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Chapter 7.
Stereoscopic Viewing

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7-1. Depth Perception

 Methods of judging depth may be classified

as either stereoscopic or monoscopic

 Persons with normal vision (those capable of

viewing with both eyes simultaneously) are
said to have binocular vision, and perception
of depth through binocular vision is called
stereoscopic viewing
Figure 7-1. Depth perception by relative sizes and hidden
objects.

 Monocular vision is the term applied to viewing with only one eye, and methods of
judging distances with one eye are termed monoscopic

 A person having normal binocular vision can, of course, view monocularly by covering
one eye

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7-1. Depth Perception

 Distances to objects, or depths, can be

perceived monoscopically on the basis of:
1) relative sizes of objects
2) hidden objects
3) shadows
4) differences in focusing of the eye required
for viewing objects at varying distances
Figure 7-1. Depth perception by relative sizes and hidden
objects.

 Examples of the first two are shown in Fig. 7-1

• Depth to the far end of the football field may be perceived on the basis of the relative
sizes of the goalposts
• The goalposts are actually the same size, of course, but one appears smaller because
it is farther away
• The stands at the far end of the stadium are quickly judged to be a considerable distance
away from the goalposts in the foreground because they are partially obstructed by the
goalposts

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7-1. Depth Perception

 Distances to objects, or depths, can be

perceived monoscopically on the basis of:
1) relative sizes of objects
2) hidden objects
3) shadows
4) differences in focusing of the eye required
for viewing objects at varying distances
Figure 7-1. Depth perception by relative sizes and hidden
objects.

 Stereoscopic depth perception is of fundamental importance in photogrammetry, for it

enables the formation of a three-dimensional stereomodel by viewing a pair of
overlapping photographs

 The stereomodel can then be studied, measured, and mapped

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7-2. The Human Eye

 As shown in Fig. 7-2, the eye is essentially a
spherical organ having a circular opening called
the pupil

 The pupil is protected by a transparent coating

called the cornea

 Incident light rays pass through the cornea, enter

the eye through the pupil, and strike the lens,
Figure 7-2. Cross section of the human
eye. which is directly behind the pupil

 The cornea and lens refract the light rays according to Snell's law

 As with a camera, the eye must satisfy the lens formula for each different object distance

 When a distant object is viewed, the lens muscles relax, causing the spherical surfaces of
the lens to become flatter

 When close objects are viewed, a reverse procedure occurs

 The eye's ability to focus for varying object distances is called accommodation

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7-2. The Human Eye

 As with a camera, the eye has a diaphragm called the

iris

 The iris (colored part of the eye) automatically

contracts or expands to regulate the amount of light
entering the eye

 The cornea partially refracts incident light rays before

Figure 7-2. Cross section of the human they encounter the lens
eye.

 The lens refracts them further and brings them to focus on the retina, thereby forming an
image of the viewed object

 The most important region of the retina is the central fovea, a small pit near the
intersection of the optical axis with the retina

 The central fovea is the area of sharpest vision and the retina performs a function similar
to that performed by the emulsion of photographic film

 When it is stimulated by light, the sense of vision is caused, which is transmitted to the
brain via the optic nerve

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7-3. Stereoscopic Depth Perception

 With binocular vision, when the eyes fixate on a certain
point, the optical axes of the two eyes converge on that
point, intersecting at an angle called the parallactic
angle

 The nearer the object, the greater the parallactic angle,

and vice versa.

 In Fig. 7-3, the optical axes of the two eyes 𝐿 and 𝑅 are
separated by a distance 𝑏𝑒 , called the eye base

 When the eyes fixate on point 𝐴, the optical axes

converge, forming parallactic angle 𝜙𝑎
Figure 7-3. Stereoscopic depth perception  Similarly, when sighting an object at 𝐵, the optical axes
as a function of parallactic angle.
converge, forming parallactic angle 𝜙𝑏

 The brain automatically and unconsciously associates distances 𝐷𝐴 and 𝐷𝐵 with

corresponding parallactic angles 𝜙𝑎 and 𝜙𝑏

 The depth between objects 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 𝐷𝐵 − 𝐷𝐴 and is perceived from the difference in
these parallactic angles

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7-3. Stereoscopic Depth Perception

 With binocular vision, when the eyes fixate on a certain
point, the optical axes of the two eyes converge on that
point, intersecting at an angle called the parallactic
angle

 The nearer the object, the greater the parallactic angle,

and vice versa.

 In Fig. 7-3, the optical axes of the two eyes 𝐿 and 𝑅 are
separated by a distance 𝑏𝑒 , called the eye base

 When the eyes fixate on point 𝐴, the optical axes

converge, forming parallactic angle 𝜙𝑎
Figure 7-3. Stereoscopic depth perception  Similarly, when sighting an object at 𝐵, the optical axes
as a function of parallactic angle.
converge, forming parallactic angle 𝜙𝑏

 The ability of human beings to detect changes in parallactic angles, and thus judge
differences in depth, is quite remarkable

 This means that photogrammetric procedures for determining heights of objects and
terrain variations based on depth perception by comparisons of parallactic angles can
be highly precise
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7-4. Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically

 Suppose that while a person is gazing at object 𝐴 of

Fig. 7-4, a transparent medium containing image marks
𝑎1 and 𝑎2 is placed in front of the eyes as shown

 Assume further that the image marks are identical in

shape to object 𝐴, and that they are placed on the
optical axes so that the eyes are unable to detect
whether they are viewing the object or the two marks

 As shown in Fig. 7-4, if the image marks are moved

closer together to, say, 𝑎1 ′, and 𝑎2 ′, the parallactic angle
increases and the object is perceived to be nearer the
eyes at 𝐴′

Figure 7-4. The apparent depth to the object A

can be changed by changing the spacing of the
images.

 If the marks are moved farther apart to 𝑎1 ′′ and 𝑎2 ′′, the parallactic angle decreases and
the brain receives an impression that the object is farther away, at 𝐴″

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7-4. Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically

 The phenomenon of creating the three-dimensional or

stereoscopic impression of objects by viewing identical
images of the objects can be achieved
photographically

 Suppose that a pair of aerial photographs is taken

from exposure stations 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 so that the building
appears on both photos, as shown in Fig. 7-5

 Flying height above ground is 𝐻′, and the distance

between the two exposures is 𝐵, the air base

Figure 7-5. Photographs from two exposure

stations with building in common overlap
 Object points 𝐴 and 𝐵 at the top and bottom of the
area. building are imaged at 𝑎1 and 𝑏1 on the left photo and
at 𝑎2 and 𝑏2 on the right photo

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7-4. Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically

 If the two photos are laid on a table and viewed

so that the left eye sees only the left photo and
the right eye sees only the right photo, as shown
in Fig. 7-6, a three-dimensional impression of the
building is obtained

 Tthree-dimensional impression appears to lie below

the tabletop at a distance ℎ from the eyes

Figure 7-6. Viewing the building stereoscopically.

 The brain judges the height of the building by associating depths to points 𝐴 and 𝐵 with
the parallactic angles 𝜙𝑎 and 𝜙𝑏

 When the eyes gaze over the entire overlap area, the brain receives a continuous three-
dimensional impression of the terrain

 The three-dimensional model thus formed is called a stereoscopic model or simply a

stereomodel, and the overlapping pair of photographs is called a stereopair

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7-5. Stereoscopes
 One of the major problems associated with stereoviewing without optical aids is that the
eyes are focused on the photos, while at the same time the brain perceives parallactic
angles which tend to form the stereomodel at some depth beyond the photos
⇨ Stereoscopic viewing may be achived through the use of instruments called
stereoscopes

 The lens or pocket stereoscope, shown in Fig. 7-7, is the least expensive and most
commonly used stereoscope

 The spacing between the lenses can be

varied to accommodate various eye bases

 The legs fold or can be removed so that the

instrument is easily stored or carried—a
feature which renders the pocket
stereoscope ideal for fieldwork

Figure 7-7. Lens or pocket stereoscope. (Courtesy University of

Florida.)

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7-5. Stereoscopes
 A schematic diagram of the pocket stereoscope
is given in Fig. 7-8

 The legs of the pocket stereoscope are slightly

shorter than the focal length ƒ of the lenses

 When the stereoscope is placed over the photos,

light rays emanating from points such as 𝑎1 and
𝑎2 on the photos are refracted slightly as they pass
through each lens

 The eyes receive the refracted rays, and on the

basis of the eye focusing associated with these
incoming rays, the brain receives the impression
that the rays actually originate from a greater
distance than that to the tabletop upon which the
photos rest
⇨ This overcomes the difficulties noted above
⇨ The lenses also serve to magnify the images, thereby enabling details to be seen clearly

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7-5. Stereoscopes

 For normal 23-cm-format photos taken with

60 percent end lap, the common overlap
area of a pair of photos is a rectangular area
about 14cm wide, as shown crosshatched in
Fig. 7-9a

Figure 7-9. (a) The common overlap area of a pair of 23-

cm-format photos taken with 60 percent end lap
(corresponding images coincident). (b) Obscured area
when photos are oriented for viewing with pocket
stereoscope.
 If the photos are separated by 5 cm for stereoviewing with a pocket stereoscope, as
shown in Fig. 7-9b, there is a rectangular area, shown double crosshatched, in which the
top photo obscures the bottom photo, thereby preventing stereoviewing

 To overcome this problem, the top photo can be gently rolled up out of the way to
enable viewing the corresponding imagery of the obscured area

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7-5. Stereoscopes

Figure 7-10. ST-4 mirror stereoscope. (Courtesy LH Systems,

LLC.)

 The mirror stereoscope shown in Fig. 7-10 permits the two photos to be completely
separated when viewed stereoscopically

 This eliminates the problem of one photo obscuring part of the overlap of the other, and
it also enables the entire width of the stereomodel to be viewed simultaneously

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7-5. Stereoscopes
 The operating principle of the mirror
stereoscope is illustrated in Fig. 7-11

 The stereoscope has two large wing mirrors and

two smaller eyepiece mirrors, all of which are
mounted at 45° to the horizontal

 Light rays emanating from image points on the

photos such as 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are reflected from the
mirror surfaces, according to the principles of
reflection, and are received at the eyes, forming
parallactic angle 𝜙𝑎

 The brain automatically associates the depth to

Figure 7-11. Operating principle of the mirror
stereoscope. point 𝐴 with that parallactic angle
 The stereomodel is thereby created beneath the eyepiece mirrors, as illustrated in Fig. 7-11

 Mirror stereoscopes may be equipped with binoculars which fasten over the eyepiece
mirrors

 The binoculars, which may be focused individually to accommodate each eye, permit
viewing images at high magnification
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7-5. Stereoscopes

 A different type of stereoscope called the zoom

stereoscope is shown in Fig. 7-12

 A variety of these instruments are manufactured,

affording a choice of special features such as
continuous zoom magnification up to 120X,
capability of rotating images optically (which permits
convenient correction for crab or alignment), and
differential enlargement so that two photos of
different scales can be viewed stereoscopically

Figure 7-12. Zoom 95 stereoscope.

(Courtesy Bausch and Lomb Co.)

 For direct stereoscopic viewing of film negatives, these stereoscopes may be obtained
mounted on a light table and equipped with a special scanning mechanism

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7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes

 In stereoscopic viewing, it is important to orient the photos so that the left and right
eyes see the left and right photos, respectively

 If the photos are viewed in reverse, a pseudoscopic view results in which ups and downs
are reversed

 Accurate and comfortable stereoscopic viewing requires that the eye base, the line
joining the centers of the stereoscope lenses, and the flight line all be parallel

 In marking the flight line, the photo

centers (principal points) are first located
by joining opposite fiducial marks with
straight lines

 Principal points are shown at 𝑜1 and 𝑜2 on

Fig. 7-13

Figure 7-13. Pair of photos properly oriented for

stereoscopic viewing.

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7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes

 In stereoscopic viewing, it is important to orient the photos so that the left and right eyes
see the left and right photos, respectively

 If the photos are viewed in reverse, a pseudoscopic view results in which ups and downs
are reversed; e.g., valleys appear as ridges and hills appear as depressions

 Accurate and comfortable stereoscopic viewing requires that the eye base, the line
joining the centers of the stereoscope lenses, and the flight line all be parallel

 Corresponding principal points (also called

conjugate principal points), which are the
locations of principal points on adjacent
overlapping photos, are marked next
⇨ This may be done satisfactorily by carefully
observing images immediately surrounding
the principal points, and then marking the
corresponding principal points by
Figure 7-13. Pair of photos properly oriented for estimating their positions with respect to
stereoscopic viewing.
these surrounding images

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7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes

 If the area is level and there are identifiable features in
the photos, the method illustrated in Fig. 7-14 can be
used to find the conjuagte principal point with
acceptable accuracy

 In Fig. 7-14a, intersecting lines joining opposite fiducial

marks define the principal point of the left photo

 Since there is no distinct feature located at this

intersection, distances 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are measured to
nearby features at approximately the same elevation

 Figure 7-14b shows the corresponding area on the right

photo, where arcs centered on these features and
having radii 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are intersected to obtain the
conjugate principal point

Figure 7-14. (a) Center portion of left photo showing its

principal point and distances to two manhole covers.
(b) Intersection of corresponding distances to the same
features at the conjugate principal point in the right
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7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes

 The corresponding principal points are shown at 𝑜1 ′
and 𝑜2 ′ on Fig. 7-13

 The next step in orienting a pair of photos for

stereoscopic viewing is to fasten the left photo down
onto the table

 Then the right photo is oriented so that the four points

defining the flight line (𝑜1 , 𝑜2 ′, 𝑜1 ′, and 𝑜2 ) all lie along a
straight line, as shown in Fig. 7-13

Figure 7-14. (a) Center portion of left photo showing its

principal point and distances to two manhole covers. Figure 7-13. Pair of photos properly oriented for
(b) Intersection of corresponding distances to the same stereoscopic viewing.
features at the conjugate principal point in the right
photo. Stereoscopic Viewing
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7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes

 The right photo is retained in this orientation, and while

being viewed through the stereoscope, it is moved
sideways until the spacing between corresponding images
produces a comfortable stereoscopic view

 Normally the required spacing between corresponding

images is slightly more than 5 cm for a pocket
stereoscope and about 25 cm for a mirror stereoscope

Figure 7-14. (a) Center portion of left photo showing its

principal point and distances to two manhole covers. Figure 7-13. Pair of photos properly oriented for
(b) Intersection of corresponding distances to the same stereoscopic viewing.
features at the conjugate principal point in the right
photo. Stereoscopic Viewing
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7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes

 For casual stereoviewing, the geometry
shown in Fig. 7-13 is normally achieved by
a trial method in which the photos are
simply shifted in position until a clear
stereoscopic view is obtained

 If accuracy and eye comfort are

considerations, however, orientation by
the flight-line procedure is recommended
Figure 7-13. Pair of photos properly oriented for
stereoscopic viewing.

 Once the photos are properly oriented, the operator can easily align the stereoscope by
simply rotating it slightly until the most comfortable viewing position is obtained

 The operator should look directly into the centers of the lenses, thereby holding the eye
base parallel with the flight line

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7-7. Causes of 𝑌 Parallax

 An essential condition which must exist for clear and comfortable stereoscopic viewing is
that the line joining corresponding images be parallel with the direction of flight

 When corresponding images fail to lie along a line parallel to the flight line, 𝑦 parallax,
denoted by 𝑝𝑦 , is said to exist

 Any slight amount of 𝑦 parallax causes eyestrain, and excessive amounts prevent
stereoscopic viewing altogether

 If a pair of truly vertical overlapping photos taken from equal flying heights is oriented
perfectly, then no 𝑦 parallax should exist anywhere in the overlap area
 Failure of any of these conditions to be
satisfied will cause 𝑦 parallax

 In Fig. 7-15, for example, the photos are

improperly oriented, and the principal
points and corresponding principal points
do not lie on a straight line

 As a result, 𝑦 parallax exists at both points

Figure 7-15. Here y parallax is caused by 𝑎 and 𝑏 ⇨ This condition can be prevented
improper orientation of the photos.
by careful orientation
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7-7. Causes of 𝑌 Parallax

Figure 7-16. The y parallax is caused by variation in flying

height.

 In Fig. 7-16 the left photo was exposed from a lower flying height than the right photo,
and consequently its scale is larger than the scale of the right photo

 Even though the photos are truly vertical and properly oriented, 𝑦 parallax exists at both
points 𝑎 and 𝑏 due to variation in flying heights

 To obtain a comfortable stereoscopic view, the 𝑦 parallax can be eliminated by sliding

the right photo upward transverse to the flight line when viewing point 𝑎 and sliding it
downward when viewing point 𝑏

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7-7. Causes of 𝑌 Parallax

 The effect of tilted photos is illustrated

in Fig. 7-17

 The left photo is truly vertical and

shows positions of images 𝑎 through
𝑑 of a square parcel of property on flat
terrain
Figure 7-17. The y parallax is caused by tilt of the photos.

 The right photo was tilted such that the same parcel appears as a trapezoid

 In this case, 𝑦 parallax exists throughout the stereoscopic model as a result of the tilt, as
indicated for points 𝑎 and 𝑐

 In practice, the direction of tilt is random, and therefore small y parallaxes from this
source are likely to exist in variable amounts throughout most stereomodels

 Most serious 𝑦 parallaxes usually occur from improper orientation of the photos, a
condition which can be easily corrected

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7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

 Under normal conditions, the vertical scale of a stereomodel will appear to be greater
than the horizontal scale

 This apparent scale disparity is called vertical exaggeration

 Although other factors are involved, vertical exaggeration is caused primarily by the
lack of equivalence of the photographic base-height ratio, 𝐵/𝐻′, and the corresponding
stereoviewing base-height ratio, 𝑏𝑒 /ℎ

 The term 𝐵/𝐻′ is the ratio of the air base (distance between the two exposure stations)
to flying height above average ground, and 𝑏𝑒 /ℎ is the ratio of the eye base (distance
between the two eyes) to the distance from the eyes at which the stereomodel is
perceived

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7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

 Figures 7-18a and 𝑏 depict, respectively,

the taking of a pair of vertical overlapping
photographs and the stereoscopic
viewing of those photos

 In Fig. 7-18a, the camera focal length is ƒ,

the air base is 𝐵, the flying height above
ground is 𝐻′, the height of ground object
𝐴𝐶 is 𝑍, and the horizontal ground
distance 𝐾𝐶 is 𝐷
Figure 7-18. Simplistic diagrams for analyzing vertical
exaggeration. (a) Geometry of overlapping aerial
photography. (b) Geometry of stereoscopic viewing of the
photos of part (a).
 In Fig. 7-18a, assume that 𝑍 is equal to 𝐷

 In Fig. 7-18b, 𝑖 is the image distance from the eyes to the photos, 𝑏𝑒 is the eye base, ℎ is
the distance from the eyes to the perceived stereomodel, 𝑧 is the stereomodel height of
object 𝐴′𝐶′, and 𝑑 is the horizontal stereomodel distance 𝐾′𝐶′

 Note that while the ratio 𝑍/𝐷 is equal to 1, the ratio 𝑧/𝑑 is greater than 1 due to vertical
exaggeration

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7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

 An equation for calculating vertical exaggeration can be developed with reference to
these figures

From similar triangles of Fig. 7-18a,

𝑥𝑎 𝑓 𝐵𝑓
= ′ from which 𝑥𝑎 = (a)
𝐵 𝐻 −𝑍 𝐻′ − 𝑍
𝑥𝑐 𝑓 𝐵𝑓
= ′ from which 𝑥𝑐 = ′ (b)
𝐵 𝐻 𝐻
Subtracting (b) from (a) and reducing gives
𝑍
𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥𝑐 = 𝐵𝑓 (c)
(𝐻′ )2 −𝐻′ 𝑍

Also from similar triangles of Fig. 7-18b,

Figure 7-18. Simplistic diagrams for analyzing vertical 𝑥𝑎 𝑖 𝑏𝑒 𝑖

exaggeration. (a) Geometry of overlapping aerial = from which 𝑥𝑎 = (d)
𝑏𝑒 ℎ − 𝑧 ℎ−𝑧
photography. (b) Geometry of stereoscopic viewing of the
photos of part (a).
𝑥𝑐 𝑖 𝑏𝑒 𝑖
= from which 𝑥𝑐 = (e)
𝑏𝑒 ℎ ℎ

Subtracting (e) from (d) and reducing gives

𝑧
𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑖 2 (f)
ℎ − ℎ𝑧

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7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

 An equation for calculating vertical exaggeration can be developed with reference to
these figures
𝑍
𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥𝑐 = 𝐵𝑓 (c)
(𝐻′ )2 −𝐻′ 𝑍
𝑧
𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑖 (f)
ℎ2 − ℎ𝑧

Equating (c) and (f) gives

𝑍 𝑧
𝐵𝑓 = 𝑏𝑒 𝑖
(𝐻′ )2 −𝐻′ 𝑍 ℎ2 − ℎ𝑧

In the above equation, the values of 𝑍 and 𝑧 are

normally considereably smaller than the values of 𝐻
and ℎ, respectively; thus
𝐵𝑓𝑍 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑧 𝑓ℎ 𝐵ℎ
Figure 7-18. Simplistic diagrams for analyzing vertical = from which = ′ (g)
exaggeration. (a) Geometry of overlapping aerial (𝐻′ )2 ℎ2 𝑍 𝐻 𝑖 𝐻′𝑏𝑒
photography. (b) Geometry of stereoscopic viewing of the
photos of part (a). Also from similar triangles of Fig. 7-18a, and 𝑏
𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 𝑓 𝐻′
= from which 𝐷 = 𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 = (h)
𝐷 𝐻′ 𝑓
and
𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 𝑟 ℎ
= from which 𝑑 = 𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 (i)
𝑑 ℎ 𝑖

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7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

 An equation for calculating vertical exaggeration can be developed with reference to
these figures

𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 𝑓 𝐻′
= from which 𝐷 = 𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 = (h)
𝐷 𝐻′ 𝑓
𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 𝑟 ℎ
= from which 𝑑 = 𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥𝑘 (i)
𝑑 ℎ 𝑖

Dividing (i) by (h) and reducing yields

𝑑 𝑓ℎ
= ′ (j)
𝐷 𝐻𝑖

Subtracting (j) into (g) and reducing gives

𝑧 𝑑 𝐵ℎ
Figure 7-18. Simplistic diagrams for analyzing vertical = (k)
exaggeration. (a) Geometry of overlapping aerial
𝑍 𝐷 𝐻′𝑏𝑒
photography. (b) Geometry of stereoscopic viewing of the
photos of part (a).

Stereoscopic Viewing
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7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

𝑧 𝑑 𝐵ℎ
= (k)
𝑍 𝐷 𝐻′𝑏𝑒
 In Eq. (k), if the term 𝐵ℎ/(𝐻′𝑏𝑒 ) is equal to 1, there is no vertical exaggeration of the
stereomodel (Recall that 𝑍 is equal to 𝐷)

 Thus an expression for the magnitude of vertical exaggeration 𝑉 is given by

𝐵 ℎ
𝑉= (7-1)  From Eq. (7-1) it is seen that the
𝐻′ 𝑏𝑒
magnitude of vertical exaggeration in
stereoscopic viewing can be approximated
by multiplying the 𝐵/𝐻′ ratio by the
inverse of the 𝑏𝑒 /ℎ ratio

 An expression for the 𝐵/𝐻′ ratio can be

developed with reference to Fig. 7-19

 In this figure, 𝐺 represents the total

ground coverage of a vertical photo taken
from an altitude of 𝐻′ above ground
Figure 7-19. Base-height ratio (B/H’)
 Air base 𝐵 is the distance between
exposures
Stereoscopic Viewing
Seoul National University

7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

𝑃𝐸 𝑃𝐸
𝐵 =𝐺−𝐺 = 𝐺(1 − ) (l)
100 100

 In Eq. (l), PE is the percentage of end lap, which gives the amount that the second
photo overlaps the first

 Also by similar triangles of the figure,

𝐻′ 𝑓 𝑓𝐺
= from which 𝐻′ = (m)
𝐺 𝑑 𝑑

 In Eq. (m), ƒ is the camera focal length and 𝑑 its format dimension

 Dividing Eq. (l) by Eq. (m) and reducing gives

𝐵 𝑃𝐸 𝑑
= (1 − ) (7-2)
𝐻′ 100 𝑓

Stereoscopic Viewing
Seoul National University

7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

 The stereoviewing base-height ratio varies due to differences in the distances
between the eyes of users and varying dimensions of stereoscopes

 Figure 7-20 illustrates the relationships involved in

this approximation

 With an eye base, 𝑏𝑒 , averaging about 65 mm in

humans, we need only to find the perceived distance
from the eyes to the stereomodel, ℎ to make an
approximation

 If the distance between the photos is 𝑏𝑠 , and the

distance of the stereoscope from the photos is 𝑖 then
we can use the following equation to estimate ℎ by
similar triangles: 𝑏𝑒
ℎ=𝑖 (n)
Figure 7-20. Eye base to perceived model height 𝑏𝑒 − 𝑏𝑠
ratio.

 Equation (n) can be used to form Eq. (7-3) to directly solve for the stereoviewing
base-height ratio: 𝑏 𝑏 −𝑏 𝑒 𝑒 𝑠
= (7-3)
ℎ 𝑖

Stereoscopic Viewing