ELECTROSTATICS

ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL

At the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

i. Describe the concepts of electric field, electric lines of force, and electric field intensity due to
a point charge.
ii. Draw the electric field due to a circular loop of charges.
iii. Explain the electrostatic potential and potential difference
iv. Calculate the electric potential due to a charged ring, the electric field as a potential gradient,
and the electric potential due to a charged ring
v. Draw equipotential surfaces.

2.1: Concepts of Electric Field

Let us consider an electric charge q located in space. If we bring another charge 𝐪𝟎 near the charge
q, then the charge 𝐪𝟎 experiences a force of attraction or repulsion due to the charge q. The force
experienced by 𝐪𝟎 is said to be due to the ‘electric field’ set up by the charge q.

Thus, the space surrounding an electric charge q in which another charge experiences an
(electrostatic) force of attraction or repulsion is called the electric field of the charge q.

The charge q is called the ‘source-charge’ and the charge 𝐪𝟎 is the ‘test-charge’. The source charge
may be a point charge, a group of point-charges or a continuous distribution of charges.

We know from Coulomb’s Law that, the magnitude of the force F depends upon the separation
distance r between the two charges. In terms of the field concept, we say that the strength of the
field is very high near charge q and decreases as 𝟏/𝒓𝟐 . We may define the electric field strength
or electric field intensity E due to charge q at a distance r from it to be.

𝐅
𝐄 =
𝐪𝐨
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Where F is the force on 𝐪𝟎 due to the charge q given by Coulomb’s Law. Thus, the electric field
strength at any point surrounding the charge q is defined as the force per unit positive charge in
the field.

In other words, the intensity of an electric field at a point in an electric field is the ratio of the
force acting on the test-charge placed at that point to the magnitude of the test-charge.

Since E is a vector quantity, its direction is that of the force that will act on it. We know that the
magnitude of the force is

𝟏 𝐪𝟎 𝐪
𝐅=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐

𝐅 𝟏 𝐪
Hence 𝐄 = =
𝐪𝟎 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐

The units of E are Newton/Coulomb (N/C)

Example 1.

Consider point charges q1 = +2μC, q 2 = +4μC, q 3 = +2μC and q 4 = −6μC placed at four
corners of a square as shown in the figure . Each diagonal is of length 2m.

a) Calculate the electric intensity at the center of the square

b) What amount of force will act on a charge q = +5μC placed at the center?

𝑫 𝑪
𝑞1 =-6𝜇𝐶 𝑞3 =+2𝜇𝐶

𝐀 𝑩

𝑞1 =+2𝜇𝐶 𝑞2 =+4𝜇𝐶
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 Activity
In example above , if the charges q1=+2𝜇𝐶, q2 ==+4𝜇𝐶, q3= +4𝜇𝐶 , q4== -6𝜇𝐶,
a) What is the electric intensity at the center?

Example 2
Find the magnitude and direction of the total electric field at the origin of the coordinate
system due to the two point charges, 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 . The two charges are located at x-y
coordinate position of (0.0, -2.0cm) and (4.0cm, 0.0), respectively, as shown in the figure

𝒒𝟏 = +𝟏𝟎𝝁C

𝟒𝒄𝒎
𝟐𝒄𝒎

𝒒𝟏 = +𝟓𝝁C

2.2 Electric Field Lines

A charge placed in an electric field experiences an electrostatic force. If the charge is free
to move, then it will move in the direction of the force. If the direction of the force is
continuously changing, then the direction of the motion of the charge will also continuously
change, i.e. it would move along a curved path. The path of a free positive charge in an
electric field is called ‘electric line of force’. Hence, an electric line of force is that
imaginary line drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at any point gives direction of the
field at any point. Thus, the electric field lines are imaginary, but they afford a very
convenient way of pictorial visualization of the electric field.

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 (b)
(a)
a) Fig.2.1 (a) Electric field lines emanating from a charge +q (b) Electric field lines
converging to a point charge –q.

These lines for example in Fig.2.1 (a) are electric field lines of force. There is no limit to the
number of lines coming out of the +q charge. These lines spread out radially and their density
becomes less and less as we move out. The field lines due to a negative charge –q may be drawn
as shown in Fig2.1 (b).In this case, if a unit positive charge is placed in space, it will experience a
force directed towards the negative charge.

a) Two equal unlike charges b) Two equal positive charges

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 c) Two unequal unlike charges

Fig 2.2

In Fig. 2.2(b), lines of force are drawn in the field produce by two equal and similar
positive charges. At the midpoint N of the line joining the two charges, the field
produced by one charge is equal and opposite to the field produced by the other
charge. Therefore, at this point the resultant field is zero. This point is called
neutral point. If any charge is placed at this point, then it would have no tendency
to move in any direction.

Properties.
 The lines of force start from the positive charge and end at the negative
charge.
 No lines of force will cross each other.
 The electric lines of force do not go through a conductor. This indicates
that the electric field inside a conductor is always zero.
 The relative closeness of lines of force in different regions of space
expresses the relative strength of the electric field in different regions. In
regions where lines of force are closer, the electric field is stronger, whereas
in regions where lines of force are farther apart, the field is weaker.
 The lines of force in a uniform electric field are parallel, straight lines

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 Fig.2.3. Electric field lines due to oppositely charged parallel plates of (a) parallel
plates and (b) non-parallel plate.

2.5 Electric potential

Let us consider a particle with a positive charge 𝐪𝟎 that is allowed to move in an electric
field between two oppositely charged parallel plates, as shown in the figure below. The
positive charge 𝐪𝟎 will freely move from B to A, gaining kinetic energy. On the other hand,
if the charge particle is moved from A to B, an external force must be applied to make the
charge move uphill against the electric field.

𝑼𝑩
B
𝑭 𝑻𝑩 𝐔 = 𝐏𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
= −𝒒𝟎 𝑬

+𝒒𝟎 𝐓 = 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

𝑭 = 𝒒𝟎 𝑬 𝑼𝑨
A
𝑻𝑨

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Let us impose a condition that, as the charge moves from B to A, it is always maintained
at equilibrium, that is, it is moving with constant velocity. This is achieved by applying a
force F that is opposite and equal to 𝐪𝟎 𝐄 at every point along its path. The force F keeps
the charge 𝐪𝟎 from accelerating when the charge moves from B to A and avoids
deceleration if the charge moves from A to B.
The situation is analogous to the gravitational field shown in the figure below.

𝑼𝑩 , 𝑻𝑩
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈

𝒎𝒈
𝑼𝑨 , 𝑻𝑨

Just like in the gravitational field, the work done by the force in the electric field is stored
as potential energy. The electric field is a conservative field; that is, the work done to move
a charged particle within the electric field is independent of the path followed.
Thus, we may conclude that a charged particle placed in an electric field has potential
energy because of its interaction with the electric field. Let 𝐖𝐀𝐁 be the work done by the
force in carrying positive charge 𝐪𝟎 from point A to point B while keeping the charge at
equilibrium. The change in the potential energy ∆𝐔 of charge is defined as equal to the
work done by the force in carrying the charge 𝐪𝟎 from one point to another.

That is,

∆𝐔 = 𝐖𝐀𝐁 or 𝐔𝐁 − 𝐔𝐀 = 𝐖𝐀𝐁

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Where 𝐔𝐀 and 𝐔𝐁 designate the potential energy (p.e) at points A and B respectively. The
potential difference (p.d) ∆𝐕 between two points A and B in an electric field is defined as
the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from A to B while keeping the charge in
equilibrium. That is,
∆𝐕 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝐖𝐀𝐁 /𝒒𝟎
Where 𝑽𝑨 and 𝑽𝑩 are defined as the electric field potential at points A and B respectively.
From the above equation, the relation between the potential at a point, change in potential
energy ∆𝐔, and the p.d ∆𝐕 is,

𝐔𝐀 = 𝐪𝟎 𝐕𝐀 , 𝐔𝐁 = 𝐪𝟎 𝐕𝐁
∆𝐔 = 𝐔𝐁 − 𝐔𝐀 = 𝐪𝟎 (𝐕𝐁 − 𝐕𝐀 ) = 𝐪𝟎 ∆𝐕
𝑩𝒖𝒕 ∆𝐔 = 𝐖𝐀𝐁
Therefore
𝐖𝐀𝐁 = 𝐪𝟎 ∆𝐕

In order to talk in terms of absolute potential or simply potential at a point in an electric

field, we must designate some point as a reference point. The reference point is arbitrarily
taken to be at infinity and is assigned a potential of zero. This is justified because any
charge configuration will produce a zero field at infinity. Therefore, the definition of
electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the amount of work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the point under consideration while keeping
the charge in equilibrium.

Example
Calculate the p.d between two points A and B if it requires 8 × 10−4 J of external work to
move a charge of +4µC from A to B. Which point is at a higher potential?

Activity
Calculate the amount of work done in carrying a charge +2µC from A to B, if A is at -50V
and is at +50V.

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 2.6 Electrostatic Potential due to a Point-charge

𝐎 𝐂 𝐁 𝐀
+𝐪 +𝐪𝟎
𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑥

Consider a charge of coulomb situated at point O as shown in the figure above (assuming
this is a vacuum). Let C be a point at a distance r from O at which the electric field is to be
determined. From this, we must calculate the work done in bringing a test charge from
infinity to C. Suppose a positive test charge 𝐪𝟎 is placed at A, which is at a distance x from
O, then, by Coulomb’s Law, the electric force acting on A is given by:

𝟏 𝐪𝟎 𝐪
𝐅= 𝐍𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐

The direction of F is along OA.

Let there be another point B at a distance dx from A towards O. Then the work done in
bringing the test-charge 𝐪𝟎 from A to B against the force F is force times the distance
(W=Fd). That is,

𝟏 𝐪𝟎 𝐪 −𝟏 𝐪𝟎 𝐪
𝒅𝐖 = 𝟐
(−𝒅𝒙) = (−𝒅𝒙) 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐱 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐱 𝟐

Therefore, the total work done in bringing the test charge qo from infinity to C is

𝒓
𝟏 𝒒𝟎 𝒒 𝐪𝐪𝟎 𝒓 𝟏
𝐖 = −∫ 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 = ∫ − 𝒅𝒙
∞ 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝒙 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 ∞ 𝒙𝟐

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 𝐪𝐪𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
= [ − ]
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝒓 ∞
𝐪𝐪𝟎
= 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
𝐖𝐀𝐁
But 𝑽 = 𝒒𝟎
𝐪
𝐕= 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
Similarly, the potential at P due to –q is
𝐪
𝐕= 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫

The potential is a scalar quantity. Therefore, the potential at any point due to groups of
point- charges is found by calculating the potential due to individual charges (as if others
were not present) and adding them algebraically. Thus, if a point is at distance 𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 , 𝒓𝟑
and 𝒓𝟒 meters from the point charge 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , −𝒒𝟑 and −𝒒𝟒 coulomb respectively, then the
resultant potential at that point will be,

𝐪𝐪𝟎 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟒
= [ + − − ] 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝒓 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝒓𝟒

2.7: Electric potential and Electric intensity

We want to show how electric field intensity is related to p.d. between two points.

The p.d. between A and B was given by

∆𝐕 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝐖𝐀𝐁 /𝒒𝟎

But 𝐖𝐀𝐁 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆(𝑭𝒅) = −q 0 Ed

q0 Ed
Thus 𝐕𝐁 − 𝐕𝐀 = − 𝐪𝟎
= −𝐄𝐝

𝐕 = 𝐄𝐝 This equation is only applicable if the Electric field

is uniform
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Disregarding the sign,

The units of E we have so far used was N/C. But the equation 𝐕 = 𝐄𝐝 tells us that, the
units of E is volt/meter. That is V/m is equivalent to N/C.

Example
Consider charges 𝐪𝟏 = 0.20µC, 𝐪𝟐 =0.3µC and 𝐪𝟑 = - 0.4µC placed at the corners A, B
and C of a square whose side is equal to 1m.
a) The potential at center P of the square.
b) The potential at the fourth corner D of the square.
c) What is the p.d between the points P and D of the square?
d) If a charge of 2µC is moved from D to P, what would be the change in its potential
energy?

𝑞1 = 0.2𝜇𝐶
𝑞2 = 0.3𝜇𝐶
1m
B A

1m 1m

C D
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1m
𝑞3 = −0.4𝜇𝐶
 Activity
Consider charges 𝐪𝟏 = 0.2µC, 𝐪𝟐 =0.2µC, 𝐪𝟑 =0.32µC, 𝐪𝟒 = 0.42µC, placed at
the four corners of a square of side 1m.
Calculate the potential at the center of the square, what is its potential energy?
How much work will have to be done to move this charge from the center of the
square to infinity

2.8 Equipotential Surfaces:

We define an equipotential surface as any surface over which the electric potential is
everywhere the same. An equipotential surface may be the surface of a charged body or
simply a surface in space. For example, the surface of a conductor is an equipotential
surface. An equivalent surface can be drawn through a space in which there is an electric
field. As an example, let us consider the electric field of an isolated point charge. The
potential at a distance r from the charge is

𝐪
𝐕=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫

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 A sphere of radius r with center +q is, therefore, an equipotential surface of potential.
In fact. All spheres centered at r are equipotential surfaces, as shown in the figure above,
whose potential is inversely proportional to r.

The important properties of equipotential surfaces are:

 No work is done in moving a charge between two points on an equipotential surface. This
is so because the potential difference between any two points on the surface is zero.
 The electric field, and hence the lines of force, are everywhere at right angles to the
equipotential surface. This is so because there is no potential gradient along any direction
parallel to the surface, and so no electric field parallel to the surface. This means that the
electric field E, and hence the lines of force, are always at right angles to the equipotential
surface.
 The lines of force are radial and hence perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces.
 In the family of equipotential surfaces, the surfaces are closer together where the electric
field is stronger and farther apart where the field is weaker.
 No two equipotential surfaces can interact with each other.

SUMMARY

 The space surrounding an electric charge in which another charge experiences a force of
attraction or repulsion is called the electric field of the charge.
 The path of a free positive charge in an electric field is called the ‘electric line of force’. In
other words, an electric line of force is that imaginary smooth curve drawn in an electric
field along which a free, isolated unit of positive charge would move.
 The electric lines of force are visualized to emanate radially from a point of positive charge
and converge radially to a unit of negative charge. That is, the lines of force start from the
positive charge and end at the negative charge.
 The electrostatic potential is the work done in bringing a test charge from infinity to a
specified point.
 An equipotential surface is that surface over which the electric potential is everywhere the
same.

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