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LIPIDS
by Noristisarah UiTMCT

HTF525
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by Noristisarah UiTMCT

OUTLINE
• Composition of lipids
• Classification of lipids
• Functional properties of lipids in foods
• Production and processing of fats and oil
• Deterioration of fats and oils and its control
Introduction
• Lipid is technical word to describe fats
• Composed of carbon, hydrogen & oxygen
• A group of greasy compounds that do not dissolve or mix
with water.
• Found in both animal & plant source

Fat Lipid
 solid (room  liquid, oil (room
temperature) temperature)
Animal: solid Plant: oil

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Classes of Lipids
LIPID

Triglyceride Phospholipids Sterols

Glycerols Lecithin Cholesterol

Fatty Acids

 Saturated
 Monounsaturated
 Polyunsaturated Omega-6

Omega-3
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Triglycerides
3 fatty acids (tri) attached to 1 glycerols
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TRIGLYCERIDES
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TRIGLYCERIDES
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TRIGLYCERIDES
• FA differ in:
i. Length
ii. Degree of saturation – unsaturated (mono or
poly) and saturated
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CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS

Fatty Acids

Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated

(No double bond;

(one double bond; (two or more double
primarily animal
primarily plant bond; primarily plant
sources)
sources) sources)
Meats
Dairy Vegetable oil
Olives Fish
• milk & butter
Olive oil
Plants
Peanuts
• coconut, coconut
Peanut butter
oil, palm oil
Avocado
 Types of Fatty Acids
Type Description
Fatty Acid Hydrocarbon chain with carboxylic acid

Saturated Has maximum number of hydrogens on the carbon

chain
Solid at room temperature
High melting point
Found in meats, poultry, and dairy foods; coconut and
palm oils, cheese, butter, margarine
Monounsaturated Contain one double bond
Liquid at room temperature.
Found in olive, peanut and canola oils; nuts,
avocados, and olives, margarine made with canola oil
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 Type Description
Polyunsaturated Contain two or more double bonds
Liquid at room temperature.
Found in corn, soybean, safflower and sunflower
seed oils, and fish, nuts and seeds.
ω3 FATTY ACIDS:
1) Linolenic acid (18:3 ω 3)
2) Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 ω 3)
3) Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 ω 3)
ω6 FATTY ACIDS:
1) Linoleic acid (18:2 ω 6)
2) Arachidonic fatty acid (20:4 ω 6)
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (must be obtained from
the diet)
1) Linoleic acid (18:2 ω 6)
2) Linolenic acid (18:3 ω 3)
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Examples of fatty acids
Fatty Acids Name Fatty Acids Type Notation
Butyric saturated C4:0
Capric saturated C10:0
Palmitic saturated C16:0
Stearic saturated C18:0
Oleic monounsaturated C18:1
Linoleic polyunsaturated C18:2
Linolenic polyunsaturated C18:3
Eicosapentaenoic polyunsaturated C20:5
Behenic saturated C22:0
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CIS- AND TRANS-FATS CONFIGURATION

• Cis – causes a
bend in the
molecule
• Trans gives a
straight molecule
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Essential Fatty Acids

• Fatty acids that the body requires but cannot

make in amount sufficient to meet its
physiological needs.

• Human body can synthesize all fatty acids it

needs from carbohydrate, fat or protein except
linoleic acid and linolenic acids.

• Important : blood pressure, clot formation,

blood lipid concentration, immune response.
 Essential Fatty Acids
Omega-6
Linoleic acid Leafy vegetables, seeds, nuts grain, vegetable oil
(corn, safflower, sesame, soybean, sunflower),
poultry fat.
Omega-3
Linolenic acid Oils (canola flaxseed, soybean, walnut, wheat
germ; liquid or soft margarine made from canola or
soybean oil)
Nuts and seeds (butternuts, walnuts, soybean
kernels). Vegetables (soybean).
Function: fat metabolism
functioning the cell membrane
reduce cholesterol serum
production certain hormone
regulate blood pressure, heartbeat,
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PHOSPHOLIPIDS
2 fatty acids +1 glycerols + 1 phosphoric acids

• Small amount in food

• Lecithin is most common phospholipids
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Lecithin
• Important constituents of cell membrane
• Act as emulsifiers; helping to keep other fats in
solution in the water blood and body fluid.
• In food industry, phospholipids use as
emulsifiers to mix fats with water. (mayonnaise
& candy bars)
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Sterols
• Cholesterol is the most familiar sterol
• Cholesterol is found only in foods of animal
origin: egg yolks, meat, organ meats, poultry,
fish, milk, and milk products.
• In pure form: odorless, white, waxy powdery
substance
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FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS

i. Aeration
ii. Crystallization
iii. Emulsification
iv. Flavor
v. Heat transfer
vi. Mouthfeel
vii. Plasticity
viii.Tenderization
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Aeration
• Production of cakes, cookies & baked goods require
creaming steps; (fat + sugar)
• During mixing, air bubble are incorporated into the
batter
• This aerated batter is needed for the product to expend
during baking; desirable volume & height
• The air bubble become nuclei for gas expansion during
baking
• Heat cause steam to migrate to neighboring air bubbles
• Steam & leavening gases expand during baking due to
pressure & cause bubble to expand
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Crystallization
by Noristisarah UiTMCT

• Food fat contain very small fat crystals; compose of triglycerides

• 3 predominant crystal forms are alpha (α), beta (β) and beta
prime (β’).
• Each crystal form retains a characteristic melting point due to its
unique crystal arrangement
• Temperature change the state of fat and also the crystal form
• Type of fatty acids in triglyceride structures present in crystal
form all affect food functional properties

P Liquid oil
P P
O
P Solid fat
Triglyceride O beta crystal
abbreviation Tuning fork
representing of this
triglycerides Solid crystal dispersed within liquid oil
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Crystallization
Crystal Formation Stability Melting
point
Rapid cooling – a waxy,
transparent consistency, LESS LOWEST
α
extremely fine, very unstable
Larger, more stable;
β’ obtained by agitation of fat
during cooling; may yield
fine-textured baked products
Resulted from extremely
slow cooking or long storage MOST HIGHEST
β
time; opaque look, produce
sandy, brittle texture
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Emulsification
• Homogenous dispersion of an oil & water phase.
• Example; cake batter represent an emulsion
• The fat phase of shortening plus air bubble is created
first during creaming with sugar
• Air bubble taken in during creaming are coated with fat
crystals present in the liquid fat phase
• The liquid which added to the aerated fat after creaming
contains flour particle, sugar, egg proteins & other
substance
• This phase set up within the fresh batter system as a
stable emulsion; oil-in-water.
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Emulsions
• Two (2) types of emulsions:
1. oil-in-water emulsion
2. water-in-oil emulsion
• Three (3) parts to an emulsion:
1. the dispersed/discontinuous phase – oil
2. the dispersion/continuous phase – water based
3. an emulsifier – stabilizing compound that helps keep one phase
dispersed in the other
• 1 and 2 are kept apart by surface tension, the boundary
between them is called the interface
• The emulsifier migrates to this interface and acts as
surfactant, lowering the surface tension thus allowing the
two phases mix more readily
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Emulsions
• Hydrophilic vs hydrophobic
• Stability of emulsions: temporary, semipermanent,
permanent emulsions

water hydrophilic

oil

emulsifier hydrophobic

oil-in-water water-in-oil

Mechanism of emulsifiers in oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsion

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Flavor
• Intrinsic flavor
• Compound called terpenes includes a variety of
lipid flavor molecules from plant, terpenoids.
• Terpenoids can be isolated into their essential oil
portions by a process known as steam
distillation
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Heat transfer
• Frying fat transfer heat energy from the heat
sources to the surface of the frying food
• Moisture in the product escapes and evaporated
off as steam
• A portion of fat frying oil is absorbed by the food
during frying, as the moisture leaves, which
promote heat transfer
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Mouthfeel
• Fat is a lubricant in the mouth
• Help to clear particle of food from the teeth,
tongue & gums during chewing
• The creamy texture & smoothness of fat
contribute to mouthfeel sensations
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Plasticity
• It is a physical property of a fat that describe its softness at a
given temperature
• A plastic fat will respond to an external force by deforming
but hold it shape on a flat surface
• A rapid cooling of melted fat result in a waxy solid made up of
alpha crystal.
• This crystal very unstable & change into cluster of needle like
beta prime crystal (preferred form of plastic shortening)
• However, this crystal form will convert to stable beta crystal
• Occur through improper tempering.
• Fat composed of beta crystal show decreased plasticity and
more graininess to the touch
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Tenderization
• Essential in the preparation of pastries,
piecrusts, biscuits etc
• > highly saturated fats have a greater
shortening power
• In a flour mixture  separates the flour’s starch
and protein; when heated, melts into the dough
thus creating air spaces  delicate texture of the
end product
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Function Examples
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Heat transfer Sautéing, pan frying, deep frying

Function of fat
Shortening power
Emulsion
in Food
Biscuits, pastries, cakes, cookies
Mayonnaise, salad dressing, sauce, gravies,
pudding
Varying melting Candies
point
Plasticity Confection, icing, pastries, baked good
Solubility Salad dressing
Flavor / mouthfeel Flavor (butter, bacon, fried food) thickness,
cooling
Textures Creaminess, flakiness, tenderness, elasticity,
viscosity
Appearance Sheen, oiliness, color
Satiety Feeling full
Nutrients 9 calories (kcal)/g
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PRODUCTION & PROCESSING METHODS

1. Butter
2. Margarine
3. Shortening
4. Oils
5. Lard/Tallow/Suet
6. Cocoa Butter
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1. Butter
• Butter is made from the cream of milk
• A full 10 cups of milk are used to generate 1 stick
of butter
• 80% milk fat, no > 16% water & 4% milk solid
• Salt & coloring additives may or may not added.
Fat globules
Phospholipids churned
surrounding fat in milk

agitation

Break membrane Remaining liquid

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• Butter making
▫ Convert milk (o-i-w) to butter (w-i-o)
▫ Stirring /centrifuging cooled cream to expel the water
▫ The fatty portion of the cream separates out as a soft,
yellowish solid ;granule of butter.
▫ Liquid drained from the process is collected
(buttermilk; tangy tasty, opaque, reduced fat milk by
product)
▫ The butter granules are washed & churned at slower
speed until mix into smooth, homogenous paste
▫ Remaining water is drained
▫ Addition of salt ; preservation & flavor
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2. Margarine
• 80% fat, about 16% water & 4% milk solid
• Margarine contains as many kcal as butter
• May be made from soybean, corn, safflower,
canola, other hydrogenated vegetable oils
• Contains: cultured skim milk, emulsifiers,
mono- & diglycerides, preservatives, vitamin A &
D, flavoring, coloring.
• Hydrogenation process
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3. Shortening

• Plant oil that have been hydrogenated to make

them solid
• Soybean oil is the major sources of hydrogenated
shortening
• The soybean oil is hydrogenated until reaches a
solid consistency
• Whipped /pumped with air to improve plasticity
& give white color
• Apply on baking especially for flaky pastries &
cakes
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4. Oils
• Derived from variety of seeds, fruit & nuts
• The most common; soybean, canola, sunflower
seeds, corn, safflower seed, avocado, palm
kernel, coconut, olive, almond, peanut, walnut.
• Oils differ in taste, color & texture depend on
sources & method of extraction.
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4. Oils
i. Extraction & refining oils
• Extraction
 Extract from its original food sources
 Oil removed from plant by any 3 methods:

Cold pressed Expeller pressed Chemical solvent

• Mechanically • Squeezing the seed at • Chemically removing

pressing the seeds very high pressure , the oil from the seeds
against a press generate heat with solvents
• Usually not refined • Retain most flavor, • Most inexpensive
• Peanut & olive color, aroma & commercial brand of
nutrients oil
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i) Extraction & refining oils

• Refining
 After extracted, it is left unrefined or purified
(refined) to produce neutral, clean flavored oil.
Unrefined oils Refined oils
Aroma from the oil’s original Neutral, low aroma, bland flavored oil
source often lingers No distinguished characteristics;
Used for salad dressing (salad oil) desired factor
Higher smoke points, suitable for
Intense flavor dominate the food
frying
Cant be exposed to high
Refining result in oil that is 99.5%
temperature (risk of smoking) pure
Suitable for low heat baking or Consist of 5 steps:
sautéing 1. Degumming
Free fatty acids detract from oil 2. Neutralizing
(rancidity) 3. Washing & drying
4. Bleaching
5. Deodorizing
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• When combined with water, certain impurities in oil form gum.
• These gums are removed by adding hot bywater to the oil & spinning it at
Noristisarah UiTMCT
Degumming high speed to separate the oil from the gum.

• Free fatty acids are removed by adding an alkaline medium to convert the
FA to insoluble soap, which settle to the bottom
Neutralizing • Newer method, used centrifuge to separate the major layer; gravity

• Traces of soap created by the neutralizing process are removed by washing

the oil with water
Washing/
drying • The water is drained & the oil is dried under a vacuum

• Colored matter in the oil is removed by adding absorbent material

(activated carbon)
Bleaching
• The absorbed color matter is then filtered out

• Passing steam through the heated oil removes volatile compounds

that cause off-odors; aldehydes, free FA, hydrocarbon, ketones &
Deodorizing peroxides
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4. Oils
ii. Winterized oils
• To avoid oil becomes cloudy when chilled
• Examples:
▫ Canola, cottonseed, corn, sunflower, safflower,
peanut oils – winterization;
▫ soybean oil – no winterization
• Refined, deodorized oils are chilled with gentle
agitation  causes higher melting fractions to
precipitate
• Settled fractions  stearin
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4. Oils
iii. Hydrogenation
• Hydrogenation to make margarines,
shortenings, and shortening oils.
• H2 gas, catalysts  introduction of hydrogen
to the C=C
• Converts liquid oil to solid fat with qualities:
mouthfeel, stability, melting point, lubricating
properties
• Side effect: > trans configuration
• Benefit: concentration of trans FA, solidity
& lengthen shelf life
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5. Lard/Tallow/Suet
• Lard ; fat form swine
• Tallow; beef cattle or sheep
• Suet; solid fat around kidney & loin of beef & sheep
• Normally saturated fat
• Cant be used for shortening power without first being
melted down
• Antioxidant usually added to longer the shelf life
(lard)
• Lard; poor texture in cakes & icing but used primarily
on pastry piecrust, frying & regional cooking.
▫ Can be modified by inter-esterification
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Inter-esterification
• Interesterification ; treatment of fat (lard)
with sodium methoxide or another agent to split
FA from glycerols and then to reorganize them
on glycerols to form different fat molecules with
less tendency to for coarse crystals.
 To produce margarine with higher melting point,
good spreading characteristic & ovoid trans FA
▫ 2 types; randomized & directed interesterification
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Inter-esterification
▫ Randomized; Inter-esterification accomplished
using melted fat.
▫ Directed; process inter-esterification in which
the fat is kept below its melting temperature.
 To raise the melting point of the fat
▫ Improving the textural characteristic of a fat
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Inter-esterification
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Intra-esterification
▫ Intra-esterification; catalyzed reaction in
which FA split from glycerols and rejoin in
different configuration but with the same FA being
retained in the molecules.
 Alters the textural by modifying the crystallization &
crystals agitation
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6. Cocoa Butter
• Originate from the Theobroma cocoa tree.
• Melting point just below body temperature
making it perfect for “melting in the mouth”
chocolate & candies
• Its also used in cosmetics & soap
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STORAGE OF FAT
• Depends on its type
• Butter & margarine = best store in refrigerator
• Shortening = room temperature, but best if
refrigerated
• Olive oil; shorter shelf life of vegetable oil.
Should be refrigerated after opening
• Mono unsaturated fats (Olive oil) kept for 1 year
• Unrefined polyunsaturated fat kept for half year
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Rancidity
• Chemical deterioration of fats
• Occurs when triglycerides molecule and FA
attached to the glycerols molecule are broken
down into smaller units that yield off flavor
and rancid odor.
• The longer the fat is stored the greater possibility
to become rancid because exposed to O2, heat &
light.
• Type of rancidity:
▫ Hydrolytic
▫ Oxidative
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 Hydrolytic rancidity
 Enzyme lipases hydrolyse, breaking fats into glycerol
and fatty acid
 Occur naturally, inactivate by heat treatment
 Give unpleasant taste and smell
 Rancidity can reduced the storing fats and oils
 Store in cool, dark place in non-metal container and
well wrapped
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• Oxidative rancidity
 Reaction between
unsaturated TAG and
oxygen from air
 Oxygen molecules join
across the double
bond and formed
aldehydes and ketones
(rise of an unpleasant
rancid taste)
 Accelerated by heat,
light, trace metals
(copper and iron)
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Food preparation with fat

• Fat allow the transfer of heat during frying
sautéing, stir-frying, pan- frying & deep frying
• How to take care of the fat used in frying?
• Describe food preparation technique that reduce
the amount of fat transferred to the food.
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Frying care
• Average of frying temperature; 177°C to 232°C
• The high temperature in deep frying allow food
to be heated more quickly than if they were
boiled.
• Commonly used 100% fat; vegetable oils &
hydrogenated shortening
• Many vegetable are chosen for frying because
they:
▫ have little flavor of their own
▫ will not over power the flavor of bland food
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Frying care
• Some food use butter for sautéing to enhance
flavor, but must be carefully controlled
▫ Because water & milk solid in butter cause it to
splatter & burn more easily
• Margarine is not recommended;
▫ it has low smoke point; develop unpleasant flavor
▫ the water will splatter
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Frying care
• Controlling the temperature of frying fats
▫ Avoid to low temperature
▫ Perfects browning of fried foods
▫ Optimal frying temperature
 Recommended equipment
 Optimal frying condition
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Frying care
• Smoke point
Select fat with high smoke points (above 216°C)
for frying
Much higher than boiling of water
Fat start to bubble is very dangerous because it
has reached its boiling point
Its important to select fat with high smoke point
above the frying temperature, or else it will
breakdown
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It may over heat & decompose into glycerol &

fatty acids
The glycerol is further breakdown
(hydrolyzed) to a steel blue smoke called
acrolein.
It has sharp, offensive odor
The smoke not only irritating but even harmful
to the mucous membranes of the mouth &
nasal passages.
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Smoke points of selected

frying fats & oils
Fat/oil Smoke point (°C)
Vegetable shortenings + 180-188
emulsifier
Lard 183-205
Vegetable oils 227-232
Most olive, virgin oil 199
Corn oil 227
Soybean oil 256