Radio Navigation

Royhle Flight Training Academy

ATPL Ground School
 Properties of Radio Waves
• It is electromagnetic in nature: It has both electric and magnetic component perpendicular to
each other. Both components travel with same speed as of radio waves.
• In a given medium it travels at constant velocity. In earth environment these disturbances
travel approximately at speed of light i.e.
• 186 000 SM/sec.
• 162 000 NM/sec.
• 300 000 000 meter/sec (3X108m/sec) or 300 000 km/sec
• Radio waves get attenuated in medium they pass. Attenuation means absorption of radio
signals.
• While travelling from one medium to other medium they get refracted (i.e. band). While
travelling from denser to rarer medium they bent away from normal. they bend towards
normal while travelling from rarer to denser medium in other words one can say , when
passing from one medium to other medium of different refractive index the velocity of waves
changes. The waves are also deflected towards the medium of higher refractive index.
Travelling from land to sea they bend towards coastline.
• Radio waves are reflected by objects commensurate with their wavelengths.
• They travel as longitudinal wave hence constitute sine curve.
 Some Important Definitions:

• Cycle: A cycle is complete series of values or one complete process.

• Hertz: one hertz is one cycle per second. The number of cycles per second is
expressed in hertz.
• Frequency: it is number of cycles in one second, expressed in Hertz (Hz).
• 1 cycle per second= 1Hz
• 1000 Hz = 1 kHz
• 1000 KHz = 1 MHz
• 1000 MHz= 1 GHz
• Amplitude: maximum displacement of wave from mean position. It is both positive
and negative.
• Wavelength: this is physical distance travelled by radio wave during one complete
cycle of transmission. It is defined as the distance between successive crest.
• Relationship between Wavelength and Frequency:
• Frequency in Hertz (f) = Speed of radio waves in m/sec (c)/wavelength in meter
(λ)
• Hence λ= C/F
Radio Spectrum
 Questions
1. Wavelength= 3cm, Frequency=?
2. Express 100 KHz in meters.
3. Wavelength= 3520 m, frequency=?
4. Frequency 325 KHz, Wavelength=?
5. Frequency = 117 000 kHz, Wavelength=?
Phase Difference
 Phase Difference (cont.)
• Any stage in the cycle of movement of radio waves is referred as its
phase. If two transmissions were taking place on the same
frequency, two wave forms would superimpose each other,
providing transmission commences same instant. Then two
waveform said to be in phase.
• A fractional delay in sending off the second transmission would
cause them to be out of phase. So one can say it two waveforms of
same frequency (amplitude need not to be same) do not reach
same value at same instant of time they are said to be out of phase.
• The phase difference is the angular difference between the
corresponding points on the waveform and is measurable.
• Note: phase angle and phase comparison can only be carried out
between two radio waves at same frequency, and that
measurement is made from reference wave to the variable wave.
 Phase Difference (cont.)
• Question: What if phase of reference wave is
270 and variable wave is 200 calculate the
phase difference?
• Question: if the phase of reference wave is
300 and variable wave is 320 calculate phase
difference.
Polarization
 Polarization (cont.)
• Restriction of movement of waves in a particular plane is called as the polarization.
• Vertical Polarization: When the transmission is being made from a vertical aerial
the electrical component travel in vertical plane and associated magnetic
component in horizontal plane and emission is called vertically polarized
transmission.
• Horizontal Polarization: for a horizontal aerial the electrical component travel in
horizontal plane, the magnetic component in vertical plane and emission is
horizontally polarized.
• Note:
• A vertical receiver aerial will receive the electrical component of vertically
polarized signal. If the receiver aerial is perfectly horizontal it will not receive any
electrical component.
• A horizontal receiver aerial will receive the electrical component of horizontal
polarized signal. If the receiver aerial is perfectly vertical it will receive any
electrical component.
• Circularly polarized Signal: when the electrical and magnetic components spin
about the axis of advance the signal is circularly polarized. This technique is used
in reducing rain-clutter in radar.
 Polar Diagram
• A polar diagram can be drawn up for any aerial or aerial system to
represent the relative values of either fields strength or power
radiated at various points in both horizontal and vertical planes. In
other words one can say Polar Diagram of an aerial is line joining
the places where equal signal strength is received and radiated.
• Note: Different aerial have different polar diagram.
• Polar Diagram of a simple vertical aerial, radiating equally in all
directions is a circle. An aerial with a circular polar diagram would
receive equally from all directions.
• The polar diagram of such aerials mentioned above place half a
wavelength apart will form a figure of eight. An aerial with a polar
diagram of figure of eight (ADF loop aerial) would receive maximum
signal from one direction and no signal if the aerial were turned 90
degree from original position.
Polar Diagram (cont.)
 Modulation
It is process of superimposing intelligence over a
carrier. Intelligence is information to be conveyed
and carrier is radio waves. In this radio wave act
as vehicle of information they are commonly
called as –carrier waves (CW). The waveform
information which is being impressed on this
carrier is called modulating wave.
Methods of Modulation
a. Keying Method
b. Amplitude Modulation
c. Frequency Modulation
 Keying
• Keying: this is radio telegraphy. It consists of
starting and stopping the continuous carrier
so as to break it up into the forms of dots and
dashes. Communication is in form of dots and
dashes which has been assigned particular
meaning. The receiver requires beat
frequency oscillator (BFO) to make signal
audible.
 Amplitude Modulation
• Amplitude of carrier is varied according to amplitude of intelligence keeping
carrier frequency constant.
• Broadcast in low frequency (LF) and medium frequency (MF) bands employ
Amplitude modulation, so does civil aviation in very high frequency
radiotelegraphy (VHF RTF).
• Side Bands: when a carrier is AM the resultant radiation consist of three
frequencies .Hence side bands are additional frequencies which occur when a
carrier is modulated by a frequency lower than itself.
• Three frequencies are as follows:
• Carrier frequency
• Carrier frequency+ audio frequency.
• Carrier frequency- audio frequency.
• For eg. Carrier freq= 400 KHz, Intelligence frequency=10 KHz.
• So side bands are
• 400-10= 390 KHz therefore 390-400Khz constitute Lower Side Band (LSB)
• 400+10=410 KHztherefore400-410 KHz constitutes Upper Side Band (USB).
• Note: if both USB and LSB are transmitted it’s called as Double Side Band (DSB)
 Frequency Modulation
• It is process frequency of carrier is changed in accordance with the
amplitude of intelligence keeping amplitude of carrier constant.
• Advantages of FM:
• Unlike AM, frequency modulated signal are present as multiples of
sidebands, hence bandwidth is greater (advantage of FM).
• It simpler than AM and requires less power.
• It’s free from static interference because of VHF band.
• Disadvantages:
• FM receivers are more complex and the modulated transmission
needs much wider frequency band to cover its multiple side bands.
It’s the reason FM broadcaster operate in VHF band.
• Note: in civil aviation this technique is used in Radio altimeter and
Continuous Wave Doppler (CWD).
Frequency and Amplitude Modulation
Comparison
 Radio-Wave Propagation
• Radio waves travel as straight lines but they also do curve
to greater or lesser extent with the surface of the earth and
in the atmosphere.
• The conductivity of radio waves depends on medium they
are passing through. For eg. Sea water provides a medium
of high conductivity where as conductivity of the land
surface depends on its composition (it is fairly high where
soil is rich and loam and very poor in sand of desert and
ice-caps). Radio waves best travel in free space.
• Propagation of radio wave can be divided into to two
headings
- Propagation of Surface waves
- Propagation of Sky waves.
 Propagation of Surface Wave
• When radio waves are transmitted from an Omni-directional aerial they travel
along the surface of earth as SURFACE WAVES OR GROUND WAVES.
• Factors responsible for curving of Surface Waves:
- Diffraction
- Surface attenuation.
• Diffraction: refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle. It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles.
Lower the frequency higher the diffraction. Earth surface is full of large and small
obstacles; the waveform is assisted almost continually to curve around the surface.
• Surface Attenuation: this bending of radio waves is further assisted by surface
attenuation. In other words energy of transmitted radiation is lost by attenuation
so it causes further forward and downward tilt encouraging it to follow the earth’s
curvature.
• Note: hence on can summaries the bending due to diffraction and tilting due to
attenuation cause the wave to curve with the surface and cause movement of
wave along the curvature of earth until it becomes undetectable.
 Propagation of Surface Wave
• Factors governing surface attenuation:
- Type of surface: for given power radio waves travel longer distance over sea
than land.
- Frequency: Higher the frequency higher the attenuation.
- Polarization: vertically polarized signals are used with minimum attenuation.
• Disadvantages of Lower Frequency: Though lower frequencies give better
range but following are the disadvantages of lower frequencies.
- Low efficiency Aerial: ideally length of transmitter and receiver aerial should
be equal to its wavelength but aerial of half the size of wavelength is also
suitable. Lower the frequency higher the wavelength and hence larger size
of aerial.
- Static interference is severe in low frequencies.
- Installation: it is high cost installation.
- Power: requirement is high
- Range (NM) =3X√Power (watts)
 Propagation of Sky-wave
• Radio waves can also reflect by ionosphere. These
reflected signals are known as sky waves and form the
principal mechanism for long range communication.
• Ionosphere: it is region of upper atmosphere which is
negatively charged due to UV radiation of sun.
Depending upon degree of ionization it has been
divided into three layers viz. D, E and F layer.
• Note: The electron density in D, E and F layers varies
with time of the day, season of the year and
geographical location.
Propagation of Sky-wave (cont.)
 Propagation of Sky-wave (cont.)
• Atmospheric Attenuation (Attenuation in Ionosphere): Factors
govern atmospheric attenuation
- Density of the layer: higher the density higher the attenuation.
Maximum attenuation is around mid-day.
- Penetration Depth: Deeper the signal goes more is the attenuation.
- Frequency in use: the lower the frequency the greater the
attenuation. This one of the reason of using higher frequency
during communication in HF band in day time.
• Factors effecting range of Sky waves:
- Transmissions Power: more the power more the range.
- Depth of penetration: deeper the signal penetrates before being
refracted higher is the range.
- Critical Angle and Angle of Incidence: maximum range is given by that
wave which leaves the transmitter tangential to the earth.
Propagation of Sky-wave (cont.)
 Propagation of Sky-wave (cont.)
• Angle of Incidence: is the angle that radio wave makes with normal at point of
transmission (transmitter).
• Note: if angle of incidence increases radio wave will receive at point farther from
transmitter. Maximum range is given bye that sky wave which gives transmitter
tangential to surface of earth.
• Critical Angle: if the angle of incidence is fewer signals will strike ionosphere but
will not bend enough to be returned. So angle of incidence must be increased. The
angle of incidence or angle of radio waves that it makes with normal at transmitter
side at which first sky wave reaches is called critical angle. At and higher value of
critical angle there will be uninterrupted supply of sky waves.
• Critical Frequency: is that highest frequency at which vertical incidence ray to
ionosphere will be returned. Less than this frequency all will return.
• Skip Distance: the distance between the transmitter and the point on the surface
where the first sky wave arrives is called the skip distance.
• Dead Space/Skip Zone: is the area where no reception is possible. This is the area
between the regions where the limit of surface wave reached and no sky wave
have started to return. In other words this is the area between the limit of the
surface wave and the point of reception of first sky wave.
 Propagation of Sky-wave (cont.)
• Note:
- Dead space is possible in HF where the surface wave is very short and
the refraction occurs at higher layers. As the frequency is lowered
to MF and LF the surface wave increases where as the sky wave is
returned from lower layers at low critical angles. In such
circumstances there is no dead space.
- For a given frequency the skip distance varies with the time of day
and also with the season. Skip distance increases at night hence
dead space increases at night.
- Skip distance increase with increase in frequency .if increase the
frequency dead space will increase from both the ends.
- If increase the power output of transmitter the dead space will
decrease from transmitter end.
 Multi-hop Phenomenon
• If the returning signals are sufficiently strong they will be
reflected from the earth’s surface back to ionosphere
where they will be refracted and returned again.
• This process may continue several times until the signals
are finally attenuated by passage through the ionosphere
and contact with the earth’s surface at the point of
reflection. This phenomenon known as multi-hop
refraction.
• Very long ranges can be obtained using this refraction.
During multi hop refraction first return is called 1st hope
and so on and so forth. If the angle of incidence is right the
signals can travel around the world and an echo of previous
reception heard 1/7 second of later.
Line of Sigh Transmission
 Line of Sigh Transmission (cont.)
• At frequencies VHF and above the only radiated wave
which can be used is the one which travels in direct line
from the transmitter aerial to receiver aerial.
• This type of transmission is called line of sight transmission.
• It means if a straight line can be drawn between receiver
and transmitter, in this situation signals can be received.
• In other words one can say line of sight transmission is that
transmission which is effected by curved surface of earth.
• Sometimes a/c may pick signals from two directions one
direct to aircraft and other the one which is first been
reflected by the surface (Ground reflected signals).
• So line of sight range can be calculated mathematically as
• Range (N) =1.25√Ht (feet) + 1.25√Hr (feet)
 Line of Sigh Transmission (cont.)
• Question: An a/c flying at 9000 ft can expect
with VHF contact of an airfield 1600ft amsl,
what will be the maximum range.
• The maximum range at which an a/c at FL-250
can receive transmission from VHF R/T station
at 300 ft is
 Fading
• Fading is mainly associated with sky wave
propagation due to continuous fluctuations in
ionosphere. It is sudden increase and decrease in
signal strength. If sky wave and ground wave
meet in out of phase signal strength decrease. In
same phase signal strength increases.
• Fading can be controlled by
- Having an automatic volume control
(AVC)/automatic gain control (AGC).
- By careful selection of frequency depending upon
time of day.
 Fading (cont.)
Space Wave: the
direct wave and
ground reflected
waves are
collectively
called space
wave.
Ground Wave:
space wave and
surface wave are
collectively
called ground
wave.
 Duct Propagation
• Sometimes due to inversion of temp in the layer of air very close to
surface of earth a reflective layer of air is formed. The frequency of VHF or
above gets reflected by this layer.
• This layer forms duct (pipe) like structure over the surface of earth at low
height. This duct extends to very large distances. Radio waves of bands of
VHF or above get trapped in this duct and get reflected many times and
multi hop phenomenon takes place causing range to increase to 1000
times.
• Duct phenomenon is phenomenon of winter season. It’s more prominent
on sea less over land. It takes place in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Meteorological conditions that lead to formation of duct:
- Pronounce radiation cooling of earth.
- Warn air is going over cold sea (increase in water vapor with increase in
height – hydro lapses).
- Subsidence: it is the phenomenon in which air descends down.
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)

• The non-directional beacon is a ground based transmitter which

transmits vertically polarized radio signals in all directions (hence
name is non directional beacon since it is not transmitting in any
particular direction) in low frequency and Medium frequency
bands.
• NDBs transmit vertically polarized signals in the MF/LF (it is always
upper side of LF band and lower side of MF band) in all directions.
• The datum for the direction measurement is taken from the nose of
the a/c and therefore the ADF indications are relative bearings.
• On modern equipment these bearings are displayed automatically
(ADF) and when fed to radio magnetic indicator (RMI), QDM are
indicated
• Principle of Operation: Principle is bearing by loop theory
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)
• Working of NDB:
• A loop aerial is used in the aircraft to determine the direction of the ground transmitter. In an
aerodynamically smooth unit, it is made up of a number of strands of wire wound round a
frame, mounted in the most suitable position on the fuselage.
• If a loop aerial is placed in the plane of the transmitted radio frequency a voltage will be
generate in the vertical elements of the loop because of the phase difference of the wave in
each of the vertical elements. As loop is rotated the voltage induced will decrease until it
becomes zero when the loop is perpendicular to the radio wave. As the loop continues to
rotate a voltage is induced in opposite sense.
• Polar diagram of aerial it has two maxima and two minima (shape of eight). Therefore loop
aerial has 180* ambiguity.
• To remove 180* ambiguity sense aerial is used. Sense aerial is omnidirectional aerial i.e.
receives equally from all direction. Its polar diagram is circle
• When we combine loop aerial and sense aerial resultant loop diagram is called Cardoid
Diagram. Cardoid diagram don’t have 180* ambiguity. It has one maxima and one minima.
• We use minima for direction finding because it can be find out very accurately.
• When loop is at 90* to radio waves it is called null position and at this position phase
difference between two vertical member is zero. This phase difference is used by loop motor
to rotate the loop to null position.
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)
• Types of NDBs:
- Locater NDBs: These are low powered NDBs in the LF/MF band,
usually installed as a supplement to ILS and located at the sites of
the outer and middle markers. A locater has an average radius of
rated coverage of between 10-25NM. The type of emission is NON
A2A and they are identified by two or three letter Morse group at
seven words per minute.
- Homing and Holding NDBs: These are intended primarily as approach
and holding aids in vicinity of aerodromes with rated coverage of
around 50 NM. The class of emission and method of ident are
similar to the locators. The type of emission is NON A2A
- En-route and long range NDBs: These provide en route coverage
along the airways and long range bearing facility for ocean tracking
and similar operations. Type of emission is NON A1A or NON A2A.
• Note: NON A1A has longer range but NON A2A has low range.
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)

• Emission characteristics and Beat frequency oscillator

(BFO)
• The NDB’s have 2 or 3 letter identification and there are
two types of emission
- NON A1A
- NON A2A
• The NON part of the emission is the transmission of an un-
modulated carrier wave which would not be detectable on
a normal receiver, so BFO is provided on ADF equipment.
• The A1A part is the emission of an interrupted un-
modulated carrier wave which requires the BFO to be on
for aural reception. A2A is the emission of an amplitude
modulated signal which can be heard on a normal receiver
Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)

• Uses of ADF
- As an en route navigation aid, position lines may be
obtained. By taking two or three bearings on the same
or different NDBs, fixes are obtained
- Flying airways- there are many airways in the world still
marked by NDBs.
- A fix is obtained when overhead on NDB- useful on
airways for position reporting.
- An NDB can be used for holding at an en route point or
at the destination aerodrome, for homing to the
station and carrying out a let-down.
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)

• Inbound Tracking/Outbound Tracking

• Inbound tracking
- ADF reading = 360 + Starboard Drift
- ADF reading = 360 – Port Drift
• Outbound tracking
- ADF reading = 180 + Starboard Drift
- ADF reading = 180 – Port Drift.
 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) and Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB)
Numerical’s

• Question 1. An a/c is homing to NDB with 5* port drift. What is ADF

reading
• Question2. An a/c is homing to NDB with 10* Starboard drift what
is ADF reading
• Question 3. An a/c is on heading of 150 homing to NDB with 10* S
Drift what is ADF reading
• Note: Relative Bearing is not affected by the heading of the a/c
• Question 4. An a/c is flying out of a NDB station on a hdg of 077 and
Track required is 100. What is ADF reading
• Question 5. An a/c flying out of station on a hdg of 110 and track
required is 090 . What is ADF reading.
 Factors affecting ADF accuracy

• Static interference : there are two types of static

interference that can affect the performance of ADF
- Precipitation static: is generated by the collision of water
droplets and ice crystals with the a/c it causes a
reeducation in the signal : noise ratio which affects the
accuracy of the bearing and can , in extreme circumstances
completely mask the incoming signals. The indications on
RMI/RBI will be a wandering needle and the audio will have
a background hiss, which is likely to be present on VHF
frequencies.
- Thunderstorms statics: thunderstorms have very powerful
discharge of static electricity across the electromagnetic
spectrum including LF and MF .
 Factors affecting ADF accuracy
• Night effect: By day the D layer absorb signals in LF and MF bands. At night the D-
region disappears allowing sky wave contamination of the surface wave bearing
used. This arises for two reasons , phase interference of the sky wave with the
surface wave because of the different paths and the induction of currents in the
horizontal elements of the loop aerial and distorts the null of cardoid. The effect is
reduced by the aerial design having a very short vertical elements and by
screening the aerial above and below but the contamination is not eliminated. This
effect first become first significant at 70-100 NM ( some literature mentions this
value as only 70 NM). This results in fading of signal. Due to night effect ADF
needle hunts i.e. move right and left about mean position. Night effect is
maximum during dusk and dawn.
• Measures to minimize the error by night effects:
- Positively identify the NDB call sign
- Continue to check the tuning and the identification.
- Avoid use of equipment within one hour of sunrise and sunset.
- Use NDBs within DOC which only valid during Day.
Factors affecting ADF accuracy
 Factors affecting ADF accuracy
• Station Interference: Due to congestion in LF and MF bands , the possibility of interference from
stations on or near the same frequency exists. This will cause bearing errors. By day , the use of an
NDB within the DOC will normally afford protection from interference . However at night one can
expect interference even within the DOC because of sky wave contamination from station out of
range by day ( due to night effect).
• Mountain effect: mountains areas can cause reflection and diffraction of the transmitted radio
waves to produce errors in ADF systems. These errors will increase at low altitude and can be
minimized by flying higher.
• Coastal refraction: Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (
attenuation) compared to that which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to
bent (refracts) away from normal path and pull it towards the coast.
-Note.1: this effect is minimum at 90* to the coast but increases as the angle of incidence increases.
- Note.2: for an a/c flying over the sea the error put the a/c position closer to the coast than it actual
position.
• This effect can be minimize by:
- Using NDBs on or near the coast.
- Flying higher
- Using signals that cross the coast at or near to 90*
 Factors affecting ADF accuracy
• Quadrantal Error: when radio wave meets body of a/c it gets reradiated and creates
electromagnetic field around body of a/c . Any other radio wave coming will get refracted and
polar diagram of instrument get distorted. On relative bearing 045, 135, 225, 315 error is
maximum. At relative bearing 090 , 180, 270, 360 error is zero. This error can be calibrated and
correction card is provided in cockpit.
• Angle of bank ( dip): A loop aerial designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction finding . If
the incoming waves have any horizontal component of polarization it will induce currents in the top
and bottom horizontal members of the loop resulting on a circulating current. This would destroy
the null of polar diagram ( similar to night effect) .and reduce the accuracy of the bearings. The
angle of bank during a turn causes emf to be induced in horizontal elements of the loop thereby
leading to the bearing error is referred to dip error. This error is only present when the a/c is not in
level flight.
• Loop misalignment: If the loop aerial is not exactly aligned with the fore and aft axis of the a/c all
bearings subsequently measured by the equipment will be in error by the amount misalignment.
This error is eliminated by careful fitting of the loop
• Lack of failure warning system: False indication due to a failure in the system is not readily
detectable because of the absence of failure warning on most ADF instruments. Particular care
should therefore be exercised in indentifying and monitoring the NDB and independent cross check
made with other navigational aids where possible. It is essential that when using the ADF as the
primary navigation aid .
 Factors effecting NDB Range

• Power output of transmitter: The range is proportional to square of power output i.e. to double
the NDB range , quadruple the power output of the transmitter.
- range is greater over water
- Range (NM) over water = 3X√Power(watt)
- Range (NM) over land =2X√Power (watt)
- Note: using range calculated by these formulae, does not guarantee that the a/c will be within the
DOC.
• Frequency: Propagation is mainly by the surface waves. Therefore lower the frequency , greater the
surface wave ( greater diffraction , lower attenuation).
• Whether: all precipitation including falling snow , reduces the effective range and accuracy of ADF
bearings.
• Type of emission: NON A1A has greater range than NON A2A. But ICAO annex 10 recommends the
use of NON A2A for long range beacons.
• Time of day: At night time there is more range than during day due to night effect. At night
effective range for direction finding is reduced due to night effect.
• Protection Range: DOC is applicable during day time only for ADF. It also decides the range of NDB
range.
• Static interference: it will reduce the range.
 Very High Frequency Omni-directional Range

• The VHF Omni-directional range (*VOR) was adopted as the

standard short range navigation aid in 1960 by ICAO. It produces
360 radials/tracks at 1* spacing which are aligned in relation to
magnetic north at the VOR location. Since it is working on VHF
frequency (108-118 MHz) it is practically free from static
interference and is not affected by sky wave which enables it to be
used day and night. Hence DOC is applicable for both day and
night.
• Uses of VOR
- Marking the beginning, the end and centre line of airways or sections
of airways.
- As a letdown aid at airfield using published procedures.
- As a holding point for aircraft
- As a source of en route navigational positional lines.
VOR (cont.)
 The principle of operation of VOR
• Principle is bearing by phase comparison.
• Ground station has two aerial both transmit wave of same frequency but in different
modulation.
• One aerial is fixed aerial other is rotating aerial.
• Rotating aerial rotates at 30 rotations per second. Rotating aerial transmissions are received
in different phases all around ground BCN are called variables signals. It carries 30 Hz
amplitude modulation.
• Fixed aerial transmissions are received in same phase or around ground and is called
reference signal. It is 30 Hz frequency modulated.
• Polar diagram of fixed aerial is circle
• Polar diagram of rotating aerial is rotating figure of 8
• Combine polar diagram is rotating LIMACON diagram. Limacon diagram is like Cardoid
diagram.
• A/c equipment finds its phase difference and gives bearing information.
• Both signals are in phase (have zero degree phase difference) due to magnetic north of
ground bearing. Therefore every degree change in bearing gives a phase difference of 1*.
• VOR bearings are magnetic bearing from ground station and referred as QDR or radials of
VOR. Therefore one can say
• Phase difference (between ref and fix signal) =QDR=Radial.
 VOR (cont)
• Question.1: A/c is on true bearing of 250 from
VOR Var. is 5*W . What is phase difference
between reference signal and variable signal.
• Question.2: A/C is on magnetic bearing of 160
from VOR. Var is 10 W what phase difference
between variable signal and reference signal
is.
 Cockpit Indicator of VOR: there are
three indicators in cockpit
• Omni Bearing Selector (OBS): It is selected by pilot . On OBS we can select
any of 360 radials in steps of 1*.
• To/From indicator: It will only give two indication either read TO or From.
These indications will depend on three things.
• OBS selection
• Bearing of a/c from VOR.
• VOR indication doesn’t depend on Hdg of a/c.
• Course deviation indicator (CDI): it is an instrument which has two
needle one is horizontal and other is vertical. VOR indicator is only given
by vertical needle. Vertical position can occupy three position centre, left
of centre, right of centre. CDI needle is central when a/c on selected radial
or on reciprocal of the selected aerial. If CDI is on left of centre or right of
centre it shows a/c is not on the selected radial. Either to make correction
to right or left to get to the selected
Cockpit Indicator of VOR: there are
three indicators in cockpit
Cockpit Indicator of VOR: there are
three indicators in cockpit
 VOR (cont.)
• Failure warning of VOR
- VOR has failure warning device. It will come under
the following circumstances. When CDI failure
then need on centre and red flag indicating off.
- Failure of ground BCN.
- Failure of a/c indicator.
- Failure on indicator.
- When signals are too week.
- When a/c is out of reach.
 VOR (cont.)
• Transmission Details
• 40 channels: 108-112 MHz: this is primarily ILS bands but ICAO has allowed it to
be shared with short range VORs and Terminal VORs (TVOR)
• 108.0, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, 108.40, 108.45 to 111.85 MHz
• (VOR frequencies are even decimal digit- check first digit after decimal)
• 108.1, 108.15, 10.30, 108.35 to 111.95 MHz are allocated to the ILS localizer
• (ILS frequencies are odd decimal figure)
• 120 channels: 112-118
• Emission Code is A9W
• Identification: a continuous tone or series of dots indentifies a Test VOR (VOT).
• Monitoring: all VOR are continuously monitored by an automatic site monitor. The
monitor will warn the control point and remove either the identification or the
navigational signals or switch off the beacon in the event of following.
• Bearing information change exceeding 1*
• A reduction of > 15% in signal strength of both or either of the 30 Hz modulation
or the RF carrier frequency.
• A failure of the monitor.
 Type of VOR
• BVOR: a broadcast VOR which gives weather and airfield information between the beacon
identification.
• DVOR: it is called Doppler VOR. Although their transmission frequencies are same of CVOR
(conventional VOR) the transmitted bearing accuracy is improved as the transmissions are less
sensitive to site error. It has different type of ground station. There is no rotating aerial. There are
51 fixed aerials. 1 aerial is at centre and 50 aerial around it in circle. The central aerial transmit
reference signal which is 30 Hz amplitude modulated other 50 fixed aerial in combination transmit
variable signal which is 30 Hz frequency modulated. To maintain the phase relationship which exists
in CVOR transmission the rotation of the directional signal is anti-clockwise. As a result same
airborne VOR equipment can be used with either CVOR or DVOR beacons.
• TVOR: Terminals VOR which only low power, and is used at major airfields.
• VOT: VOT stands for Test VOR. This is found at certain airfields and broadcast a fixed Omni-
directional signal for a 180* test radial. This is not for navigation use but is used to test aircraft
equipment accuracy before IFR flight. More than ±4* indicates the equipment need servicing.
• 176-184 Indication TO. CDI central.
• 356-004 Indication FROM. CDI central.
• AFIS and ATIS: aerodrome flight terminal information service broadcast (AFIS VOR).
• VORTAC: co- located with VOR and TACAN (DME) beacons.
 VOR (cont.)
• Factors affecting operational range of VOR
• Transmission power: higher the transmission power and greater the
range. Thus en route VORs with a 200 watt transmitter will have
about 200 NM range. TVOR will normally transmit at 50 watt.
• Height of transmitter and receiver: since it is working on VHF hence
line of sight transmission
• Range (NM) = 1.25 √ht of transmitter + 1.25√ht of receiver.
• Nature of terrain: uneven terrain, intervening high ground,
mountains, made structures etc because the VOR bearing to be
stopped (screened), reflected or bent (scalloping), all of which give
rise to bearing error.
• Note: where such bearing errors are known AIPS will publish details
 VOR (Cont.)
• Designated Operational Coverage (DOC)
• DOC, specified as a range and altitude. Eg. DOC of
50/25000 published in AIPs means that an a/c should
not experience co frequency interference within 50
NMs of a VOR beacon up to height of 25 000.
• The DOC may also vary by sectors and it is valid day
and night. Use of VOR outside its DOC can lead to
navigation errors.
• Calculation of DOC:
• For example an a/c at height of 25 000 and VOR
situated at MSL
 VOR (cont.)
• Factors affecting VOR beacon accuracy/ Error of VOR
• Site error: it is due to location of ground BCN and obstruction ground BCN should not be
more than 1*. It is caused by the uneven terrain such as hills and made structure, trees and
even long grass in the vicinity of the transmitter. The error to radiated bearing is termed VOR
course displacement error. Ground VOR beacon site error is monitored to ±1* accuracy.
• Propagation error: is caused by the fact that having left the VOR site with ± accuracy the
transmission are further affected by terrain and distance. At considerable range from the
VOR bends or scalloping can occur. VOR scalloping is defined as an imperfection or deviation
in the received VOR signal. It cases radials to deviate from their standard tracks and is the
result of reflections from building or terrain; it causes the course deviation indicator to slowly
or rapidly shift from side to side.
• Airborne equipment errors: are caused by a/c equipment assessing and converting the phase
difference to 1* of bearing, maximum aircraft equipment error should be ±3*.
• Note above errors (1+2+3) are aggregate errors to give a total error of ±5*. If any two of
these errors is given total error can be finding by the Pythagoras theorem.
• Question: Site error is 3* and propagation error is 4 *. What is aggregate error and
instrument receiver error?
• Pilotage error: when flying close to BCN then distance between the radial decreases and pilot
is not able to fly exactly.
• Interference error: is removed by providing protection range.
• Note: overall accuracy is ±5*.
 VOR (cont.)
• Cone of ambiguity/ Cone of Confusion
• Cone of confusion exists over VOR beacon. VOR transmit
horizontally polarized signals which are inclined at an angle
of 60-80 * (ICAO minimum elevation angle of 40* is
required) to horizontal plane. There is no transmission
vertically overhead over BCN there is cone of confusion.
• Indication when flying through cone of confusion:
• CDI needle will oscillate left and right.
• Failure warning may come on and go out.
• To/ from indicator flicker between to and from
• BCN passage is indicated by positive change over from
indicator.
Cone of Confusion
 Cone of Confusion
• An a/c is flying 15000 above ICAO maintained
VOR at G/S of 200 knots.
- What is diameter of cone of confusion.
- How long a/c will be over cone of confusion
 Instrument Landing System
• ILS is a pilot interpreted runway approach aid.
• ILS Provides the pilot with visual instructions in the
cockpit to enable him to fly the a/c down the
predetermined glide path and extended runway centre
line (localizer) to his Decision Ht (DH).
• At Decision height the pilot decides to land, if he has
the required visual references and sufficient room to
maneuver the a/c for a safe touchdown or he goes
around (overshoots) and carries out the published
missed approach procedures.
• The runway being served by the ILS or PAR is called
precision instrument runways.
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Components of ILS
• The system requires a suitable ground installations and
airborne equipment. The ground installations has three
distinct components namely
- localizer,
- glide slope path,
- marker beacons
• back course ( in some installation may also available)/ some
ILS installations also have a co located low powered NDBs,
called locator (L), at the site of Outer Marker (OM) beacon/
DME is frequency paired with the ILS frequencies are now
increasingly provided to supplement or replace the range
information by marker BCN.
Instrument Landing System (cont.)
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)

• Localizer
• Localiser Frequencies:
• The localizer operates in the VHF band between 108-112 MHz to
provide 40 channels. This part of frequency band is shared with
VOR: ILS frequency have an odd decimal in the first decimal digit.
• Localiser Coverage:
• The localizer coverage sector extends from the transmitter to
distances of
• 25 NM : within plus minus 10* from centre-line
• 17 NM: between 10 * and 35 * (25*sector)from the centre line
• 10 NM: outside of plus minus 35* if coverage is provided.
Instrument Landing System (cont.)
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Principle of localizer operation:
• It gives indications in azimuth.
• Principle of localizer is Bearing by lobe comparison
• The localizer transmits two lobes on same frequency having different modulation.
• The right hand lobe (blue sector) has a 150 Hz modulation.
• The left hand lobe (yellow sector) has a 90 Hz modulation.
• An a/c approaching the runway in the landing direction will detect more 90 Hz
modulation note and relatively less of 150 Hz modulation then a/c is left of centre
line. The excess of 90 Hz modulation (Difference in depth of modulation DDM) will
energies the vertical needle of the CDI to indicate right hand turn.
• Similarly an a/c flying right hand side of centre line will have an excess of the 150
Hz modulation note and the needle will indicate a left hand turn.
• The line along which the DDM is zero defines the runway centre line in case of
localizer.
• A DDM of zero indicates a balance between modulations a zero needle-deflections
and hence the runway centre line.
Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Glide Slope
• Frequencies of Glide path:
- The Glide path operates in the UHF band between 329 and
335 Mhz. to provide 40 complimentary channels.
• Coverage of Glide Slope:
• Vertical Coverage: will depend upon angle of Glide slope
- Top coverage: 1.75 Glide Slope Angle
- Bottom coverage: 0.45 Glide Slope Angle
• Horizontal coverage: 10 NM in sector of 8* in azimuth on
each side of centre line.
• Question find Top and bottom coverage of Glide slope for
standard glide slope angle.
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Principle of operation of Glide Slope:
• It gives indication in vertical plane.
• Principle is bearing by lobe comparison.
• The upper lobe is 90 Hz ( large lobe-yellow sector) and
bottom lobe 150 Hz ( small lobe- blue lobe).
• The glide path standard angle is 3* ( ICAO requires Glide
Path Angle between 2* -4* depending upon local
requirements)
• Note : if in exam glide path angle is not give do your
calculation with 3 *.
• In case of Glide path line of zero DDM defines the Glide
slope.
Instrument Landing System (cont.)
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• False Glide Slope:
• Some time due to aerial propagation characteristic or due to
metallic obstruction close to ground BCN the twin lobe pattern of
glide slope is repeated many times one above the other giving rise
to false glide slope.
• False glide slope are not dangerous to a/c because they always form
above the normal glide slope.
• The first glide slope occurs at approximately twice the glide path
angle for example 6* above ground for a standard 3* glide path.
• Normal flying practice is to establish on the localizer and intercept
the glide slope from below. However at airfields such as London
Heathrow a continuous descent approach is used in which the a/c
are positioned by ground radar to capture the glideslope from
above. It is advisable to always confirm the a/c height in relation to
distance to go by reference DME marker beacons etc.
Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Indications if the a/c on false Glide Slope:
• Rate of Descend to maintain the glideslope
will be double or more than
double(depending on what false glide slope
angle you are)
• Height of a/c over outer marker inbound will
be too high
• The localizer failure warning may come up.
You may go outside coverage of localizer.
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Marker Beacons
• Frequencies of Marker Beacons:
• All markers transmit in 75 MHz. There is no interference
problem as radiation patter is a narrow fan shaped vertical
beam.
• Radiation patter of Marker Beacons:
• The radiation patterns for ILS marker beacons are vertical
and appear elliptical or bone shaped in plan view.
• Z markers: these have cylindrical vertical radiation pattern.
They are used to mark airway reporting points or co located
with an NDB. Due to the cone of silence directly above an
NDB either Z markers provide an indication when the a/c is
overhead.
Instrument Landing System (cont.)
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Some important terms related to ILS
• ILS Reference Datum: It is imaginary point on centre line of runway
above the ILS threshold at height of 50’ (varies between 35’-50’)
through which extended portion of glide slope passes.
• ILS Critical Area: this is an area of defined dimensions about the
localizer and glide path antennas where vehicles and a/c are
excluded during all ILS operations. It is protected because the
presence of vehicles and/or a/c inside its boundaries will cause
unacceptable disturbance to ILS signal in space.
• ILS sensitive Area: This extends beyond the critical area and is
where parking or movement of vehicles and a/c is controlled to
prevent the possibility of unacceptable interference to the ILS signal
during low visibility ILS operations. The dimensions of this area
depend upon the object creating the disturbances.
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
• Operational Performance Categories:
• Category 1: An Instrument Approach and landing with:
• A DH not lower than 60 m (200ft) and
• A runway visual range (RVR) not less than 550 m.
• Category 2: A precision Instrument Approach and landing with
• A DH lower than 60 m ( 200ft) but not lower than 30m ( 100ft) and
• RVR not less than 300 m
• Category 3A: A Precision instrument approach and landing with
• A DH lower than 30m(100ft0 or no DH and
• A RVR not less than 200m.
• Category 3B: A precision instrument approach and landing with
• A DH lower than 15m(50ft) or no DH and.
• A RVR less than 200 m but not less than 75 m.
• Category 3C: NO DH no RVR limitation.
 Instrument Landing System (cont.)
Question 1. At what approximate distance from the threshold would an
aircraft intercept the glide path if the aircraft height is 2500 ft and the ILS
glide path angle is 3 degree?
Question 2: If there is 10 kts increase in headwind by what amount must the
rate of decent changed in order to maintain a 3 degree glide slope.
Question 3: What will be the rate of decent when flying down a 12 degree
glide slope at a ground speed of 540 kts?
Question 4: An aircraft flying down a 3 degree ILS glide slope is at 25 NM DME
from threshold. Calculate the aircraft height above the runway threshold
assuming that ILS glide path crosses the threshold at a height of 50 ft
Question 5: If there is 15 knot increase in headwind bye what amount must
the rate of descent is changed in order to maintain a 3 degree glide slope.
Question 6: What will be the rate of descent when flying down at 10 degree
glide slope at a ground speed of 500 kts?
 RADAR
• Radar Stands for “Radio Detection and Ranging”.
• Radar is radio device which gives azimuth, range and altitude.
• Originally radar used pulses for its operations but subsequently
continuous wave technique was also developed for other functions such
as the radio altimeter, because radars have no minimum range limitations.
• Radar frequencies: Radar occupies frequencies VHF upward. The reason
for the choice of higher frequencies are as follows
• It gives freedom for external noise and Ionospheric scatter (no static
interference)
• Give rise to short wavelength and small wavelength have following
advantage. (a)The efficiency of reflection from an object depends on the
size of the object in relation to the wavelength. At shorter wavelengths the
signal will be reflected more efficiently by the reflecting objects. (b)
Similarly shorter pulses can be produced with shorter wavelength.
• Radar Timing: Timings in radar are microseconds
• Question: How much radio wave will travel in 1 micro second?
 RADAR (cont.)
• Radar Energy: Radar energy is pulse modulated
• Principle of Radar: Radar works on echo principle
and search light principle. Echo principle gives
indication of distance and search light principle
gives indication of bearing.
• Question: Beam width of radar is 3* and
detecting two objects separated by 1 NM. Up to
what distance they will appear as single object by
the radar.
 RADAR (cont.)
• Type of Pulsed Radars:
- Primary Radar
- Secondary Radar.
• Primary Radar: Primary radar uses pulses of radio
energy reflected from a target i.e. It uses one
frequency throughout.
• Secondary Radar: Secondary radar transmits pulses on
one frequency, but receives on different frequency. The
object transmits its own energy. It is a system utilizing
an interrogator and transponder; the transponder can
be located in the a/c or on the ground.
RADAR (cont.)
 RADAR (cont.)
• Pulse Technique: Primary, Secondary and Doppler radar system use
the pulse technique which is the transmission of radio energy in
very short bursts. Each burst of energy is in a pulse form of pre-
determined shape. The duration of pulse is equal to pulse length
or width.
• Pulse Recurrence Interval (PRI)/ Pulse Recurrence Period (PRP): It
is the time interval between two pulses.
• Pulse Recurrence Frequency (PRF)/Pulse Recurrence Rate (PRR): It
is the number of pulses transmitted in one second. This determines
the maximum unambiguous range of the equipment. Each pulse
must be given time to travel out to the most distant reflecting
object as planned to return before the next pulse goes out.
Otherwise it will not be possible to relate a particular echo to a
particular pulse.
• PRI (per micro second) =1X106/PRF
 RADAR (cont.)
• Range of Primary Radar: The range of primary radar depends upon the strength of the
returning pulses that determines the quality of the target depiction on the PPI (position plan
indicator). The range is affected by several factors.
- Transmission power: Theoretical Range (NM) =4√power in watts
- Characteristic of reflecting object: Metal is more efficient than wood at reflecting the
transmitted signal and the size and shape of the detected object make a considerable
difference to the effective range.
- A/c height and the height of the radar head:
• Max. Theoretical range (NM) =1.25√ Ht of Tx + 1.25√ Ht of Rx
- Wavelength and attenuation by raindrops: At wavelength of 3cm and below one cannot
neglect the absorption and scattering of radiation by droplets of water in clouds and falling
precipitation. Cloud returns can have a most damaging effect on the performance of 10 cm
and 3 cm radars and the scatter from raindrops and other weather (eg circular polarization
having a rotating field) are now available to reduce the rain clutter, but most work at the
expense of power or range.
- Atmospheric conditions: Certain atmospheric condition can actually increase the range of radar
by reflecting the wave which would normally travel in straight line. This is called super
refraction. On the other hand atmospheric condition can also cause sub refraction in which
the theoretical range of the radar is reduced by causing the waves to refract upward away
from the surface
 RADAR (cont.)
• Questions: Radar Basics
Question 1. If the PRF is 250 pps. What is the PRI of the transmission
Question 2: An echo is registered a time of 500 micro seconds. What is
the distance in kilometers of the object reflecting it?
Question 3: We wish a radar to measure a range of up to 187 KM. what
should be the PRF be?
Question 4: Maximum range for radar to be 170 KM. what is the
maximum PRR.
Question 5: What is the maximum unambiguous range of a radar
having PRR of 380 pulses per second
Question 6: Range=185 km PRF=?
Question 7: PRF= 1000 Range=?
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• Distance measuring equipment (DME) is secondary radar
system that enables an a/c to establish range from a ground
station. A pilot obtains accurate magnetic bearing from
VOR beacon and accurate slant ranges from a DME. The
two facilities are normally co-sited/co-located to form the
standard ICAO Rho-theta short range.
• Since it is secondary radar therefore a/c is called
interrogator and the ground station is called transponder
• The basic airborne system consists of
• An interrogator ( a combined receiver and transmitter)
• An indicator
• An Omni-directional blade aerial, able to pick up vertically
polarized signals.
 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• Frequencies: DME (emission code PON) is secondary radar system operating
between 962 and 1213 MHz in the UHF band. There is always difference of
±63Mhz between the interrogator and transponder frequencies.
• Frequency allocation is divided into two bands low and high
• Low: 1025-1087 MHz a/c transmits and ground replies 962-1024 MHz (at 63 MHz
difference)
• High: A/C transmits from 1088-1150 MHz ground replies 1151-1213 MHz (at +63
MHz difference)
• Note: Channels in low band are numbered from 1 to 63 and those in the high band
from 64-126. These 126 channels are collectively called X channels. There is
provision to expansion into another 126 channels to be called Y channels.
• DME and VOR are frequency paired they can be frequency paired only if co-
located. If they are not co-located and about 7NM apart serving same station they
are still frequency paired. But in such case call sign of one of them will have letter
Z. Eg. STN-STZ.
• DME is also frequency paired with the ILS localizer frequencies. These DME
supplement or replace the range information provided by the marker beacon. The
range information is zero referenced to the ILS threshold
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• Principle of Operation: Principle of operation is Random PRF
technique. The receiver searches to responses through the range of
200 NM in a matter of few seconds. During the search period the
interrogator transmits at a high rate 150 pps to achieve quick lock
on condition. But if the lock is not acquired after 1500 pairs of
pulses have been transmitted the PRF is lowered to 60pps and
maintained at this rate until the search is successfully completed.
The system then operates on a random PRF between 25 and 30pps.
• Range and Coverage: DME is short range navigation aid providing a
maximum coverage of 200 NM at 30 000 ft.
• Accuracy: A slant range of 0 and 200 NM the total system error is
designed to be no greater than ±0.5 NM or ±3 % of the distance
measured, whichever is greater. Thus the worst case is 6NM at a
range of 200 NM.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• Uses of DME:
• It provides a circular position line when a single DME is used; fixes are
obtained when it is used in conjugation with VOR or other DME stations.
• It range indication is very useful when carrying out an instrument
approach
• It eases the task of the ATC in indentifying for radar when an a/c reports
its position in terms of range and bearing from a VOR/DME station.
• When two a/c are using DME and flying on the same track the positive
ranges from the a/c enables the ATC to maintain accurate separation.
• Accurate ranges to touchdown are read off when a transponder is
operating in conjugation with ILS.
• It provides the basis for more accurate holding patterns
• With an additional computer area navigation may be carried out with
accuracy.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

• Beacon Saturation: if 100 a/c are simultaneously triggering station

the transponder capacity will be exhausted and the beacon would
become saturated. While reaching this figure it will give response to
nearest a/c but this is not necessarily to 100 strongest signals.
• Question
• An a/c at 40 000 ft read DME distance 80 NM to the station. What is
the ground distance from the station
• An a/c at 24320 ft is 30 NM ground range from the station. What is
its indicated range on DME
• Note: when a/c directly overhead the beacon the DME will indicate
the a/c height in NM above the beacon not zero range.
• An a/c is flying 30400 ft above beacon find the indication on DME.
 Secondary Surveillance Radar

• Secondary Surveillance radar is secondary radar. The

ground station is interrogator and a/c is transponder.
• Ground station transmits on 1030 MHz and receives on
1090 MHZ
• A/c transmits on 1090 MHz and receives on 1030 MHz
• The ground interrogator aerial is directional while the
a/c transponder aerial is non-directional.
• From the a/c reply identification is done.
• The SSR information is displayed in combination with
the primary radar information on the same screen.
 Secondary Surveillance Radar

• There are four modes of SSR

- Mode A: has pulses 8 micro second apart
- Mode B : has pulses 17 micro second apart
- Mode C : has pulses 21 micro second apart
- Mode D : has pulses 25 micro second apart.
- Mode A and B are used for identification
 Secondary Surveillance Radar

• Mode C for automatic reporting of height. When a/c receives mode C

interrogation the transponder will produce an ICAO determined code that
corresponds to its height, referred to 1013.2 mb/HPA regardless of the
pressure setting on the altimeter and code selected on the transponder.
• Mode S: It can do same job as of the mode C in addition it can handle
large data. The altitude is reported in steps of 25 feet rather than 100 feet
in mode C. It can provide ground to air, air to ground, and air to air data
exchange using communication protocol. Mode S is designed to serve two
main functions communication and surveillance. Mode S can provide
ground to air , air to ground , air to air data exchange using
communication protocol.
• While mode D is experimental.
• 4096 are the total code available on SSR and are numbered 0000 to 7777
except those containing numbers 8 or 9.
• A further pulse the special position identification (SPI) pulse may be
transmitted together with the information pulses when the “Ident” button
on the pilot’s transponder is pressed usually at ATC request.
 Secondary Surveillance Radar

• Special Purpose Code:

• 7700: Emergency/Distress
• 7600: Radio failure
• 7500: Hijack/unlawful interference with the planned
operations of the flight, unless circumstances warrant the
operation of code 7700.
• 0000: Transponder malfunction/Transponder failure
• 2000: For entering airspace from an area where SSR
operation has not been required/Crossing FIR
• 7000 : Conspicuity code
• 7007: is allocated to a/c engaged on airborne observation
flight under the terms of the treaty on open skies.
 Secondary Surveillance Radar

• Fruiting: If the a/c is within range of two SSR stations they may cause non-
synchronous interference to one of the stations by responding
synchronously to another station. In other words this is interference at
one interrogator caused by replies from a transponder responder
responding to interrogation from another SSR.
• Garbling: This is caused by overlapping replies from two or more
transponders on nearly the same bearing from the ground station and
within a distance of 1.7 NM from each other measured from the antenna.
If two or more a/c are close enough together such as in holding pattern or
overtaking so that they are in the aerial beam at the same time and
produce overlapping replies this is known as garbling.
• Ghost Target: These are due to reflections on obstacles or high ground.
• Shielding: When a/c is banked the antenna is shielded resulting in loss of
signals.
 Ground Radar

• Air Traffic Control services use Ground Radars extensively to serve a large number
of requirements and users. They employ both primary and secondary radar
techniques. The main types of ground radar are summarized as follows
• En-route Surveillance Radar (RSR)/Long range surveillance Radar (200-300NM):
Use for airway surveillance etc. Primary radar provides range and bearing i.e.
positional information which in some areas may be supplemented by a height
finding surveillance radar. Additional information is provided by SSR.
• Terminal Area Radar (TAR/TMA) (75NM): Medium range radar upto 75 NM used
for controlling traffic in terminal areas etc. Primary radar provides positional
information which is supplemented by SSR.
• Aerodrome Surveillance Approach Radar (25NM). It is short range radar .used for
the control of the a/c in the vicinity of an aerodrome and for limited approach. It
also provide radar vectoring to ILS. A non – high resolution surveillance radar
approach shall be terminated 2NM before the touchdown point except where
the termination range of 1 nm has been specially approved. While high
resolution Surveillance radar has termination of .5 NM or less
 Ground Radar
• Precision Approach Radar (PAR): It gives very accurate azimuth and elevation
guidance relative to approach path to an aerodrome runway. The PAR is a runway
approach aid available only at military airfields. A pilot is “talk down” by the
controller to his Decision height. The talk down terminates at 0.5 Nm or less.
• Note: Except at certain military aerodromes ATC will assume that an a/c is using
QFE on final approach when carrying out a radar approach and any height
passed by the radar controller will be related to the QFE datum. It should be
noted that the obstacle clearance height is always given with reference to the
aerodrome or threshold elevation.
• Surface movement radar/Airport surveillance detection equipment (ASDE)/
Airfield movement indicator (ASMI): It is installed at major airfields to provide a
very accurate radar display ( in all weather and conditions of visibility) of the
aerodrome infrastructure, taxi-ways, runways, aprons etc, vehicular traffic and a/c
that are stationary , taxing , landing or taking offs. ASMI radars is designed to
provide a detailed , bright and flicker free display of all a/c and vehicles on
runways and taxi-ways so that ATC can be certain that runways are clear of traffic
before landing or take off and to enable them to ensure the safe and orderly
movement of traffic on taxi ways. The very high definition required is achieved by
designing a radar with
 Airborne Weather Radar

• AWR is primary radar

• It is for both mapping and for cloud detection
• It gives bearing and ranges
• Bearing is by search light principle and range is by echo principle
• Note: One can conclude AWR gives detection and size of water
droplets, determine height of cloud tops , map the train and also
provide a position fix.
• Airborne weather radar (AWR) is used to provide the pilots with the
information regarding both weather ahead as well as navigation.
• The radar information can be displayed on a dedicated unit or in
combination with the a/c route on EFIS navigation display (ND).
• Information on cloud formation or terrain features is displayed on
the indicators screen as a range from the a/c and the bearing
relative to its heading.
 Airborne Weather Radar

• The airborne equipment comprises

- Transmitter/receiver
- Antenna, which is stabilized in pitch and roll
- Indicator
- Control unit
• Functions of AWR:
• Detect the size of water droplets and hence deduce where the
areas of turbulence are within the cloud
• Determine the height of the cloud top by tilting the beam up or
down.
• Map the terrain below the a/c to provide the navigational
information and high ground avoidance.
• Provide a position fix (bearing and range) from a prominent feature.
 Airborne Weather Radar

• Principle of operation:
• Ranges of ground target obtained from display will be the slant range and
Pythagoras formula should be used to calculate ground range.
• Primary Radar: AWR is primary radar and both of its function weather
detection and ground mapping use the echo principle to depict range and
search light principle o depict relative bearing of the target. It should be
noted that ground targets obtained from the display will be the slant
range and the Pythagoras formula should be used to calculate the range.
• Antenna: The radar beam is produced by a suitable antenna in the nose of
the a/c. The antenna shape can be parabolic or a flat plate which produce
both conical or pencil shaped beam as well as fan shaped or cosecant
square beam. The type of radiation pattern will depend upon the use the
pencil beam is used for weather and longer range (more than 60NM)
mapping while the fan-shaped beam is used for short range mapping.
The antenna is attitude stabilized in pitch and roll
 Airborne Weather Radar

• Radar Beam: The band width must be as

narrow as possible for efficient target
resolution. Therefore to produce the narrow
beam shorter wavelength must be used.
• Band width (degree)= 70X
wavelength/antenna diameter
• Question: calculate the beam width of 3 cm
radar using the 45 cm diameter antenna.
 Airborne Weather Radar

• The areas of greatest potential turbulence occur where the color zones are closest together i.e. the
steepest rainfall gradient. Also turbulence associated with the shapes on the display U-shapes,
Fingers, Scalloped edges and hooks
• Tilt Control: this control enables the radar beam to be tilted from horizontal within 15* Up (+) and
15* down (-). In horizontal plane the antenna sweeps upto 90* either side.
• Function switch of AWR has two mode MAN mode and MAP mode
• MAP mode: In map mode radar produces mapping beam during this reduction in power with
decreasing ranges is a function of cosecant of depression angle. Hence name cosecant is given
(another name is fan shaped)
• MAN Mode: This is used for cloud detection and mapping between 70-150 NM using conical beam.
Manual gain for signal amplification is operative with selection.
• Note: For basic monochrome AWR with a maximum range of 150 NM fan shaped bean is used for
mapping up to 70Nm by selecting mode map. Beyond 70NM conical pencil bean is used with mode
MAN.
• Hold Switch: is used to detect the moment of storm
• Height Ring: With conical radiation there is an over spill of radiation vertically downward. This is
reflected back to the a/c an echo appears like a ring. This ring indicates the a/c height and called as
height ring. The presence of height ring shows that equipment is serviceable.
 Airborne Weather Radar

• cloud height.
• Elevation Angle of cloud top= Tilt angle-1/2 Beam
Width
• If the angle is positive the cloud top is above your
level if negative cloud is below you.
• If beam width is not given in question take it to
be 3*
• Question : An a/c is flying at 15000 feet and QNH
is set on altimeter a tilt angle of 3.5* is made
with 5* beam width at a distance of 30NM from
clouds. Calculate altitude of clouds.
 Airborne Weather Radar

• Radar frequency: Wavelength of weather radar lies between 10 cm and 3 cm I SHF

band. At these wavelength mists, haze clouds of tiny water droplets do not reflect
energy where water droplets in CB will have reached sufficient dimensions will
give an echo. Therefore harmless stratus clouds are prevented from cluttering up
the screen. The typical frequency used by most commercial system is 9375 MHZ
±30 MHz as it produces the best returns from the large droplets of water and wet
hail found in convective clouds. A frequency of higher than 9375 MHz will produce
returns from smaller droplets and cause unnecessary clutter.
• Weather Depiction: the size and concentration of water droplets in cloud is an
indication of presence of turbulence (but not of clear air turbulence –CAT). In color
weather radar system the weather targets are color coded according to the
intensity of the rainfall as follow
• Black- Very light or no returns
• Green- Light returns
• Yellow- Medium returns
• Red- Strong returns
• Magenta- Turbulence
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
• It is satellite based navigation system. Principle is
similar to DME. Simultaneous ranges from satellite will
get the fix. Signals received from three or more
satellites enable a fix to be obtained and simultaneous
ranges from four satellites provides three-dimensional
fix. GPS can therefore be claimed to be a navigational
system independent of ground facilities and there are
those who envisage it also serving as an approach aid,
superseding ILS and MLS in 21st century.
• At present there are two operational global
navigational satellite systems and some are under
development. These systems are as follows
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
• The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS is constellation of
satellites is a military facility under the auspicious of US department of
Defence (DoD). It has 21 active satellites plus three operational spares in
six circular al planes around the earth inclined at an angle of 55* to the
equator. Each satellite weight about one metric tone has expected life of
about seven to eight years and orbits the earth once every twelve hours at
height of 20 200 km (10 900 NM).
• GPS satellite transmit on two L-band frequencies of 1575.42 Mhz (L1) and
1227.6 MHz (L2). The L1 signal is modulated with two pseudo random
codes : P Code ( Precise Code) and C/A code (Coarse acquisition code)
• the L2 signal is modulated with the P-code only. Only the L1 C/A is
available to civil a/c a, although having an inherent accuracy of fixing
position within about 30m , it is deliberately degraded to an accuracy of
approximately of 100 m (95% probability basis) so that no one can use the
system effectively for example for the guidance of so called smart bombs
to contrary US ( For military a/c using also the L2 P-code , the claimed
accuracy is 1 to 3 m).
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
• The Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS): It is operated by Russia. It is also having
21 active and three spare satellites with the
constellation in this case in three orbital planes inclined
at an angle of 60* to the equator. Having a orbital
period of 12 hours at a height of 19 000 Km ( 10 250
NM).
• Wide area differential GNSS ( WADGNSS): of which
the European Geostationary Navigation overlay system
(EGNOS) currently under development.
• Note: satellites have four atomic clock to monitor each
other. Accuracy is one nano second
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
• GPS errors
• All errors of GPS are 95% probability level
• Ephimeris error: This occur if the satellites is not precisely where it is belived to be
in its orbit. These error in SV (satellite vehicles/satellites) are caused by
gravitational effect of the sun, moon , planets and solar radiation. The satellites
control however is so exacting that the range error due to this cause it quote as
kept within ± 0.5m the maximum error will be 2.5 m.
• Satellite clock error: the integrity of the satellites is continuously monitored and if
the satellite clock becomes even a few nano-second in error ( 1 nano second =
0.000 000 001 second) . Even this small error can lead to an error of 0.5 m.
• Atmospheric error/ionosphere error/ ionosphere propagation error: the density
of the charged particles (ions) in the atmosphere changes diurnally and seasonally.
The delay due to the effect of the ionosphere on the satellite signals also depends
upon its angular path to the receiver but fortunately this error is predictable and
not expected to cause a range error of more than 4 m ( some literature mention 5
m). This error is most significant error of SV navigation system. If two different
frequencies are available then SVs can deduce the Ionospheric effect on the transit
of the signals and make appropriate adjustment to the observed times, thereby
minimizing the error.
 GPS Errors
• Tropospheric propagation error: Because of the inherent accuracy
of SV navigation system. The effect of variations in Tropospheric
conditions on the passage of radio waves has become significant .
variations in pressure, temperature , density and humidity affect
the speed of [Link] example a change in transit time of
one nanosecond would give an error of 0.3m . Maximum 0.5 m . As
with Ionospheric propagation error this is minimized with the use of
two frequencies.
• Instrument/ receiver error or receiver noise error: All radio
receiver generate noise , which in the case of GNSS receivers can
cause errors in measurement of the time difference. Range error is
0.3 m ( some literature mentions as 1 m).
• Multiple-path reception: Reflections from the ground and parts of
the a/c result in multi path reception. This can be minimized by
careful sitting of the aerial and by internal processing technique.
Maximum 0.6 m.
 GPS Errors
• Satellite geometry error/ Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP):
• This in not truly a GPS error at all but a basic principle when using position lines to
obtain a fix. If the angle of cut of two position lines is very shallow, the effect of
any error is much greater than if the position lines intersect at a right angle or
nearly so. In the application of GNSS this means that if two or more satellites are
close togatehr when being used for two dimensional navigation , range, position
lines obtained from them will intersect at a shallow angle and any signal error
effect is therefore larger, this term used in GPS is Geometric Dilution of precision
(GDOP). This is GDOP occurs when the satellites are (relatively ) close to each
other.
• GDOP is further divided :
• Position Dilutin of precision (PDOP): This refers to errors in X,Y, and Z co ordinates.
• Horizontal dilution of precision ( HDOP): This refers to errors in the X and Y co
ordinates.
• Vertical Dilution of precision (VDOP) : This refers to errors in the Z co ordinate
• Time Dilution of precision (TDOP): This referes to timing errors.
 GPS Errors
• Effect of a/c manoeuvre : A/C maneuver may result in part of the a/c shadowing
one or more of the in use SVs. There are two possible outcomes of this . Firstly
whilst the SV is shadowed the signals may be lost resulting in degradation of
accuracy, or the receiver may lock onto reflections from other parts of the a/c
again with a reduction in accuracy. The effect on maneuver can be minimized by
careful positioning of the aerial on the a/c.
• Selective Availability error SA: was introduced in GPS by DOD. It deliberately
degrade the accuracy of the fixing on the C/A code (civil users).
• GPS differential correction (dGPS): the only significant errors in the fixing position
by GPS are atmospheric (Ionospheric error) and the deliberately introduced error
by DoD called selective availability error (SA) which is already mentioned is
designed to prevent unfriendly users exploiting the extraordinary high accuracy of
GPS navigation to threaten the US with offensive military actions. For civil aviation
a correction factor called differential correction can be determined for a/c
navigation which eliminates the effects of Ionospheric error and SA which then
transmitted to a/c (by ACARS ).
 END
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