Changes of State

You would have observed changing states of matter when ice cubes melt from solid into liquid water
or when water boils into vapor, but have you wondered why substances change form? Changing
states of matter occur when matter loses or absorbs energy. When a substance absorbs energy the
atoms and molecules move more rapidly and this increased kinetic energy pushes particles far
enough, that they change form. This energy is usually heat or thermal energy.

What are Changes of State?

A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes and do not involve
any changes in the chemical makeup of the matter. Common changes of the state include melting,
freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization. These changes are shown in the
figure given below.

Why do Phase Changes Occur?

When temperature or pressure change of a system occurs, phase changes occur. When the
temperature or pressure increases, the interaction between the molecules increases. Similarly, when
the temperature decreases, it is easier for molecules and atoms to settle into a more rigid structure.

Changes Between Liquids and Solids

How would you make ice cubes in a tray? First, you would fill the tray with water from a tap. Then
you would place the tray in the freezer compartment of a refrigerator. The freezer is very cold. What
happens next?

Freezing
Heat transfer occurs between the warmer tray and the colder air in the freezer. The warm water
loses heat to the cold air in the freezer. This heat transfer occurs until no energy is available for the
particles to slide past each other. This forces them to remain in fixed positions, locked in place by
the force of attraction between them. This way liquid water is changed into solid ice. The process of
liquid water changing to solid ice is termed as freezing. The temperature at which it occurs is known
as the freezing point.
Melting
If you took out the ice cubes from the freezer and placed them in a warm room, the ice would absorb
energy from the warmer air around them. This absorbed energy would facilitate them to overcome
the force of attraction holding them together, enabling them to slip out of the fixed position that they
held as ice. The process in which a solids change to a liquid is called melting. The melting point is
the temperature at which a solids change to a liquid.

Changes Between Liquids and Gases

If you fill a pot with cold tap water and heat it on a hot stovetop, the water heats up. Heat energy
travels from the stovetop to the pot, and the water absorbs the energy from the pot. What happens
to the water next?

Vaporization
If the water is hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor are formed in the boiling water.
This happens as particles of liquid water gain enough energy to completely overcome the force of
attraction between them and change to the gaseous state. The bubbles rise through the water and
escape from the pot as steam. The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called
vaporization. The temperature at which a liquid boils is its boiling point.

Condensation
When you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to fog up. You may wonder
why does this happen? Some hot water from the shower evaporates and when it comes in contact
with cooler surfaces such as the mirror, it cools and loses energy. The cooler water particles no
longer have the energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them. They come together and
form droplets of liquid water. This process in which a gas changes to liquid is known as
condensation.

Changes Between Solids and Gases

Solids that change to gas passes through the liquid state first. However, sometimes solids change
directly to gases and skip the liquid state. The reverse can also occur. Sometimes gases change
directly to solids.

Sublimation
The process in which solids directly change to gases is known as sublimation. This occurs when
solids absorb enough energy to completely overcome the forces of attraction between them. Dry ice
is an example of solids that undergo sublimation.
 Five Changes of State

Melting Freezing Evaporation Condensation Sublimation

The process The transition

The process The process by
by which a The process by of the solid
by which a which a
substance which a phase to the
substance substance
changes substance gaseous phase
changes from changes from
from the changes from without passing
the solid the gaseous
liquid phase the liquid phase the
phase to the phase to the
to the solid to the gaseous intermediate
liquid phase is liquid phase is
phase is phase is known liquid phase is
known as known as
known as as evaporation. known as
melting. condensation.
freezing. sublimation.

Why is energy always involved in changes of state?

A: The energy of particles of matter determines the matter's state. Particles of a gas
have more energy than particles of a liquid, and particles of a liquid have more energy
than particles of a solid. Therefore, in order for matter to change from a solid to a liquid
or from a liquid to a gas, particles of matter must absorb energy. In order for matter to
change from a gas to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid, particles of matter must lose
energy.

Conclusion
It will interest you to know that every object in existence undergoes a state change. It is only a
question of the amount of heat supplied to the substance. If you supply enough heat, everything on
this planet can be made to change its state. The thing is though not every substance has to follow
the solid-liquid-gas path. Some substances can naturally change from their solid-state to their
gaseous state without entering the liquid state. This phenomenon is known as Sublimation.
Examples of sublimation are, the element Iodine, Dry ice (solid CO 2) and high-quality coal which at
high-temperature burns and sublimates into vapour.

Melting Point of Ice

define the melting point of a solid?
Melting point of a solid is defined as the temperature at which a solid changes into a
liquid. Melting point of a solid indicates the strength of the force of attraction between
the particles of the solid. On heating a solid, its molecules absorb energy in the form of
heat and their kinetic energy increases.
As the kinetic energy increases, the temperature of the solid increases. As a result, the
force of attraction between the molecules decreases and the molecules become more
and more separated. This increases the potential energy of the molecule and the
particles leave their fixed positions and start moving more freely.
At a particular temperature, the separation of the molecules increases by a large
amount and the solid melts and converts into liquid. This particular temperature is the
melting point of that solid. The melting point of a pure substance is always higher than
the melting point of that substance when a small amount of an impurity is present.
Pressure also affects the melting point of a substance. As the pressure on the
substance increases, the melting point decreases.

Melting Point of Ice

Ice is a substance that we use in our daily life. Also, we make ice in our refrigerator. But, we have
seen the ice melting faster outside the cold environment of the refrigerator.

Definition of Ice
Ice is a solid substance that forms when water freezes. Also, the north and south pole of the earth is
covered in ice. Furthermore, most of the mountain tops and hilly areas are also covered in ice.

Besides, there are different types of ice that form on the basis of purity or impurity of water. If
the water is completely pure then the ice formed is completely transparent.

But if there are impurities in the water then the ice will be impure and its transparency decreases
with the level of impurity.

What Happens When The Ice Melts?

The melting point of a solid refers to the point at which the solid changes its form
from solid to liquid. Also, it indicates the strength of the force of attraction between
the particles of the solid.
When a solid is heated its molecules absorb the energy in the form of heat and their
kinetic energy increases.
Furthermore, as the kinetic energy of the molecule increases their temperature also
increases. As a result, the force of attraction between particles increases and the
molecule become more and more separated.
Moreover, the potential energy of the particles increases and they leave their fixed
place and start moving freely.
In addition, at a particular temperature, the separation of the molecule increases by a
large amount and the solid start to convert in liquid.
Most noteworthy, that particular temperature of the substance is the melting point of
the solid. Furthermore, the melting point of a pure substance is always higher than
the impure substance even in small quantities.
Also, the pressure affects the melting point of a substance. In addition, when the
pressure increase then the melting point decreases.

For ice, the melting point is 0°C or 273K. The chemical element with the highest melting
point is tungsten (3410°C), which is used for making filaments in light bulbs.
During the melting process, till all the ice melts, the temperature of the system does not
increase until after the melting point is reached. The whole of the supplied heat energy
is consumed in increasing the potential energy of the ice molecules. The kinetic energy
of the molecule does not increase further, and the temperature does not increase, so
long as the melting continues.
The quantity of heat required to completely change 1 kg of ice into water at atmospheric
pressure at its melting point is called latent heat of fusion. For ice, it is 3.34 x 10 5 J/kg at
0°C.

Factors Affecting Melting Point

Effect of pressure on melting point
Melting point of substances that contract on melting (like ice) decreases with
increase in pressure.
Melting point of substances that expand on melting (like lead) increases with
increase in pressure.

Effect of impurities on melting point

Melting point of a substance decreases by the presence of impurities in it. This
phenomenon is used in making the freezing mixture by adding salt to ice.
Parameters which affect melting point are:

 Ionic Bonds
 Intermolecular Forces
 Shape of Molecules
 Size of Molecule
 Bonding : ionically bonded compounds are having
higher mp than covalent compounds (exception is
diamond)
 Possibility of intermolecular hydrogen bonding
increases the mp
 Possibility of intramolecular hydrogen bonding
decreases the mp
 Addition of impurities decreases the mp.
 Structural arrangements like close packing (hcp,ccp)
are having higher mp.
 In organic compounds, straight chain compounds have
higher mp than branched compounds because mp also
depends on area available for Van der Waals force of
attraction.
Boiling Point of Water

Boiling point is the temperature that a liquid will change phase into a gas. Boiling
occurs when the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure of the gas outside of it. Because of this, as the outside
pressure changes so does the boiling point of the liquid. Therefore there is a
set pressure known as a standard atmosphere (atm) which determines what
is called the normal boiling point of a liquid. For example, water's normal
boiling point is 100oC, which occurs when the atmospheric pressure is exactly
1 atm. If the atmospheric pressure is less than 1 atm, the boiling point of the
liquid will decrease, as is the case at higher altitudes on Earth. And if the
atmospheric pressure is greater than 1 atm, such as in a pressure cooker, the
boiling point will begin to increase drastically.

The simple answer to this question is that the boiling point of water is
100 °C or 212 °F at 1 atmosphere of pressure (sea level).

However, the value is not a constant. The boiling point of water

depends on the atmospheric pressure, which changes according to
elevation. Water boils at a lower temperature as you gain altitude
(e.g., going higher on a mountain), and boils at a higher temperature
if you increase atmospheric pressure (coming back down to sea level
or going below it).

The boiling point of water also depends on the purity of the water.
Water that contains impurities (such as salted water) boils at a higher
temperature than pure water. This phenomenon is called boiling point
elevation, which is one of the colligative properties of matter.

What is the effect of impurities on boiling point of water ?

If we add impurities to a solution boiling point of the solution increases. This happens because
the presence of impurities decreases the number of water molecules available to be vaporized
during boiling. Once this took place, it takes a greater amount of heat to make the same
amount of impure solution to vaporize as it would take to make a pure solution to vaporize,
thus there would be raise in the solution's overall boiling point. It is important to realize
however, that impurities do not always increase boiling point, and, in certain rarer cases, can
actually cause boiling point to decrease. With this in mind, it is important to know exactly what
impurities are being added to a solution in order to determine the final effect the impurities will
have on boiling point.

Effect of pressure on boiling point of water

Atmospheric pressure influences the boiling point of water. When atmospheric pressure
increases, the boiling point becomes higher, and when atmospheric pressure decreases
(as it does when elevation increases), the boiling point becomes lower.

Pressure on the surface of water tends to keep the water molecules contained. As
pressure increases, water molecules need additional heat to gain the speed necessary
for escape. Pressure cookers work on this principle. When a pressure cooker gauge
shows 100 pounds pressure per square inch, the temperature inside the cooker is more
than 300 °F (149 °C).

Lowering the pressure lowers the boiling point because the molecules need less speed
to escape. The low atmospheric pressure on high mountains lowers the boiling point to
such an extent that water cannot get hot enough to boil eggs satisfactorily.

Latent heat
Latent heat is the heat required for an object to change phase (melt, boil, freeze, etc.).
Have you ever thought about what happens when any matter changes its state?
Changing of phase undergoes a heat transfer, but the temperature of the
substances remains constant. So, the heat necessary for phase changes of
water from solid to liquid or gas, or liquid to solid or gas, without any temperature
alteration is known as latent heat of water.

Definition of Latent Heat

The energy radiated or absorbed by a thermodynamic system or a body during

its change of state and without any change in its temperature is termed as latent
heat (also called latent energy). Moreover, latent heat is generally represented in
calories or joules per unit mass or mole of the body experiencing phase change.

For instance, consider melting ice blocks. Ice melts as it absorbs heat and
undergoes a rise in its temperature. Furthermore, during the melting process, ice
absorbs latent energy which helps in the change of its state from solid to liquid.
However, the temperature of ice does not change when it intakes latent heat.

Furthermore, two primary forms of latent heat are as follows:

 Latent Heat of Fusion

It refers to the energy related to freezing of liquid and melting of solid.

 Latent Heat of Vaporization

Whereas, latent heat of vaporization refers to the energy related with changing of
solid or liquid to gas and condensation of vapour.

Latent Heat is energy in the form of heat released or absorbed by a substance during a
phase change of the substance. The amount of latent heat involved with
condensation/evaporation and freezing/melting are different under different
temperatures and pressures. As temperature increases, latent heat of vaporization
decreases, but that of fusion increases. Water is not the only substance that has three
different phases at a normal temperature range in the universe, but it is the most
abundant substance like this on Earth. A larger amount of latent heat is involved with
the phase change of water. Through this transfer of latent heat, the water cycle
determines surface and atmospheric conditions, as well as atmospheric circulation.
Evaporative cooling and condensation heating moderate the surface temperature.
Without this cooling and heating, daily temperature range would be significant, much
like that of planets such as Mars or Venus, or of blacktop asphalt in summer.
The atmosphere is a dynamic heat system designed to transfer heat from one place to
another. Latent heat involved in the phase change of water plays essential roles in the
transfer of heat. Just as much latent heat is released in the atmosphere through a
phase change as the latent heat is absorbed at the Earth's surface. The latent heat
fluxes and the transfer of sensible heat between the equator and the poles are major
components of the energy balance of the Earth. The latent heat flux in the atmosphere
is huge. Latent heat flux involved in the phase change of water drives the atmospheric
circulation and plays essential roles in global climate.

Latent heat is also an important factor to better comprehend weather systems, because
it is a primary source of energy that develops, promotes, and sustains severe weather
systems, such as thunderstorms and tropical cyclones. Latent heat supplies weather
energy. As water condenses, latent heat from the water molecule is released into the
air, heats the air, makes it lighter, and makes it rise fast. As the air rises, more air flows
in and promotes storms. In this process, some latent heat is changed into the kinetic
energy that accelerates the speed of water molecules and powers up severe weather
systems. Recent global warming increases the ability to evaporate and hold moisture in
the atmosphere. As a greater amount of water vapor exists in the hot air, more latent
energy is available to be released into severe storms. Another critical aspect of global
warming is that it will increase variability of extreme weather, although the overall
average of the atmospheric condition changes little. Thus rare, but extreme weather,
often much beyond what we experience today, will be more common.