COMPLEX FOUNDATIONS

QS 222
Building Technology III

Ms. Rhobi Mluzya

Sub-topics
Pile foundations
Raft foundations
Foundation failures
Underpinning
Shoring
 Pile foundations
Introduction to pile foundations
Types/classifications of piles;
• Classification by their use or functions
• Classifications depending on the material(s) used in
their manufacture
• Classifications according to the British Standard Code
of Practice for Foundations (BS 8004: 1986)
 Pile driving methods
 Pile settlement
 1.0 Introduction to pile foundations
Piles are columnar elements in a foundation
which have the function of transferring load (s)
from the superstructure through weak
compressible strata or through water, onto stiffer
or more compact and less compressible soils or
onto rock.
Pile foundation it is a foundation system that
transfers loads to a deeper and competent soil
layer.
Introduction to pile foundations
Pile foundation is generally used when simple
spread foundation at a suitable depth is not
possible either because the stratum of required
bearing capacity is at greater depth or steep slopes
are encountered.
In compressible soils or water-logged soil, piles
are used with advantage for providing safe
foundation for any type of structure.
Introduction to pile foundations
Piles are used for foundations for buildings,
trestles, bridges and water front installations
(piers, docks, etc).
In general, pile foundation provides a
common solution to all difficult foundation
site problems.
 TRESTLE DOCK

BRIDGE
 Introduction to pile foundations
They may be required to carry uplift loads when used
to support tall structures subjected to overturning
forces from winds or waves.
Piles used in marine structures are subjected to lateral
loads from the impact of berthing ships and from
waves.
Combinations of vertical and horizontal loads are
carried where piles are used to support retaining walls,
bridge piers and abutments, and machinery
foundations.
Example of Berths
 Types of piles
1. Depending upon their functions or use, piles
may be classified in the following types;
Bearing piles
Friction piles
Sheet piles
Anchor piles
Batter piles
Fender piles
Compaction piles
 a) Bearing piles
Bearing piles are those which are driven into the
ground until a hard stratum is reached.
Such piles act as pillars, supporting the super-
structure and transmitting the loads down to the
level at which it can be safely borne by the ground
Thus, bearing piles, by themselves do not support
the load, rather they act as a medium to transmit the
load from the foundations to the resisting sub-
stratum.
Bearing piles

Bearing piles
b) Friction piles
When piles are required to be driven at a site
where the soil is weak or soft to a considerable
depth.
The load carried by a pile is borne by the friction
developed between the sides of the pile and the
surrounding ground i.e. skin friction.
Thus, friction piles are driven in the type of soil
whose strength does not increase with depth or
where rate of increase of strength with depth is
very slow.
Friction piles
c) Sheet piles
Sheet piles differ from bearing or friction piles in
that they are rarely used to furnish vertical support
but are used to function as retaining wall.
Are used to retaining soil that is liable to escape
laterally when subjected to pressure
Or used to enclose the area required for some
foundation and protect it from the action of
running water or leakage.
d) Anchor piles
When piles are used to provide anchorage
against horizontal pull from sheet pilling
walls or other pulling forces.
They are termed as anchor piles.
e) Batter piles
When piles are driven at an inclination to
resist large horizontal or inclined forces, the
piles are termed as batter piles.
f) Fender piles
When the piles are used to protect concrete
deck or other water front structures from the
abrasion or impact that may be caused from
the ships or barges (when they are tied up at
the deck) they are called fender piles.
The fender piles are ordinary made up of
timber
Batter piles
Fender piles
 g) Compaction piles
When piles are driven in granular soil with the
aim of increasing the bearing capacity of the soil.
The piles are termed as ‘compaction piles’
 Types of piles
2. Depending upon the material used in their
manufacture, piles can be broadly classified as;
Timber piles
Concrete piles
Composite piles
Steel piles
Sheet piles
 a) Timber piles
Transmission of load through timber piles
takes place by the friction resistance of the
ground and the pile surface.
Timber piles prove economical for supporting
light structures located in compressive soils
constantly saturated with water.
Timber piles can be circular or square in
cross-section
Timber piles
Piles are driven with the help of pile-driving
machine in which a drop of hammer delivers
blows on the pile head.
To prevent the pile head from brooming, an iron
ring about 25mm less in diameter than the pile
head is provided at the pile head top.
To facilitate driving, the lower end of the pile is
pointed and is provided with the cast iron conical
shoe
 Timber piles
Piles should not be spaced less than 60cm c/c.
By driving piles much closer, the frictional resistance is
destroyed. The best spacing for timber piles is 90cm c/c.
Maximum load a wooden pile can hold is 20tonne.
When piles are subjected to alternate dry and wet
conditions they can get decayed.
It is on this account that timber piles are cut a little below
the lowest water-mark and capped with concrete,
steel/stone
 Timber piles

Decayed timber piles

 Timber piles
Advantages of timber piles;
• They are economical
• They can be driven rapidly and as such there is great
saving in time in executing of piling work
• On account of their elasticity, timber piles can be
recommended for sites where piles are likely to be
subjected to unusual lateral forces.
• They do not need heavy machinery and complex
technical supervision
 Timber piles
Disadvantages of timber piles;
• Timber piles when used must be cut off below the
permanent ground water level to prevent them from
decay.
• They are liable to decay or deteriorate by salt water
or insects.
• On account of their restricted length, they cannot be
used for jobs where long piles are needed.
• They have low bearing power.
b) Concrete piles
Concrete piles may be classified as;
Pre-cast piles
Cast in place or cast-in-situ piles
Prestressed concrete piles
i) Pre-cast piles
Pre-cast pile may be defined as a reinforced
concrete pile which is moulded in circular,
square, rectangular or octagonal form.
The piles are cast and cured in a casting
yard and then transported to the site for
driving.
They can be driven like timber piles with
the help of the pile drivers.
ii) Cast-in-situ piles
Cast-in-situ piles are those piles which are
cast in position inside the ground.
Since the pile is not subjected to handling or
driving stresses, it is not necessary to
reinforce the pile in ordinary case.
iii) Prestressed concrete piles
The biggest disadvantage of precast piles is their
large weight.
But, with the introduction of prestressed concrete
piles, it has been possible to make pre-cast piles
which are lesser in weight.
In casting prestressed concrete piles, the pre-
tensioning cables required for each pile are
subjected to the required pull (tension) in the
casting bed.
Prestressed concrete piles
 (a) Concrete piles compared with
timber piles

Advantages of concrete piles;

 Durability of concrete piles is independent of
ground water level
 On account of their larger size and greater bearing
power, the number of piles required for supporting
the structure is much less.
 They can be cast to any length, size or shape.

 They can be used for marine works without any

treatment.
 (a) Concrete piles compared
with timber piles
Advantages of concrete piles;
 The material required is easily obtainable

 Concrete piles can be monothically bonded into

pile cap or a grillage base while in wooden piles
the bond between the pile and the pile cap is not
perfect.
 (a) Concrete piles compared
with timber piles
Disadvantages of concrete piles;
 They cost much more than timber piles.

 They cannot be driven rapidly.

 Concrete piles require elaborate technical

supervision and heavy driving machines.
 They must be reinforced to withstand handling
stresses.
 (b)Comparative advantages and disadvantages
of cast-in-situ and Precast concrete piles.

Advantages of cast-in-situ piles;

• Are cast in exact length and as such there is no
wastage of time and material.
• They are not subjected to vibrations due to hammers,
thus they are sound in construction.
• Cost of transportation of piles is nil.
• They can be made to bear heavier loads by adopting
simple method.
• There is saving in time required for curing, as is
necessary in case of precast
 (b)Comparative advantages and disadvantages
of cast-in-situ and Precast concrete piles.

Disadvantages of cast-in-situ piles;

• They cannot be used under water (or rather difficult).
• If the piles are to be reinforced, there is every possibility of
the reinforcements to be displaced.
• As the concrete has got to be dumped from great height,
the quality of work is not appreciably good.
• The ramming of the concrete mass cannot be inspected and
as such there is every possibility of the voids to be left,
rendering the construction unsound.
 (b)Comparative advantages and disadvantages
of cast-in-situ and Precast concrete piles.

Disadvantages of cast-in-situ piles;

• In uncased piles, green concrete is liable to loose its
water by coming into contact with the dry soil and hence
it may result in making the piles structurally weak.
• Freshly laid concrete in the cast-in-situ pile is susceptible
to attack by corrosive constituents in the soil and the
subsoil water.
• The driving of adjacent piles may rapture shell-less cast-
in-situ piles on account of the tensile stresses set up in
the ground during driving.
 (b)Comparative advantages and disadvantages
of cast-in-situ and Precast concrete piles.

Advantages of precast piles;

 They can be cast well before commencement of the
work resulting in rapid execution of work.
 Their construction can be well supervised and defect
detected can be rectified before use.
 The reinforcement remain in their proper position
and do not get displaced.
 They can be driven under water.

 The driving of adjacent piles do not produce adverse

effect upon the already driven piles.
 (b)Comparative advantages and disadvantages
of cast-in-situ and Precast concrete piles.

Advantages of precast piles;

 They can be loaded soon after they have been driven
to the desired depth.
Disadvantages of precast piles;
 They are heavy and hence great difficult is
experienced for their handling and transportation.
 The exact length of a pile can rarely be predetermined
and as such it has to be lengthened sometimes
rendering the piles weak at the joints.
 (b)Comparative advantages and disadvantages
of cast-in-situ and Precast concrete piles.

Disadvantages of precast piles;

 If a pile is found to be too long after driving, it has got
to be cut down which involves extra labour, time and
expense.
 They are subjected to the driving shocks after the
concrete has fully set. This may result in unsound
construction.
 c) Composite piles
This is the type of construction in which piles of two
different materials are driven one over the other.
To enable them to act together to perform the
function of a single pile.
In such a combination advantage is taken of the
good qualities of both materials.
Composite piles prove economical as they permit the
utilization of the great corrosion resistance property
of one material with the cheapness or strength of the
other.
 Composite piles
The different stages in the construction of a composite pile
having a timber pile at its lower part and precast concrete
pile above as shown in fig. c1. This type of piling tends to
achieve economy in the cost of piling work.
Another type of composite pile commonly used consists of
steel pipe or H-pile at the bottom and cast-in-situ concrete
pile at the top as shown in fig. c2.
The latter type is recommended in cases where the
designed length of the pile works out to be greater than
available for the cast-in-situ type of pile.
 Composite piles

Fig. c2

Fig. c1
d) Steel piles
Types of steel piles commonly used are;
H-piles
Pipe-piles
Screw piles
Disc piles
H-piles
The use of rolled steel H-beams to function
as bearing piles is a comparatively recent
development in piling industry
H-piles can withstand a large impact
stresses during driving.
This type of pile is useful when pile is
expected to penetrate a rock or through hard
substratum.
H-piles
On account of small cross-sectional area of
the pile can be advantageously driven close
to an existing structure as it can produce
very small soil displacement.
But the smaller cross-sectional area of H-
pile make them function less effectively as
friction or compaction piles.
They can be driven to max. depth of 100m.
 H-piles
H-piles
Pipe-piles
Seamless or welded steel pipes are often
driven to function as end bearing or friction
piles.
The piles may be driven either open ended
or close ended.
When the driven end is left open is called an
open end pile.
Open ended pile are usually used to
penetrate rock or hard substrata.
Pipe-piles
As the open end piles are sunk in the
ground, the soil inside the pipe is cleaned
out by means of compressed air, water jet,
etc.
Then, simultaneously filled with concrete.
Pipe-piles
In case of close ended piles, the driving end
of each pipe is closed by welding a conical
steel or cast iron shoe to the pipe end.
In this case also after driving, the hollow
space is filled with concrete.
The diameter of the pipes used for piling
varies 25-120cm.
Their shell thickness, 8-12mm.
Pipe-piles
Screw piles
A screw pile consists of a cast iron or steel
shaft of external diameter normally varying,
15-30cm, and terminating into a helix or
screw base.
The shaft piles may be hollow or solid.
The pile is sunk by screwing the pile down
inside the ground by use of an electric
motor.
Screw piles
Screw piles function most efficiently in soft
clay or loose sand.
 Disc piles
Similar to screw piles, a disc pile consists of hollow
metallic pipe attached with a cast iron disc to its foot
so as to enlarge the bearing area of the pile.
There is a hole at the bottom of the pile to permit the
water jet pipe to pass through during the sinking of
the pile by jetting.
Can be used only in sandy or soft soils which can
permit sinking of the pile by water jets
Disc piles
Sheet piles
Sheet piles may be made up of wood,
concrete or steel.
Sheet piles are driven side by side into the
ground to form a continuous vertical wall
for retaining soil.
The alignment and resistance or thrust are
normally provided by horizontal walers,
braces or tiebacks.
Sheet piles
Factors affecting the choice of a particular
type of sheet pile include;
Nature of the ground
Cost
Ease of installation
Availability of material
Ability to withstand driving
Lateral strength
Ease of making connections.
Sheet piles
 Types of piles according to the British
Standard Code of Practice for Foundations
(BS 8004: 1986).

Piles can be classified according to the;

• The mode of load transfer,
• Type of material forming the piles, and
• The degree of ground displacement during pile
installation and the method of installation (BS
8004:1986).
 Types of piles according to the British Standard
Code of Practice for Foundations (BS 8004:
1986).

• Pile classification in accordance with material

type (e.g. steel and concrete) has drawbacks
because composite piles are available.
• And a classification system based on the mode
of load transfer will be difficult to set up
because the proportion of friction resistance
and end-bearing resistance that occurs in
practice usually cannot be reliably predicted.
 Types of piles according to the British
Standard Code of Practice for Foundations
(BS 8004: 1986).

A classification system based on the degree of

ground displacement during pile installation is
considered to be the most appropriate, because;
• Encompasses all types of piles, and
• Reflects the fundamental effect of pile
construction on the ground which in turn will
have a pronounced influence on pile
performance.
 Types of piles according to the British
Standard Code of Practice for Foundations
(BS 8004: 1986).

In this classification method, piles can be

classified into the following types;
• Large displacement piles
• Small displacement piles
• Replacement piles
• Special piles.
 Large displacement piles
Large-displacement piles, which include all
solid piles, i.e.
• cast-in-place piles
• Precast concrete piles
• Closed-ended Steel Tubular Piles and
• Timber piles
 Small displacement piles
• The small displacement piles are those
which include rolled steel sections such as H-
piles and open-ended tubular piles.

• However, these piles will effectively become

large-displacement piles if a soil plug forms.
 Replacement piles
• Replacement piles, which are formed
through excavation by; machine boring,
grabbing or hand-digging.

• The excavation may need to be supported

by bentonite slurry, or lined with a casing
that is either left in place or extracted during
concreting for re-use.
Special piles
Special piles, which are particular pile types
or variants of existing pile types introduced
from time to time to improve efficiency or
overcome problems related to special
ground conditions. E.g. composite piles
 Homework
Pile driving method (Group 1-4)
By drop hammer – Group 1
By steam hammer- Group 2
By water jets- Group 3
By boring-Group 4
Pile settlement – Group 5

PRESENTATION: 05/01/2021