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CHAPTER TWO
HYDROSTATICS
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2. HYDROSTATICS
INTRODUCTION
Hydrostatics deals with the study of fluids at rest or moving with uniform velocity as a
solid body, so that there is no relative motion between fluid elements (or layers).
There is no shear stress in a fluid at rest. Hence, only normal pressure forces are present in
hydrostatics.
Engineering applications of hydrostatics principles include the study of forces acting on
submerged bodies such as dam faces, gates & others and the analysis of stability of floating
bodies.
In hydrostatics, all forces act normally to the boundary surface and are independent of
viscosity.
 3 …

Considering Newton’s second law, that is, d(mv)/dt = 0. This can be achieved
either when the fluid velocity is constant or the very special case where the
acceleration is constant everywhere in the flow.
The first case is the case of fluid static’s (the branch of fluid mechanics, which
is concerned with fluids at rest), while the latter is the special case of solid body
acceleration.
The overriding assumption necessary to achieve these two conditions is that
there is no relative motion of adjacent fluid layers, and consequently the shear
stresses are zero.
Therefore, only normal or pressure forces are considered to be acting on the
fluid surfaces.
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FLUID PRESSURE

• The pressure intensity or more simply the pressure on a surface is the

pressure force per unit area expressed by the relation dF
P
dA
• but the force should be applied normal to the surface.
2.2 Pressure at a point
• Consider a finite but small element (the small triangular prism) of
liquid at rest, acted upon by the fluid around it.
• The values of average unit pressures on the three surfaces are P1, P2
and P3. In the Z direction the forces are equal and opposite and cancel
each other.
 5 …
Px and Py are the average pressure in the horizontal and vertical directions.
For equilibrium condition,
Fx= 0,
PxdydZ- PdSdZcos  = 0 But ds cos =dy
PxdydZ –PdZdy = 0
 PX=P
Fy =0
Pydxdz-Pdsdz sin -1/2dxdydz=0
ds sin=dx
Pydxdz-Pdxdz -1/2dxdydz=0
Py-P -1/2dy = 0 as compared to others dy is small so, 1/2dy is ignored.
 Py=P
The pressure force can also consider and it will be the same with others.
 P = Pz = PX = Py
As the triangular prism approaches a point, dy approaches zero as a limit and the average pressures become
uniform or even “point pressures”.
Then putting dy = 0 in equation, we obtain p1= p3 and hence p1 = p2 = p3. Therefore, the pressure is
independent of its orientation.
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2.2 BASIC EQUATIONS OF HYDROSTATICS

• Pressure Distribution, PASCAL’s Law
• The pressure variation throughout a fluid at rest can be obtained by again
applying Newton’s second law to a differential element
• Note that the pressures shown are all compressive.
• This, by convention, is defined as positive pressure, since tensile stresses in
fluids are relatively rare.
• The pressure on the left hand face is taken as P.
• If the rate of change of pressure (or pressure gradient) in the x direction is p/x,
then the total change in pressure between the left face and the right face is the
rate of change of pressure times the distance between the two faces, or (p/x)
dx.
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 ….
8

• For fluid element at rest FX=0, Fy=0, Fz=0, the pressure force in the opposite vertical faces
must be equal.
 p.dx  p
Fx  0  p dy dz   p   dy dz  0  0
 x  x
 p.dy  p
Fy  0  p dx dz   p   dx dz  0  0
 y  y
• The preceding two equations show, respectively, that the pressure does not change in the x and y
directions. Thus, the pressure is constant throughout a horizontal plane.
• Similar to the foregoing procedure, if the pressure on the bottom face is taken as P, the pressure on
the top face becomes p + (P/z) dz.

• It has been shown that p is not a function of x or y.

 p  p
 Fz  pdx dy  

p 
z
dz  dx dy   dx dy dz  0


z
 

• If it is further assumed that the pressure does not change with time, the relationship may be replaced
by the total differential equation.
 9 …
• From the above equation the pressure variation is not a function of x and y.
• This equation can now be integrated to give the actual pressure variation in the vertical
direction.
• The negative sign indicates that as z gets higher up ward, the pressure gets smaller. For
incompressible fluids, (where  = constant) the above equation can be directly used.
• If the fluid can be assumed incompressible so that  = constant, this can be integrated to give
P + z = constant
• This expression defines what is often referred to as the hydrostatic pressure variation, in
which the pressure increases linearly with decreasing elevation.
• The constant of integration can be absorbed by integrating between two elevations z1 and z2
with corresponding pressure P1 and P2,
• P2- P1 = - (z2 - z1) Showing pressure decreases linearly with an increase in elevation.
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 11 …
• Since the pressure at the surface is atmospheric it can be taken to be zero gage pressure. So, the above
expression will be P1 = (z2 - z1) But z2-z1=z and substituting,
• P1 = z
• And the pressure is proportional to the depth below the free surface. In other words, the pressure at a
point in a stationary liquid is the product of the depth of the point and the specific weight of the fluid.
• If a free surface does not exist, for example in a closed container completely filled with liquid, The
above equation can be applied in reverse to determine the position of a line of zero pressure, provided
that the actual pressure is known at some point in the container.
• When water fills a containing vessel, it automatically seeks a horizontal surface upon which the
pressure is constant everywhere.
• In practice, the free surface of water in vessel is the surface that is not in contact with the cover of the
vessel. Such a surface may be subjected to the atmospheric pressure (open vessel) or any other pressure
that is exerted in the vessel (closed vessel).
N.B: The pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid
relative to some reference plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the container in which
the fluid is held.
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2.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
 The pressure in a vacuum is called absolute zero, and all pressures
referenced with respect to this zero pressure are termed absolute
pressures.
Many pressure-measuring devices measure not absolute pressure but
only difference in pressure.
For example, a Bourdon-tube gage indicates only the difference
between the pressure in the fluid to which it is tapped and the
pressure in the atmosphere.
In this case, then, the reference pressure is actually the atmospheric
pressure. This type of pressure reading is called gage pressure.
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• All the devices designed for measurement of the intensity of hydraulic pressure are based on either of
the two fundamental principles of measurement of pressure:
1. Mercury Barometer
• The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury barometer, which
in its simplest form, consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the open end immersed in a
container of mercury
• Thus,
• Patm = h + Pvapor
• Where:  is the specific weight of mercury, for most practical purposes the contribution of the vapor
pressure can be neglected since it is extremely small at room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20oC).
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…
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2. MANOMETRY

• A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns
in vertical or inclined tubes containing one or more liquid of different specific
gravities.
• Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called manometers.
• In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric)
is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be
determined is applied to the other end.
• The common types of manometers include the piezometer tube, the U-tube
manometer, micro- manometer and the inclined - tube manometer.
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I. PIEZOMETER TUBE

the fundamental equation describing their use is the Eq.

• P = h + P0
• Which gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous
fluid in terms of a reference pressure p0 and the vertical distance h
between p and p0? Remember that in fluid at rest pressure will
increase as we move downward, and will decrease as we move
upward.
 II. U- TUBE MANOMETER 18

• The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid.

• To measure larger pressure differences we can choose a manometer with higher density, and
to measure smaller pressure differences with accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid
which is having a density closer to the fluid density.
I) Surface of equal pressure(SEP)
II)Step by step procedure(SS)
a) Start at one end and write the pressure there
b) Add the change in pressure there
• + If next meniscus is lower.
• - If next meniscus is higher
c) Continue until the other end of the gage and equate the pressure at that point
 19
…
• As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount 2h2. In equation form these
various steps can be expressed as
• PA + 1h1 - 2h2 = 0
• And therefore, the pressure PA can be written in terms of the column heights as
• PA = 2h2 - 1h1
• A major advantage of the U- tube manometer lies in the fact that the gage fluid can be different from
the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be determined.
• Thus, for a given pressure the height, h2 is governed by the specific weight, 2, of the gage fluid used
in the manometer.
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…
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III) DIFFERENTIAL U-TUBE

• Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure

differences in liquids.
• The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air which
can be admitted or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to
adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.
 IV) INCLINED-TUBE MANOMETER 22

• To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in Fig. 2.6 is frequently
used.
• One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle , and the differential reading is measured
along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure PA – PB can be expressed as
• PA   1h12   2 2 sin    3h3  PB or p A  pB   2 2 sin    3h3   1h1
• Where it is to be noted that, the pressure difference between points (1) and (2) is due to the
vertical distance between the points, which can be expressed as Ɩ2sin.
2
• Thus, for relatively small angles the differential reading along the inclined tube can be made
large even for small pressure differences.
• The inclined- tube manometer is often used to measure small differences in gas pressures so
that if pipes A and B contain a gas then
p A  pB
• pA  pB   2 2 sin or  2 
 2 sin
 23
…

• Where the contributions of the gas columns h1 and h3 have been neglected, The above Equation
shows that the differential reading Ɩ2(for a given pressure difference) of the inclined –tube
manometer can be increased over that obtained with a conventional U-tube manometer by the factor
1/sin.
• Recall that sin 0 as   0.
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2.4 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SURFACES

• When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface
due to the fluid.
2.4.1 Forces on plane surface
• The distributed forces resulting from the action of fluid on a finite
area can be conveniently replaced by resultant force.
• The magnitude of resultant force and its line of action (pressure
center) are determined by integration, by formula and by using the
concept of the pressure prism.
 I. HORIZONTAL SURFACES 25

• A plane surface in a horizontal position in a fluid at rest is subjected to a constant pressure.

 The magnitude of the force acting on one side of the surface is

 The elemental forces PdA acting on A are all parallel. The summation of all elements yields the
magnitude of the resultant force.
 Its direction is normal to the surface.
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…

1. To find line of action of the resultant, the moment of resultant is equated to the
moment of the distributed system about any axis (y-axis).
i.e. PAx1=A x PdA
x1 is the distance from the y axis to the resultant.
1
x =  x dA  x
1 p-is constant.
A A

x is the distance to the centroid of the area

Hence, for a horizontal area subjected to static fluid pressure, the resultant passes through
the centroid of the area.
 VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE 27

In vertical plane surface varies, the pressure intensity on the surface is
not constant and varies directly with depth.

The total pressure force

on one side of the strip
is
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The total pressure force on one side of the entire area A is

 where is the depth from the free surface to the centroid G of the area.
 Thus, as for a horizontal plane area, the magnitude of the resultant
hydrostatic pressure force on a vertical plane area is obtained by
multiplying the pressure intensity at the centroid G i.e. , by the
total area A.
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If the vertical area is not of a regular shape, the area may be divided into a
finite number of small regular areas and the total hydrostatic pressure force
determined as the sum of the pressure forces acting on these small areas.

The moment of the elementary force dF, acting on the area dA about axis 0-0
on the free surface is
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From the principle of moments, the sum of the moments of a number of

forces about an axis is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same
axis. Thus:
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Thus, the center of pressure C for vertical plane area is below the centroid
by an amount equal to:

The moment of F, about the centroid is:

which is independent of depth of submergence.

 32 …
ii. Inclined surfaces
A plane surface which is inclined to the water surface may be subjected to hydrostatic
pressure. For a plane inclined  0 from the horizontal, the intersection of the plane of area
and the free surface is taken as the x-axis. The y-axis is taken in the plane of the area with
origin 0 at the free surface. Thus, the x-y plane portrays the arbitrary inclined area.
We wish to determine the magnitude, direction and line of the action of the resultant
force acting on one side of this area due to the liquid in contact with the area.
For an element area A at y distance from the origin, the magnitude of the force F
acting on it is
F = P A = hA = y sin  A
Since all such elemental forces are parallel, the integral over the area yields the
magnitude of force, F, acting on one side of the area.
F=  PdA   sin  ydA  sin Y A   hA  PG . A
=hc.A
…
33
 hc = yc.sin
Y sin   h and pG   h ; The pressure at the centroid of the area. 34
…
Hence, the force exerted on one side of a plane area submerged in a liquid is the
product of the area and the pressure at its centroid.
The point on the plane surface where this resultant force acts is known as the center of
pressure. Considering the plane surface as free body we see that the distributed forces
can be replaced by a single resultant force at the pressure center with out altering any
reactions or moments in the system.
F   dF   PdA
A

Let xp and yp be distances measured from the y-axis and x-axis to the pressure center
respectively, then
1
F . y p   y. dF , y P   ydF
F
But F= sin A Y and dF  y sin  dA
1 1 Io
 sinAY  
yp  y 2
sin  dA  y 2
dA 
AY AY
2
 35 …

This shows that center of pressure is below the center of gravity (or centroid).
Where, Ig-is the moment of inertia of the plane with respect to its own centroid.
x p .F   x.dF   x.y sin .dA
1 1 I xy
Xp 
 Y A sin  A xy sin .dA  AY  x. y.dA 
A AY

I xy  X .Y .A  I xyg
I xyg
X p  X Product of inertia at (x, y)
AY
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2.4.2 FORCES ON CURVED SURFACES

• When the elemental forces pA vary in direction, as in the case of a curved surface, they must be
added as vector quantities that is, their components in three mutually perpendicular directions are
added as scalars and then the three components are added vector ally.
• With two horizontal components at right angle and with vertical component- all easily computed for
a curved surface the resultant can be determined.
• The lines of action of the components also are readily determined.
Horizontal component of Forces on a curved surface
• The horizontal component of pressure force on a curved surface is equal to the pressure force exerted
on a vertical projection of the cured surface.
• The vertical plane of the projection is normal to the direction of the component.
• Thus, the magnitude and the line of action of the horizontal component of force on a curved surface
can be determined by using the relations developed for plane surface.
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The elementary force dF acting on the elementary area dA has a horizontal

component dFx and a vertical component dF,. The pressure intensity on dA is
ᵨgh.
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The components of the total hydrostatic force in the x and y directions are F,
and F, respectively and are given by:
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The resultant force F is given by:

F acts normal to the tangent at the contact point on the surface at an angle a
to the horizontal, where
 PRESSURE DIAGRAMS: 40

The resultant hydrostatic force and center of pressure for regular plane areas
could be determined from pressure distribution diagrams

Pressure diagrams
In the above Fig(a) the surface AB is horizontal and the pressure intensity is uniform over the area
41

of the horizontal surface AB.

The total hydrostatic thrust on AB is equal to the volume of the pressure prism, which is the

product of the uniform pressure intensity ᵨgh and the area A, and acts through the centroid of the
area.

In the above Fig. (b), AB may be assumed to be rectangular with width b perpendicular to the
plane of the paper.

The pressure distribution is trapezoidal with intensity ~ ᵨ g h1 ,at A and ~ ᵨ gh2,

at B.
The total hydrostatic force on AB is equal to the volume of the pressure prism and is given
by:
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 The center of pressure is the centroid of the pressure prism.

 It may be located by dividing the prism into a rectangular and triangular
prism.
 For the rectangular prism, the centroid is at (h, - h,)/2 above B and for
the triangular prism it is at (h,-h,)/3 above b.
 The centroid of the trapezoidal prism can then be found from the
principle of moments.
 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF SUBMERGED AND FLOATING BODIES
43

Since the pressure in a fluid at rest increases with depth, the fluid exerts a

resultant upward force on any body which is fully or partially immersed in it.

This force is known as the Buoyant Force.

The principles of buoyancy and floatation, established by Archimedes (288-

212 B.C), state that

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i) a body immersed in a fluid in buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the

fluid displaced by the body and

ii) A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats.

These principles can be easily proven using the principle of hydrostatic force
on surfaces.

Buoyant Force
Consider a body ABCD, shown in Fig. below, submerged in a liquid

of constant density ᵨ.
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Force Fx, acting to the right is the horizontal component of the hydrostatic
force on surface BAD and force F’x, acting to the left is the horizontal
component of hydrostatic force on surface BCD.
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Both Fx and F’x are equal to the force acting on vertical plane surface B’D’
and since they are equal, opposite and collinear, they cancel each other.

Hence, the resultant horizontal hydrostatic force on a submerged body is zero.

The buoyant force FB is the weight of the liquid displaced by the body and
acts vertically upwards through the centre of buoyancy which is coincident
with the centroid of the volume of the displaced liquid.
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If the body is heavier than the weight of the fluid it can displace, it will sink to
the bottom unless it is prevented from doing so by the application of an upward
supporting force.

If the weight of the body is lighter than the weight of the liquid it can displace
when completely submerged in the fluid, it will rise above the surface to a
position such that the weight of the displaced liquid is equal to the weight of
the body.
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The principle of buoyancy can be used to determine the weight, volume and
consequently the specific weight and specific gravity of an object by weighing
the object in two different fluids of known specific weights.

Let the weight of the object be W and its volume V.

Vertical equilibrium of forces in Figure gives:

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Substituting the value of V from the above equation in any of the two
equilibrium equations, the following equation for the weight of the body
may be obtained.

The specific weight of the body will be γ = W/V. It should be noted that
the body should not be weighed in a liquid in which it dissolves.
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STABILITY OF SUBMERGED BODIES
A submerged or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its
original position after a slight disturbance.

The stability of a submerged body depends upon the relative position of its
centre of gravity and its centre of buoyancy both of which have fixed
positions.
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For completely submerged bodies the requirements for stability are:

(i) The centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity must lie on the same vertical
line in the undisturbed position and

(ii) The centre of buoyancy must be located above the centre of gravity for
stable equilibrium
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Stability of Floating Bodies

For a floating body, the centre of buoyancy need not be located above the

centre of gravity for stability.

When a floating body which is partially submerged in a liquid is given a small

angular displacement about a horizontal axis, the shape of the displaced volume

of liquid changes and consequently the centre of buoyancy moves relative to the

body.
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 The line of action of F, now intersects the axis BG at M. This point M is known as the
Metacentre.
 Thus, as long as M is above G, a restoring couple will be generated and the floating
object is in stable equilibrium.
 If M falls below G, the generated couple will be an overturning couple and the
equilibrium would be unstable.
 54

Thus, for floating objects, stability would be achieved even when B is below
G as long as the metacentre M is above G.

The special case where G and B coincide constitutes a situation of neutral

equilibrium.

Metacentric Height: An expression for the metacentric height may be

obtained by considering the cross-section of a ship through its centre of gravity
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 The (+) sign is used when G is below B and the (-) sign used when G falls
above B.
 If the value of as determined above is positive, then the floating object
is in stable equilibrium.
 If MG is negative, the floating object is unstable and if MG is zero, the
object is in neutral equilibrium.
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