on an open region that contains E.
Then,
ZZ ZZZ
F · dS = div F dV.
S E

Notice that Gauss’ Theorem relates the outward flux over a closed surface to
a triple integral over the solid region bounded by that surface integral.
The proof of Gauss’ Theorem is beyond the scope of our study. We shall
focus on computational problems that can be solved using Gauss’ Theorem.

Example 1. Find the flux of the vector field F(x, y, z) = zi + yj + xk across

the unit sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 with positive orientation.

Solution. First compute the divergence div F:

∂z ∂y ∂x
div F = O · hz, y, xi = + + = 1.
∂x ∂y ∂z

4π
The unit sphere S is the boundary of the unit ball B whose volume is 3
.
Therefore, using the Divergence Theorem,

ZZ ZZZ
4π
F · dS = 1 dV =
S B 3


3
 ZZ
Example 2. Evaluate F · dS where
S
2
F(x, y, z) = xy i + (y 2 + exz )j + sin(xy) k
and S is the surface (with positive orientation) of the region E bounded by
the parabolic cylinder z = 1 − x2 and the planes z = 0, y = 0 and y + z = 2.
Solution.

The divergence of F is
∂ ∂ 2 2 ∂
div F = (xy) + (y + exz ) + (sin(xy)) = 3y
∂x ∂y ∂z

To use the Divergence Theorem, we need to describe the solid E for the
evaluation of the triple integral. The easiest way is to regard E as a type 3
region (projected onto the xz-plane):

E = {(x, y, z) : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 − x2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 − z}
Therefore, using the Divergence Theorem,
ZZ ZZZ
F · dS = div F dV
S Z Z ZE
= 3y dV
E
Z 1 Z 1−x2 Z 2−z
= 3 y dy dz dx
−1 0 0
Z 1 1−x2
(2 − z)2
Z
= 3 dz dx
−1 0 2

4
 1 1−x2
(2 − z)3
ZZ Z 
3
F · dS = − dx
S 2 −1 3 0
1 1
Z
(x2 + 1)3 − 8 dx


= −
2 −1
184
= .
35


3. Curl

Curl is another measure of rate of change of vector field. As it turns out, the
curl vector measures te=he microscopic circulation or curling effect of the
underlying vector field. Formally, it is defined as follows.

Definition 3 (Curl).
     
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
curl F = − i+ − j+ − k.
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

Unlike divergence, curl F is a vector field.

Using the del operator, we can write the curl vector as the cross product of
the del operator and the vector field:

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
O×F = ∂x ∂y ∂z
P Q R
     
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
= − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

= curl F

5
Example 3. If F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyzj − y 2 k, find curl F.

Solution.

curl F = O × F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
xz xyz −y 2
   
∂ 2 ∂ ∂ 2 ∂
= (−y ) − (xyz) i − (−y ) − (xz) j
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
 
∂ ∂
+ (xyz) − (xz) k
∂x ∂y

= (−2y − xy)i − (0 − x)j + (yz − 0)k

= −y(2 + x)i + xj + yzk.

4. Stokes’ Theorem

In this section, we shall look at Stokes’ Theorem which can be regarded as

a higher dimensional version of Green’s Theorem. In fact, it relates a line
integral of vector field across a closed curve C to a surface integral over a
surface whose boundary is C.

To state Stokes’ Theorem, we need to define the positive orientation for the
boundary curve (simple closed curve) of an open surface.

Let C be the boundary curve of an open surface S in space with unit normals
n.

Imagine closing the fingers of your right hand such that

your thumb is pointing generally in the direction of n.
Then the direction of your fingers represents the positive
orientation of the curve C with respect to n.

6
Theorem 4 (Stoke’s Theorem). Let C be the boundary curve (simple closed
curve) of a surface S with unit normals n. Suppose that C is positively
oriented with respect to n.
Let F be a vector field whose components have continuous partial derivatives
on an open region in R3 that contains S. Then,
Z ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS
C S

Indeed, Stokes’ Theorem reduces to Green’s Theorem in the special case

where the surface S:

• S is flat.

• S lies in the xy-plane with upward orientation n = k.

In this case, Stokes’ Theorem becomes:

Z ZZ ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS = curl F · k dA
C S S
ZZ
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
= h − , − , − i · h0, 0, 1i dA
S ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
ZZ
∂Q ∂P
= − dA,
S ∂x ∂y
which is precisely Green’s Theorem!

Stokes’ Theorem can be regarded as a higher-dimensional version of Green’s

Theorem.

7
 • Green’s Theorem relates a double integral over a plane region D to a
line integral around its plane boundary curve.

• Stokes’ Theorem relates a surface integral over a surface S to a line

integral around the boundary curve of S (a space curve).

5. Example 1: Stokes’ Theorem

Z
Example 4. Evaluate F · dr where
C

• F(x, y, z) = −y 2 i + xj + z 2 k

• C is the curve of intersection of the plane y + z = 2 and the cylinder

x2 +y 2 = 1. (Orient C to be counterclockwise when viewed from above.)

Solution. The curve C is shown below:

First, we compute

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ∂x ∂y ∂z = (1 + 2y)k
2 2
−y x z

• There are many surfaces with boundary C.

8
 • We choose the elliptical region S in the plane y + z = 2 that is bounded
by C.

• If we orient S upward, C has the induced positive orientation.

The projection D of S on the xy-plane is the disk x2 + y 2 ≤ 1.

So, using x and y as parameters for the surface S, we have the following
parametrisation for S:

r(x, y) = hx, y, 2 − yi, (x, y) ∈ D = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 1}

Also,
rx × ry = h0, 1, 1i
is pointing upwards.

Z ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS
C Z ZS
= h0, 0, 1 + 2yi · (rx × ry ) dA
Z ZD
= (1 + 2y) dA
D
Z 2π Z 1
= (1 + 2r sin θ)r dr dθ
0 0
Z 2π  2 1
r r3
= + 2 sin θ dθ
0 2 3 0
1
= (2π) + 0 = π.
2


9
6. Example 2: Stokes’ Theorem

ZZ
Example 5. Use Stokes’ Theorem to compute curl F · dS where:
S

• F(x, y, z) = xzi + yzj + xyk

• S is the part of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4, oriented upwards, that lies

inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1 and above the xy-plane.

Solution.

A vector equation of C is:

√
r(t) = hcos t, sin t, 3i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Therefore,

r0 (t) = h− sin t, cos t, 0i.

Also, we have
√ √
F = h 3 cos t, 3 sin t, cos t sin ti.
Therefore, by Stoke’s Theorem

10
ZZ Z
curl F · dS = F · dr
S
ZC2π
= F · r0 (t) dt
Z0 2π  √ √ 
= − 3 cos t sin t + 3 sin t cos t dt
0
= 0.

11