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Question Bank for Chapter1-2-3.1-3.2 (Year 2019-20)

Advanced Computer Networks (22520)

Note: The answers given for the reference. Students have to attempt and give the answer
of the question in context as that of in question paper.
Question Marks
Calculate the sub-network address if the destination address is 2
200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.248.0?
Solution:
11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000
11111111 11111111 11111000 00000000
__________________________________
11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000
The sub network address is 200.45.32.0.
Draw proper labeled diagram of IPv4 header format. : 2
Solution:

Fig. IPv4 header format.

Give example of Class-full addressing of followings of IPv4:Class-A, Class-B, 2
Class-C in Dotted-Decimal and Binary format accordingly.
a. Dotted decimal format ii) Binary format
Given no.s are
1) 129.11.11.239
2) 241.8.56.12
3) 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
4) 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution:
1) 129.11.11.239 == 10000001 00001101 00001101 11101111
2) 241.8.56.12 == 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
3) 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 == 193.131.27.255
4) 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111 == 231.219.139.111
Explain Address space rule, Address space notations of IP address. 2
Solution:
Address space rule
The address space in a protocol That uses N-bits to define an Address is = 2N
The address space of IPv4 is 232or4,294,967,296.

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Binary Notation : 01110101 10010101 00011101 11101010
Dotted-decimal notation

Dotted-decimal notation
Hexadecimal Notation
0111 0101 1001 0101 0001 1101 1110 1010
75 95 1D EA
Hexadecimal Notation

Draw labeled diagram of VPN.: 2

Solution:

OR

Fig. VPN-Virtual Private Network.

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Question Marks
Categorize class of addresses and port address in given CIDR /n classless 2
notation: 64.32.16.8 /27 140.11.36.22 / 8
Solution:
i) 64.32.16.8/27 : 64 is in range 0-127 hence its class A address and port address
is 27
ii) 140.11.36.22 / 8 140 is in range 128-191 hence its class B address and port
address is 8
Give classification of ICMP messages. Enlist Error messages name and type. 2
Solution:
ICMP MESSAGES
ICMP messages are divided into two broad categories:
 Query Messages.
 Error-Reporting Messages
 The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a
host(destination) may encounter when it processes an IP packet.
 The query messages, which occur in pairs, help a host or a network
manager get specific information from a router or another host.
 For example, nodes can discover their neighbors.
 Also, hosts can discover and learn about routers on their network and
 routers can help a node redirect its messages.
List of the ICMP messages in each category.

Type Message Type Message

3 Destination Unreachable 8 or 0 Echo request or reply

4 Source Quench 13 or 14 Timestamp

11 Time Exceeded 17 or 18 Address Mask

12 Parameter problem 10 or 9 Router Sollicitation/Adv

5 Redirection

OR

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Error Reporting Messages

 One of the main responsibilities of ICMP is to report errors.
Although technology has produced increasingly reliable transmission media,
errors still exist and must be handled.
 As IP, is an unreliable protocol, means that error checking and error
control are not a concern of IP.
 ICMP was designed, in part, to compensate for this shortcoming.
 However, ICMP does not correct errors, it simply reports them.
 Error correction is left to the higher-level protocols.
 Error messages are always sent to the original source because the only
information available in the datagram about the route is the source and
destination IP addresses.
 ICMP uses the source IP address to send the error message to the source
(originator) of the datagram.
Five types of errors are handled:
 Destination Unreachable,
 Source Quench,
 Time Exceeded,
 Parameter Problems, And
Draw labeled diagram of IPv6 datagram structure format. 2
Solution:
The IP datagram structure

An IP datagram consists of a header part and text part

IP HEADER

DATA

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The header has a 20 bytes fixed part and a variable length optional part.
It is transmitted in big endian order. (on little endian machines, software
conversion is required).
Define : 2
i) Static (non-adaptive) routing Algorithm:
ii) Dynamic (adaptive) routing Algorithm
Solution:
• Static (non-adaptive) routing Algorithm: determines the initial paths. The
pre-calculated paths are loaded to the router table . it is suitable for small
network.
• Dynamic (adaptive) routing Algorithm changes their routing decision if there
is change in topology, traffic. Each router continuously checks the network
status by communicating with neighbors. It is complex.
State functions of any two VPN protocols.: 2
Solution: Write functions of any two protocols given below…..
1. Internet Protocol Security or IPSec:
 IPSec is used to secure Internet communication across an IP network.
 Secures Internet Protocol communication by authenticating the session
and encrypts each data packet during the connection.
 IPSec operates in two modes, Transport mode and Tunneling mode, to
protect data transfer between two different networks.
 The transport mode encrypts the message in the data packet and
 the tunneling mode encrypts the entire data packet.
 Also used with other security protocols to enhance the security system.
2. Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP):
 is a tunneling protocol that is usually combined with another VPN
security protocol like IPSec to create a highly secure VPN connection.
 creates a tunnel between two L2TP connection points and
 IPSec protocol encrypts the data and handles secure communication
between the tunnel.
3. Point – to – Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP):
 creates a tunnel and encapsulates the data packet.
 It uses a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) to encrypt the data between the
connection.
 is one of the most widely used VPN protocol and
 has been in use since the time of Windows 95. Apart from Windows,
PPTP is also supported on Mac and Linux.
4. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS):
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security)
 create a VPN connection where the web browser acts as the client and
user access is restricted to specific applications instead of entire

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network.
 is most commonly used by online shopping websites and service
providers.
 Web browsers switch to SSL with ease and with almost no action
required from the user, since web browsers come integrated with SSL
and TLS. SSL connections have https in the beginning of the URL
instead of http.
Give any two advantages of Network address translation. 2
Solution: (ANY TWO of the following.)
Dynamic Translation (IP Masquerading )
• Also called Network Address and Port Translation (NAPT)
• Individual hosts inside the Firewall are identified based on of each
connection flowing through the firewall.
• Since a connection doesn’t exist until an internal host requests a
connection through the firewall to an external host, and most Firewalls
only open ports only for the addressed host only that host can route
back into the internal network
• IP Source routing could route back in; but, most Firewalls block incoming
source
routed packets
• NAT only prevents external hosts from making connections to internal
hosts.
• Some protocols won’t work; protocols that rely on separate connections back
into the local network
• Theoretical max of 216 connections, actual is much less
Static Translation
• Map a range of external address to the same size block of internal addresses
– Firewall just does a simple translation of each address
• Port forwarding - map a specific port to come through the Firewall rather than
all ports;
• useful to expose a specific service on the internal network to the public
network
12. Explain following debugging tool in networking in datagram 2
transmission. Give one example each:
 Tracert
 Ping
Solution:

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Tracert Command Syntax

tracert [-d] [-h MaxHops] [-w TimeOut] [-4] [-6] target [/?]

-d = This option prevents tracert from resolving IP addresses to hostnames, often

resulting in much faster results.
-h MaxHops = This tracert option specifies the maximum number of hops in the
search for the target. If you do not specify Max Hops, and target has not been
found by 30 hops, tracert will stop looking.
-w TimeOut = You can specify the time, in milliseconds, to allow each reply before
timeout using this tracert option.
-4 = This option forces tracert to use IPv4 only.
-6 = This option forces tracert to use IPv6 only.
target name = This is the destination, either an IP address or hostname.
/? = Use the help with the tracert command to show detailed help about the
command's
several options.
Example:
Tracert Command Examples
tracert 192.168.1.1
In the above example, the tracert command is used to show the path from the networked
computer on which the tracert command is being executed to a network device, in this
case a router on a local network, that's assigned the 192.168.1.1 IP address.
The result displayed on screen will look something like this:
Tracing route to 192.168.1.1
over a maximum of 30 hops
1 <1 ms <1 ms <1 ms 192.168.1.254
2 <1 ms <1 ms <1 ms 192.168.1.1
Trace complete.
In this example, you can see that tracert found a network device using the IP address

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of192.168.1.254, let's say a network switch, followed by the destination, 192.168.1.1,
the router.
tracert www.google.com

PING command with example:

result shows the interfaces and IP addresses.
$ ping -R fhda.edu
PING fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 56(124) bytes of data.
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu
(153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=62 time=2.70 ms
RR: voyager.deanza.fhda.edu (153.18.17.11)
Dcore_G0_3-69.fhda.edu (153.18.251.3)
Dbackup_V13.fhda.edu (153.18.191.249)
tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1)
Dbackup_V62.fhda.edu (153.18.251.34)
Dcore_G0_1-6.fhda.edu (153.18.31.254)
voyager.deanza.fhda.edu (153.18.17.11)

Give any four features of IPv6 protocol. 2

Solution:
 It has 64 bit interface IDs In EUI-64 format.
 Address has 128 bits
 Leading zeros are skipped double colon (:)can replace consecutive zeros
in IP address representation
Original FDEC:0074:0000:0000:0000:B0FF:0000:FFF0
Abbreviated FDEC:0074:0:0:0:B0FF:0:FFF0
More Abbreviated FDEC:74: :B0FF:0:FFF0
Mention any two areas of application where VPN can be implemented in 2
industry/ organization.
Solution: Write in own language.

Explain double crossing problem in mobile IP with proper diagram. 4

Solution:
Double crossing occurs when a remote host communicates with a
mobile host that has moved to the same network (or site) as the
remote host.

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 When the mobile host sends a packet to the remote host, there is no
inefficiency; the communication is local.
 However, when the remote host sends a packet to the mobile host,
the packet crosses the Internet twice.
 Since a computer usually communicates with other local computers
(principle of locality), the inefficiency from double crossing is
significant.

State concept of Mobile IP and Explain any one phase involved in mobile IP. 4
Solution:
• Mobile IP:
• Mobile communication has received a lot of attention in the last decade. The
interest in mobile communication on the Internet means that the IP protocol,
originally designed for stationary devices, must be enhanced to allow the use
of mobile computers –(uses Mobile IP) , computers that move from one
network to another.
 Objectives:
 Addressing issues related to a mobile host and the need fora care-of
address.
 Two agents involved in mobile IP communication,
• The home agent and
• The foreign agent, and how they communicate.
 Three phases of communication between a mobile host and a
remote host: (ANY ONE of the following phases can be given)
• Agent Discovery: During the agent discovery phase, the Home Agent and
Foreign Agent advertise their services on the network by using the ICMP

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Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP). The Mobile Node listens to these
advertisements to determine if it is connected to its home network or foreign
network.
 If a Mobile Node determines that it is connected to a foreign network,
it acquires a care-of address. Two types of care-of addresses exist:
 Care-of address acquired from a Foreign Agent Co-located care-of
address
 When the Mobile Node hears a Foreign Agent advertisement and
detects that it has moved outside of its home network, it begins
registration.
• Registration
 The Mobile Node is configured with the IP address and mobility
security association (which includes the shared key) of its Home
Agent. In addition, the Mobile Node is configured with either its home
IP address, or another user identifier, such as a Network Access
Identifier.
• Data Transfer. associated request is in its pending list as well as proper
authentication of the Home Agent. If the registration reply is not valid, the
Mobile Node discards the reply. If a valid registration reply specifies that the
registration is accepted, the Mobile Node is confirmed that the mobility agents
are aware of its roaming. In the co-located care-of address case, it adds a
tunnel to the Home Agent. Subsequently, it sends all packets to the Foreign
Agent.
• a successful Mobile IP registration sets up the routing mechanism for
transporting packets to and from the Mobile Node as it roams.
Explain following with respect to IPv6: 4
• Auto-configuration
• Renumbering
Solution:
Auto-configuration Stateless Address Configuration (IP Address, Default Router
Address) is performed for each interface separately,
Routers sends periodic Router Advertisement Node gets prefix information from the
Router advertisement and generates the complete address using its MAC address
Global Address=Link Prefix + EUI 64 Address
Router Address is the Default Gateway
MAC address: 00:0E:0C:31:C8:1F 00:0E:0C:31:C8:1F
EUI 64 Address: 20E:0CFF:FE31:C81F 20E:FF:0C31:FEC8:1F
 Possible Steps in auto-configuring:
 Link-Local Address Generation
 Link-Local Address Uniqueness Test:
 Link-Local Address Assignment:
 Router Contact:
 Router Direction:

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 Global Address Configuration
Renumbering:
 Renumbering of devices is a method related to auto-
configuration.
 Like host configuration, it can be implemented using protocols like
DHCP, through the use of IP address “leases” that expire after a period
of time.
 IPv6, networks can be renumbered by having routers specify an
expiration interval for network prefixes when auto-configuration is done.
Later, they can send a new prefix to tell devices to regenerate their IP
addresses. Devices can actually maintain the old “deprecated” address
for a while and then move over to the new address.
 A similar technique was also defined for renumbering router addresses,
in RFC 2894. It uses special ICMPv6 messages .
 Moving to another ISP required changing all IP addresses
Draw and explain IPv6 Header 4
Solution:

Fig. IPv6 Header

The following list describes the function of each header field.
 Version – 4-bit version number of Internet Protocol = 6.
 Traffic class – 8-bit traffic class field.
 Flow label – 20-bit field.
 Payload length – 16-bit unsigned integer, which is the rest of the packet
that follows the IPv6 header, in octets.
 Next header – 8-bit selector. Identifies the type of header that
immediately follows the IPv6 header. Uses the same values as the IPv4
protocol field.
 Hop limit – 8-bit unsigned integer. Decremented by one by each node that
forwards the packet. The packet is discarded if the hop limit is
decremented to zero.
 Source address – 128 bits. The address of the initial sender of the packet.
 Destination address – 128 bits. The address of the intended recipient of
the packet. The intended recipient is not necessarily the recipient if an
optional routing header is present.

Describe concept of neighbor discovery protocol state it’s any four features. 4

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Solution:
Neighbor Discovery: IPv6 nodes which share the same physical medium
(link) use Neighbor Discovery (NDP) to:
• Discover their mutual presence
• Determine link-layer addresses of their neighbors
(equivalent to ARP)
• Find routers
• Maintain neighbors’ reachability information
• Uses Multicast Address
Protocol features:
• Router discovery
• Prefix(es) discovery
• Parameters discovery (link MTU, Max Hop Limit, ...)
• Address auto-configuration
• Address resolution
• Next Hop determination
• Neighbor Unreachability Detection
• Duplicate Address Detection
• Redirect
State importance of IP Fragmentation. Describe it with proper example. 4
Solution:
IP Fragmentation Packet fragmentation is done to allow packet transfer over
networks with certain Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU). If application data is
bigger than MTU supported by the network then packet must be fragmented
before they are transmitted over the network. If the packet is bigger than MTU
size supported by the network and fragmentation is not allowed, then routers
must drop the packet. To avoid this, many protocols support Path MTU
(PMTU) discovery and fragment the data accordingly to avoid packets from
being dropped. Apart from that, some protocols support data fragmentation to
improve performance in noisy environment / in presence of narrow band
interference.
Example:
 Suppose we have a physical layer that can transmit a maximum of 660 bytes.
And, suppose IP wants to send 1460 bytes of data. So, the IP datagram is a total
of 1480 bytes, including the 20 byte IP header:

20-byte ip header 1460 bytes of data

 Here is what IP sends:

First Packet
Bytes -----20 640
IP Header First 640 bytes of data

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 In that packet, "fragment flag" is 1, offset is 0.

Second Packet
Bytes -----20 640
IP Header First 640 bytes of data
 In that packet, "fragment flag" is 1, offset is 80. The offset is 80 because (80 * 8)
is 640, so the offset of that data is 640 byes into the packet.
 Note: all other fields of the IP header are identical to the first packet (except the
checksum)
Third Packet
Bytes -----20 640
IP Header First 640 bytes of data
 In that packet, "fragment flag" is 0, offset is 160. The offset is 160 because (160
* 8) is 1280, so the offset of that data is 1280 byes into the packet.
 Note: all other fields of the IP header are identical to the first packet except the
checksum.
 IMPORTANT: The routers see 3 separate packets. The final destination
reassembles the packet before passing the packet to the upper layers.
Enlist any four advantages of IPv6 over IPv4: 2
Solution:
Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 (any Four )
 Larger address space Allows billions of devices to be
interconnected, mean no forced Network Address Translators
 Allow coherent end-to-end packet delivery
 Improve the potential for use of end-to-end security tools for
encryption and authentication
 IPv6 is “more secure” than V4
 Better header format
 New options
 Allowance for extension
 Only IPv6 supports mobility
 IPv6 offers “bundled” QoS - Quality of service (QoS) refers to any
technology that manages data traffic to reduce packet loss, latency
and jitter on the network. QoS controls and manages
network resources by setting priorities for specific types of data on
the network. (Packet-based and stream-based QoS)
 Support for resource allocation
 Support for more security
 Support for mobility
 There are 90 RFCs (Request for Comments) that describe aspects of
IPv6

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 Only V6 offers plug and play auto-configuration
 IPv6 allows rapid renumbering
Explain any one of the following option with its format Also state its one 4
example of implementation
 Record-Route Option
 A strict-source-route option
 Loose-Source-Route Option
 timestamp option
Solution:
Explain any one of the following in detail

Fig.: The format of the record route option: Both the code and length fields have
been described

Fig. Format of the strict source route option.

Fig. Format of the loose source route option.

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Fig. The format of the time-stamp option.

What is Home agent and Foreign Agent in Mobile IP? Give functions of each 4
Solution:

Home Agent
 The home agent is usually a router attached to the home network of the mobile
host.
 The home agent acts on behalf of the mobile host when a remote host sends a
packet to the mobile host.
 The home agent receives the packet and sends it to the foreign agent.
Foreign Agent
 The foreign agent is usually a router attached to the foreign network.
 The foreign agent receives and delivers packets sent by the home agent to the
mobile host.
 The mobile host can also act as a foreign agent.
 In other words, the mobile host and the foreign agent can be the same.
 However, to do this, a mobile host must be able to receive a care-of address by
itself, which can be done through the use of DHCP.
 In addition, the mobile host needs the necessary software to allow it to
communicate with the home agent and to have two addresses:
 its home address and
 its care-of address.
 This dual addressing must be transparent to the application programs.
 When the mobile host acts as a foreign agent, the care-of address is called a co-
located care-of address.

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The advantage of using a co-located care-of address is that the mobile host can move
to any network without worrying about the availability of a foreign agent.
The disadvantage is that the mobile host needs extra software to act as its own
foreign agent.

State significance of Masking: Give example of subnet mask and default 4

mask.
Solution:
Mask:
• A mask is a 32-bit binary number.
• The mask is ANDeD with IP address to get
• The bloc address (Network address)
• Mask And IP address = Block Address

Fig.1.13: Mask Con cept

 The network address is the beginning address of each block.
 It can be found by applying the default mask to any of the addresses in the
block (including itself).
 It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to zero.
 Default Mask:
 Class A default mask is 255.0.0.0
 Class B default mask is 255.255.0.0
 Class C Default mask 255.255.255.0
Subnetting
 is done by borrowing bits from the host part and add them the network part
 IP addresses are designed with two levels of hierarchy.
 A network with two levels of hierarchy (not sub-netted)
 A network with three levels of hierarchy (sub-netted)

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Fig. 1.14: Network Address without and with Subnet Mask

Fig. 1.15: Default Subnet without and with Subnet Mask

Illustrate example of Checksum with its calculation assume suitable data. 4

Solution:

Checksum Concept

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Checksum in one’s complement arithmetic
The checksum
 How to compute a checksum?
o Put a 0 in the checksum field.
o Add each 16-bit value together.
o Add in any carry
o Inverse the bits and put that in the checksum field.
 To check the checksum:
o Add each 16-bit value together (including the checksum).
o Add in carry.
o Inverse the bits.
o The result must be 0.
 Remember, only the bits in the header are calculated in the IP checksum.
Example:
Consider the following IP header, with source IP address of 146.149.186.20 and
destination address of 169.124.21.149. All values are given in hex:
45 00 00 6c
92 cc 00 00
38 06 00 00
92 95 ba 14
a9 7c 15 95

So, first add all 16-bit values So, we get: 5ce8 + 1 = 5ce9.
together, adding in the carry each 5ce9
time: + a97c
4500 ----
+ 006c 10665 <---Again, we have a carry
---- here! So, remove the leftmost bit
456c and add it back in. So, we get: 0665
+ 92cc + 1 = 0666.
---- 0666
d838 + 1595
+ 0000 ----
---- 1bfb
d838 Now we have to inverse the bits.
+ 3806 1bfb = 0001 1011 1111 1011
---- inverse bits: 1110 0100 0000 0100
1103e <---But, we have a carry = e404
here! So, remove the leftmost bit So, the checksum is e404. So, the IP

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and add it back in. So, we get: header we send looks like:
103e + 1 = 103f. 45 00 00 6c
103f 92 cc 00 00
+ 0000 38 06 e4 04
---- 92 95 ba 14
103f a9 7c 15 95
+ 9295 As an exercise, please act as the
---- receiver, compute the checksum on
a2d4 that packet, and make sure the result
+ ba14 is 0!
----
15ce8 <---Again, we have a carry
here! So, remove the leftmost bit
and add it back in.

Draw mobile IP architecture with proper labels. And explain its functioning. 4
Solution:

Fig. Mobile IP architecture

 Mobile Hosts
 When a host moves from one network to another, the IP addressing structure
needs to be modified.
 Several solutions have been proposed.
Changing the Address:
One simple solution is to let the mobile host change its address as it goes to the new
network. The host can use DHCP to obtain a new address to associate it with the new
network.
This approach has several drawbacks.
 First, the configuration files would need to be changed.

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Question Bank for Chapter1-2-3.1-3.2 (Year 2019-20)
Advanced Computer Networks (22520)

Question Marks
 Second, each time the computer moves from one network to another, it must be
rebooted.
 Third, the DNS tables need to be revised so that every other host in the Internet
is aware of the change.
 Fourth, if the host roams from one network to another during a transmission, the
data exchange will be interrupted.
 This is because the ports and IP addresses of the client and the server must
remain constant for the duration of the connection
Two Addresses:
 The approach that is more feasible is the use of two addresses.
 The host has its original address, called the Home address, and
 A temporary address, called the care-of address.
 The home address is permanent; it associates the host to its home network,
the network that is the permanent home of the host.
 The care-of address is temporary. When a host moves from one network to
another, the care-of address changes; it is associated with the foreign network, the
network to which the host moves.
When a mobile host visits a foreign network, it receives its care-of address during
the agent discovery and registration phase
AGENTS
To make the change of address transparent to the rest of the Internet requires a
home Agent and a Foreign Agent.
Figure shows the position of a home agent relative to the home network and a
foreign agent relative to the foreign network.

We have shown the home and the foreign agents as routers, but we need to
emphasize that their specific function as an agent is performed in the
application layer. In other words, they are both routers and hosts.
Home Agent
 The home agent is usually a router attached to the home network of the mobile
host.
 The home agent acts on behalf of the mobile host when a remote host sends a

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 Computer Engineering- CO5I (A-B)
Question Bank for Chapter1-2-3.1-3.2 (Year 2019-20)
Advanced Computer Networks (22520)

Question Marks
packet to the mobile host.
 The home agent receives the packet and sends it to the foreign agent.
Foreign Agent
 The foreign agent is usually a router attached to the foreign network.
 The foreign agent receives and delivers packets sent by the home agent to the
mobile host.
 The mobile host can also act as a foreign agent.
 In other words, the mobile host and the foreign agent can be the same.
 However, to do this, a mobile host must be able to receive a care-of address by
itself, which can be done through the use of DHCP.
 In addition, the mobile host needs the necessary software to allow it to
communicate with the home agent and to have two addresses:
 its home address and
 its care-of address.
 This dual addressing must be transparent to the application programs.
 When the mobile host acts as a foreign agent, the care-of address is called a co-
located care-of address.

State what is routing . Explain any one in detail. 4

Solution:

• Unicast Routing – Link State Routing. Unicast –Unicast means the

transmission from a single sender to a single receiver. It is a point to point
communication between sender and receiver. ... TCP is the most commonly
used unicast protocol.
• Broadcast routing: A broadcast message is destined to all network
devices. Broadcast routing can be done in two ways (algorithm):
A router creates a data packet and then sends it to each host one by one. In
this case, the router creates multiple copies of single data packet with
different destination addresses.
• Multicast IP Routing protocols: are used to distribute data (for example,

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 Computer Engineering- CO5I (A-B)
Question Bank for Chapter1-2-3.1-3.2 (Year 2019-20)
Advanced Computer Networks (22520)

Question Marks
audio/video streaming broadcasts) to multiple recipients. Using multicast, a
source can send a single copy of data to a single multicast address, which is then
distributed to an entire group of recipients.

State any four limitations of IPv4. 4

Solution:
The main limitations of IPv4 are listed below.
• Scarcity of IPv4 Addresses: Because scarcity of IPv4 addresses, many
organizations implemented NAT (Network Address Translation) to map
multiple private IPv4 addresses to a single public IPv4 address. By using NAT
(Network Address Translation) we can map many internal private IPV4
addresses to a public IPv4 address, which helped in conserving IPv4
addresses. But NAT (Network Address Translation) also have many
limitations. NAT (Network Address Translation) do not support network layer
security standards and it do not support the mapping of all upper layer
protocols. NAT can also create network problems when two organizations
which use same private IPv4 address ranges communicate. More servers,
workstations and devices which are connected to the internet also demand the
need for more addresses and the current statistics prove that public IPv4
address space will be depleted soon. The scarcity of IPv4 address is a major
limitation of IPv4 addressing system.
• Security Related Issues: As we discussed before, RFC 791 (IPv4) was
published in 1981 and the current network security threats were not
anticipated that time. Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) is a protocol suit
which enables network security by protecting the data being sent from being
viewed or modified. Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) provides security for
IPv4 packets, but Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) is not built-in and
optional. Many IPSec implementations are proprietary.
• Address configuration related issues: Networks and also internet is
expanding and many new computers and devices are using IP. The
configuration of IP addresses (static or dynamic) should be simple.
• Quality of service (QoS): Quality of Service (QoS) is available in IPv4 and it
relies on the 8 bits of the IPv4 Type of Service (TOS) field and the
identification of the payload. IPv4 Type of Service (TOS) field has limited
functionality and payload identification (uses a TCP or UDP port) is not
possible when the IPv4 datagram packet payload is encrypted.

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