PIMPRI CHINCHWAD EDUCATION TRUST'S

PIMPRI CHINCHWAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH

FIRST YEAR ENGINEERING (2019 PATTERN)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

STUDY MATERIAL

- Mr. Anant Sidhappa Kurhade-

DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 INDEX

Sr. no Name of Units

1 Syllabus

2 Introduction of energy sources _ its conversion

3 Introduction to Thermal Engineering

4 Vehicles and their Specifications

5 Vehicle System

6 Introduction to Manufacturing

8 Engineering Mechanisms and their application in Domestic Appliances

9 Question Papers (Insem & Endsem)

Savitribai Phule Pune University
Faculty of Science & Technology

Curriculum
For

First Year
Bachelor of Engineering
(Choice Based Credit System)
(2019 Course)
(With Effect from Academic Year 2019-20)
 TABLE -1 First Engineering _Structure for Semester-I
Course Course Name Teaching Examination Scheme and Credits
Code Scheme Marks
(Hours/Week)

Practical

Tutorial
Theory

Total

Total
TUT
ESE

TW
ISE

OR

TH
PR

PR
107001 Engineering
03 -- 01 30 70 25 -- -- 125 03 -- 01 04
Mathematics-I
107002/ Engineering Physics /
04 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 04 01 -- 05
107009 Engineering Chemistry
102003 Systems in
Mechanical 03 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 03 01 -- 04
Engineering
103004 / Basic Electrical
104010 Engineering / Basic 03 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 03 01 -- 04
Electronics Engineering
110005/ Programming and
101011 Problem Solving / 03 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 03 01 -- 04
Engineering Mechanics
111006 Workshop@ -- 02 -- -- -- -- 25 -- 25 -- 01 -- 01
Total 16 10 01 150 350 25 125 -- 650 16 05 01 22
&
101007 Audit Course 1 02 Environmental Studies-I
Induction Program : 2 weeks at the beginning of semester-I and 1 week at the beginning of semester-II
TABLE -2 First Engineering_ Structure for Semester-II
Teaching
Course Examination Scheme and
Course Name Scheme Credits
Code Marks
(Hours/Week)
Practical

Tutorial
Theory

ESE
ISE

Total

Total
TUT
TW

OR

TH
PR

PR
107008 Engineering
04 -- 01 30 70 25 -- -- 125 04 -- 01 05
Mathematics-II
107002/ Engineering Physics/
04 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 04 01 -- 05
107009 Engineering Chemistry
103004 / Basic Electrical
104010 Engineering / Basic 03 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 03 01 -- 04
Electronics Engineering
110005/ Programming and
101011 Problem Solving / 03 02 -- 30 70 -- 25 -- 125 03 01 -- 04
Engineering Mechanics
102012 Engineering Graphics Ω 01 02 01 -- 50 25 -- 75 01 01 02
110013 Project Based
-- 04 -- -- -- 25 50 -- 75 -- 02 -- 02
Learning§
Total 15 12 02 120 330 75 125 -- 650 15 05 02 22
101014 02 Environmental Studies-II
Audit Course 2&
107015 -- Physical Education-Exercise and Field Activities
 102003 - Systems in Mechanical Engineering
Teaching Scheme: Credits Examination Scheme:
TH : 3 Hrs./week 04 In-Semester :30 Marks
PR : 2 Hrs./Week End-Semester :70 Marks
PR :25 Marks
Course Objectives:
1. To identify the sources of energy and their conversions
2. To explain the basic concept of engineering thermodynamics and its application
3. To understanding the specifications of vehicles
4. To get acquainted with vehicle systems
5. To introduce manufacturing processes applying proper method to produce components
6. To be able to select and compare domestic appliances
Course Outcomes
On completion of the course, learner will be able to
CO1: Describe and compare the conversion of energy from renewable and non-renewable
energy sources
CO2: Explain basic laws of thermodynamics, heat transfer and their applications
CO3: List down the types of road vehicles and their specifications
CO4: Illustrate various basic parts and transmission system of a road vehicle
CO5: Discuss several manufacturing processes and identify the suitable process
CO6: Explain various types of mechanism and its application
Course Contents
Unit I Introduction of energy sources & its conversion (06 Hrs)
Energy sources: Thermal energy, Hydropower energy, Nuclear energy, Solar energy,
Geothermal energy, Wind energy, Hydrogen energy, Biomass energy and Tidal energy. Grades
of Energy. (Numerical on efficiency calculation of thermal power plant )
Energy conversion devices: Introduction of pump, compressor, turbines, wind mills etc
(Simple numerical on power and efficiency calculations)
Unit II Introduction to Thermal Engineering (06Hrs)
Laws of thermodynamics, heat engine, heat pump, refrigerator (simple numerical)
Modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation, Fourier’s law, Newton’s law of
cooling, Stefan Boltzmann’s law. (Simple numerical)
Two stroke and Four stroke engines (Petrol, Diesel and CNG engines). Steam generators.
Unit III Vehicles and their Specifications (04 Hrs)
Classification of automobile. Vehicle specifications of two/three wheeler, light motor vehicles,
trucks, buses and multi-axle vehicles. Engine components (Introduction). Study of engine
specifications, comparison of specifications of vehicles. Introduction of Electric and Hybrid
Vehicles. Cost analysis of the Vehicle.
Unit IV Vehicle systems (08 Hrs)
Introduction of chassis layouts, steering system, suspension system, braking system, cooling
system and fuel injection system and fuel supply system. Study of Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
systems. Study of power transmission system, clutch, gear box (Simple Numerical), propeller
shaft, universal joint, differential gearbox and axles. Vehicle active and passive safety
arrangements: seat, seat belts, airbags and antilock brake system.
Unit V Introduction to Manufacturing (06 Hrs)
Conventional Manufacturing Processes: Casting, Forging, Metal forming (Drawing, Extrusion,
etc.), Sheet metal working, Metal joining, etc. Metal cutting processes and machining operations-
Turning, Milling and Drilling, etc.
Micromachining. Additive manufacturing and 3D Printing. Reconfigurable manufacturing system
and IOT, Basic CNC programming: Concept of Computer Numerical Controlled machines.
Unit VI Engineering Mechanisms and their application in Domestic Appliances (6Hrs.)
Introduction to Basic mechanisms and equipment: Pumps, blowers, compressors, springs,
gears, Belt-Pulley, Chain-Sprocket, valves, levers, etc. Introduction to terms: Specifications,
Input, output, efficiency, etc.
Applications of: Compressors - Refrigerator, Water cooler, Split AC unit; Pumps - Water pump
for overhead tanks, Water filter/Purifier units; Blower - Vacuum cleaner, Kitchen Chimney;
Motor - Fans, Exhaust fans, Washing machines; Springs - Door closure, door locks, etc.; Gears -
Wall clocks, watches, Printers, etc.; Application of Belt-Pulley/Chain-Sprocket - Photocopier,
bicycle, etc.; Valves - Water tap, etc.; Application of levers - Door latch, Brake pedals, etc.;
Electric/Solar energy - Geyser, Water heater, Electric iron, etc. (simple numerical on efficiency
calculation )
Books & Other Resources
Text Books
1. Nag, P. K., “Engineering Thermodynamics,'' Tata McGraw-Hill Publisher Co. Ltd.
2. Chaudhari and Hajra, “Elements of Workshop Technology”, Volume I and II, Media
Promoters and Publishers, Mumbai
3. Agrawal,Basant and Agrawal, C. M., (2008), “Basics of Mechanical Engineering”, John
Wiley and Sons, USA
4. Rajput, R.K., (2007), “Basic Mechanical Engineering”, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd.
5. Pravin Kumar, (2018), “ Basic Mechanical Engineering, 2nd Ed.”, Pearson (India) Ltd.
6. Moran, M. J., Shapiro, H. N., Boettner, D. D., and Bailey, M. “Fundamentals of
Engineering Thermodynamics”, Wiley
7. Surinder Kumar, (2011), “Basic of Mechanical Engineering”, Ane Books Pvt. Ltd. New
Delhi
Reference Books
1. Khan, B. H., “Non Conventional Energy Sources, Tata McGraw-Hill Publisher Co. Ltd.
2. Boyle, Godfrey, “Renewable Energy”,2nd Ed., Oxford University Press
3. Khurmi, R.S. ,and Gupta, J. K.,“A Textbook of Thermal Engineering”, S. Chand & Sons
4. Incropera, F. P. and Dewitt, D.P., (2007), “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th
Ed., John Wiley and Sons, USA
5. Groover,Mikell P., (1996), “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials,
Processes, and Systems”, Prentice Hall, USA
6. Norton, Robert L., (2009), “Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery”, Tata McGrawHill
7. Cleghorn, W. L., (2005), “Mechanisms of Machines”, Oxford University Press
8. Juvinal, R. C., (1994), “Fundamentals of Machine Component Design”, John Wiley and
Sons, USA
9. Ganeshan, V., (2018), “Internal Combustion Engines”, McGraw Hill
10. Anderson, Curtis Darrel and Anderson,Judy, (2010), “Electric and Hybrid Cars: A
History”, 2nd Ed., McFarland
Guidelines for Instructor's Manual
The Instructor’s Manual should contain following related to every experiment:
 Brief theory related to the experiment.
 Apparatus with their detailed specifications.
  Schematic, Layout /diagram.
 Observation table/ simulation plots/graphs.
 Sample calculations for one/two reading.
 Result table.
 Graph and Conclusions.
 Few questions related to the experiment.
 Relevance of practical in real life /industry
Guidelines for Student's Lab Journal
The Student's Lab Journal should contain following related to every experiment:
 Theory related to the experiment.
 Apparatus with their detailed specifications.
 Schematic, Layout /diagram.
 Observation table/ simulation plots/graphs.
 Sample calculations for one/two reading.
 Result table.
 Graph and Conclusions.
 Few short questions related to the experiment.
Guidelines for Lab /TW Assessment
 There should be continuous assessment for the TW.
 Assessment must be based on understanding of theory, attentiveness during practical, and
understanding.
 Session, how efficiently the student is able to do connections and get the results.
 Timely submission of journal.
The student shall complete the following activity as a term work.
Sr.
Activity
No.
Group A: Industry / Workshop / Showroom Visit:
1.
The visit of students is mandatory, to provide awareness and understanding of the course.
2. Group B: Assignments:
The student shall complete the following assignments on:
i. Energy sources (Minimum one assignment on Conventional and one on Non-
conventional sources)
ii. Vehicle specifications and systems in passenger car
iii. Electric vehicle specifications and its systems
iv. Domestic appliances viz. refrigerator, air-conditioner, washing machine, cold
storage
3. Group C: Experiments:
The student shall complete the following (any four) experiments:
i. Demonstration of power train system in the vehicle
ii. Demonstration of vehicle systems (automobile chassis, steering system, suspension
system, braking system - Any Two)
iii. Demonstration of energy conversion devices
iv. Demonstration of additive manufacturing / rapid prototyping techniques
v. Demonstration of CNC
 UNIT I
Introduction of energy sources & its conversion
Syllabus:-
Energy sources: Thermal energy, Hydropower energy, Nuclear energy, Solar energy,
Geothermal energy, Wind energy, Hydrogen energy, Biomass energy and Tidal energy.
Grades of Energy. (Numerical on efficiency calculation of thermal power plant)
Energy conversion devices: Introduction of pump, compressor, turbines, wind mills etc.
(Simple numerical on power and efficiency calculations)

Introduction:-
The basic natural resources available for power generation are hydel, thermal &
nuclear. These resources cannot be created newly but these should be used most
economically so that they can be used for longer time.
The cost of energy is increasing day by day due to increase in demand for better life,
increase in population & depletion of the existing resources like coal and oil.
The purpose of this unit is to discuss different methods for developing power using
available sources most economically and to study energy conversion devices.
The major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad groups

1. Renewable / Non Conventional

2. Non renewable / Conventional

Renewable & Non Renewable Energy Sources

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 1

 Renewable energy resource is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun,
wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and again as and when required. They are
available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet.
Renewable technologies are suited to large-scale production small off grid
applications. Main forms of renewable energy are Wind energy, Hydro energy, solar energy,
Bio-fuel, geothermal energy, Tidal Energy.
A non renewable energy resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re
grown or used again & again at a scale comparable to its consumption. These energy sources
are coal, nuclear, fossil fuels etc.

Definition and unit of Energy and Power

Energy: The capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical,
chemical, nuclear, or other various forms.
Unit: The SI unit of energy is joules (J), which is named in honour of James Prescott Joule.
Power: Power can be defined as the rate at which work is done i.e. energy converted.
The formula for power is
P = W/t
Unit: The unit of power is watt (W).The watt unit is named after James Watt, the inventor of
the steam engine.
Units
 1 W= 1 J/s
 1055 Joule= 1 BTU
 1 HP = 745.7 Watts
 1 kW= 1000 W
 1 MW= 106 W
 1 Calorie = 4.184 J
Thermal Energy

Thermal energy is the internal energy of an object due to the kinetic energy of its
molecules. The atoms molecules of a hotter object have greater kinetic energy than those of a
colder one. A hot object has greater thermal energy than a cold object of the same type.
The energy that comes from the temperature of heated substance is called thermal
energy.
Thermal or steam power plant uses steam as a working fluid for power generation.
Generally thermal power plant consists of boiler, turbine, generator, and condenser.
Steam power plant:-
The block diagram of thermal power plant is given below,

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 2

 Fig. Thermal Power Plant
It consists of,
1. Boiler: - It is a closed vessel made up of steel whose main function is to convert
water into steam by using heat energy obtained from combustion of fuel. In India coal
is used as a fuel. The boiler gives dry superheated high pressurised steam at the
required temperature through super heater. The input water to the boiler is supplied by
boiler feed pump through economiser where water gets heated using hot flue gases
generated during combustion of fuel which helps to increase efficiency of plant.
2. Steam Turbine: - In steam turbine the high pressurised steam is expanded on blades
of turbine which drives the turbine shaft.
3. Generator: - The shaft of steam turbine is coupled to the shaft of generator & the
mechanical energy of steam turbine is converted into electrical energy.
4. Condenser: - The exhaust steam from the turbine is allowed to condense into water in
condenser. The condensate from the condenser is passed into water well through
condensate extraction pump.
5. Boiler feed pump: - The collected water is again fed back to the boiler with the help
of boiler feed pump through economiser.
Advantages:
1. Fuel used is cheaper
2. Respond quickly to changing load
3. Less space
4. Portion of steam can be used for various process industries
5. Cost of electric power generation and initial cost is less
Disadvantages:
1. Operation and maintenance cost is high
2. Time required for mounting plant is more
3. Large quantity of water is needed

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 3

 4. Coal and ash handling is difficult
5. Low efficiency
6. Pollution causes health problems to workers and habitant near power plant.

Hydropower energy
The energy obtained by potential energy of water is the hydropower energy.
Hydroelectric power plant

Fig. Hydroelectric Power Plant

It consists of,
1. Reservoir: - It is used to store large amount of water during rainy season & supply
water during other seasons. The water stored is not only used for power generation
but also for flood control, irrigation etc. The track rash is provided to filter the water
before it flows through penstock.
2. Dam: - It is a structure with high height built across the reservoir. It provides a higher
level & storage.
3. Penstock: - It is a pipe which carries water from reservoir to turbine. A nozzle is
provided which converts potential energy of water into kinetic energy as it falls
through the head of H. Supporting blocks are used to provide support to penstock.
4. Power house: - It consists of turbine & generator where the kinetic energy of water is
utilised to run water turbine (mechanical energy) and this is further converted into
electrical energy through generator.
5. Tail race: - It is a path to lead the water discharged from turbine to the river.
Advantages:
1. Operation cost is less compare to capital cost
2. Starting and stopping of plant takes place in very short time.
3. No ash disposal
4. Long life

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 4

 5. Require less skilled operator
6. Plant can be used for irrigation and flood control.

Disadvantages:
1. Depends on availability of water
2. Requires long transmission lines (power loss n cost increases)
3. Time required is more for mounting

Nuclear energy
During nuclear fission reaction tremendous amount of energy is generated. It is a
continues process so if it is controlled then it can be used for power generation.
Nuclear Chain Reaction:

Fig. Nuclear Chain Reaction

In nuclear chain reaction process, a heavyweight isotope generally uranium-235 is
used for a nuclear chain reaction. Because it produces comparatively higher amount of energy
and heat from the other fissionable materials. One of the most common nuclear chain reaction
process is:
235 1 139 94 1
92 U+ n= 0 Ba +
56 Kr + 3 n
36 0 + Energy
In the above reaction, it is shown that a heavy nucleus uranium-235 strikes one
neutron and it produce alternative three neutrons. These three neutrons again strike U-235
which produce nine neutrons and striking nine neutrons produce another twenty-seven
neutrons and so on. A single fission reaction generates a large amount of energy, so the
complete nuclear chain reaction process will generate many times greater energy. If this
reaction is not controlled, it will produce explosive violence.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 5

Nuclear power plant

Fig. Nuclear Power Plant

It consist of,
1. Nuclear reactor: - In this nuclear energy is produces by the nuclear fission of
unstable atoms like uranium. It is in the form of rods. The nuclear fission process id
continues so it is controlled by moderators & control rods. Moderators are of graphite
which reduces the production of neutrons & control rods of cadmium which absorbs
the neutrons. This energy is transferred to circulating coolant having high boiling
point.
2. Heat exchanger: - The heat exchanger acts as a boiler for this power plant. The heat
absorbed by the coolant in the reactor is transferred to the water & steam is generated.
3. Steam turbine:- In steam turbine the high pressurised steam is expanded on blades
of turbine which drives the turbine shaft.
4. Generator: - The shaft of steam turbine is coupled to the shaft of generator & the
mechanical energy of steam turbine is converted into electrical energy.
5. Condenser: - The exhaust steam from the turbine is allowed to condense into water in
condenser and it is fed back to heat exchanger with the help feed pump.
6. Coolant pump:- The coolant after transferring the heat in heat exchanger coolant is
again fed back to nuclear reactor with the help of coolant pump.

Advantages:
1. Large quantity of energy is released with small amount of fuel.
2. Problem of fuel transportation and its storage is not needed
3. No air pollution
4. Less space
5. High performance
Disadvantages:
1. High capital cost
2. Skilled man power
3. Radioactive waste disposal

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 6

 4. High degree of safety is required

Solar energy
The earth surface receives energy from Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiations.
It is about 1014 kW of solar energy which is 5 times greater than current used from all
sources.
Solar energy which falls on the earth is at considerably low density and hence it
cannot be used directly for power generation.
The energy has to be collected & converted so that it can be used to run turbine.
The device used to collect & concentrate the solar energy is called as Solar
Concentrating Collector. The collectors are flat plate collector & parabolic collector.
a. Flat Plate Collector (Temp range 60 to 80 degree)

1) A transparent cover – one or more sheets of glass or radiation transmitting plastic film or
sheet are used to avoid losses through radiation.
2) Heat transfer medium:- Tubes, fins, passages or channels- integral with or connected to
the absorber plate & conduct the working fluid through the collector.
3) The absorber plate- normally metallic or with a black surface
4) Insulation – provided at the back & sides to minimize heat losses
5) Housing - encloses the other components & protects them from the weather.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 7

 b. Parabolic collector (Temp range above 100 degree)

Parabolic collectors have a pipe positioned along the focal line of the collector. A
number of these collectors can be strung together to increase the energy output. The trough
surface is generally silver or aluminium for high reflectivity. The tube running along the focal
line is called a receiver and can be coated with anti-reflective coating to more efficiency
capture light rays sent towards it. The fluid might simply be water, but more commonly it is
oil because of oil’s greater thermal density. After the oil is heated by passing through a series
of troughs, it goes to a heat exchanger where the energy generates steam to drive turbines and
produce electricity.

Solar Power Plant:-

Fig. Solar Power Plant

It consists of,
1. Flat plate collector: - The sun rays coming from Sun fall on flat plate collector and
the water in it is heated up to 80 degree.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 8

 2. Heat exchanger: - The heat exchanger acts as a boiler for this power plant. The heat
absorbed by the water in the reactor is transferred to the Freon (Low B.P.) & produces
Freon steam.
3. Turbine:- In steam turbine the high pressurised Freon steam is expanded on blades
of turbine which drives the turbine shaft.
4. Generator: - The shaft of turbine is coupled to the shaft of generator & the
mechanical energy of turbine is converted into electrical energy.
5. Condenser: - The exhaust Freon steam from the turbine is allowed to condense into
liquid Freon in condenser and it is fed back to heat exchanger with the help feed
pump.
6. Water feed pump: - The after transferring the heat in heat exchanger water is again
fed back to nuclear reactor with the help of water pump.

Advantages:
1. Renewable Source
2. Less maintenance
3. Simple in design
4. Pollution free
5. High performance
Disadvantages:
1. High initial costs
2. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
3. Cloudy days do not produce much energy

Geothermal energy
It is known from many years that core of the earth is considerably hot (200 – 2500C).
It has also been found that the earth contains large reservoirs of steam. This naturally
available steam can be directly used in the steam power plant.

Binary cycle Geothermal power plant

Fig. Binary Cycle Geothermal Power Plant

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 9

 The ground storage contains large quantities of hot water at a considerably high
temperature. In this system hot water is indirectly used for generating steam at medium
pressure using thermal energy of hot water. The arrangement of the system is shown in
figure.
In this system the hot water from production well is circulated through heat exchanger
where heat gets exchanged between hot water & organic fluid having low boiling point
basically propane, Isobutene . The organic fluid converts into steam and this steam is
expanded on blades of turbine which rotates the generator shaft and produces electricity. The
steam at exit of turbine is passed to condenser where it is converted in to liquid and is
supplied to heat exchanger. The hot water at the exit of heat exchanger is pumped back in to
core of earth through injection well.
Advantages:
1. Reliable source
2. No harmful emissions
3. High Efficiency
4. Low maintenance
5. No external source required to keep plant running
6. Power stations are smaller
Disadvantages:
1. Possibility of depletion of geothermal sources
2. High Investment Cost, difficult in transportation
3. Source is close to volcanic activity, may stop working suddenly

Wind energy
Wind is air in motion. It is produced by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun.
Since the earth’s surface is made of various land and water formations, it absorbs the sun’s
radiation unevenly. Two factors are necessary to specify wind: speed and direction.
As the sun warms the Earth's surface, the atmosphere warms too. Some parts of the Earth
receive direct rays from the sun all year and are always warm. Other places receive indirect
rays, so the climate is colder. Warm air, which weighs less than cold air, rises. Then cool air
moves in and replaces the rising warm air. This movement of air is what makes the wind
blow.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 10

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Fig. Wind Turbine

It consists of,
Blades: The main part of wind turbine is blades. It lifts and rotates when wind is blown over
them, causing the rotor to spin. Most turbines have either two or three blades.
Gear box: Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational
speeds from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800 rpm; this is the
rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly
(and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators
that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Generator: Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction
generator.
Nacelle: It Sits a top of the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake.

Advantages:
1. Wind is available at no cost.
2. It does not cause any pollution.
3. Low maintenance
Disadvantages:
1. Low energy density
2. Initial cost of plant set up is high.
3. It is favourable in locations which are away from cities.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 11

Hydrogen energy

Fig. Hydrogen Cell

Advantages:
1. It is readily available
2. It doesn’t produce harmful emissions.
3. It can be used as fuel in rockets.
4. It is fuel efficient.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 12

 5. It is renewable.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to store.
2. It is highly flammable.

Biomass energy
Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and it is a renewable source
of energy. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is
released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly or converted to liquid biofuels or biogas that
can be burned as fuels.
Examples of biomass and their uses for energy
1. Wood and wood processing wastes—burned to heat buildings, to produce process
heat in industry, and to generate electricity
2. Agricultural crops and waste materials—burned as a fuel or converted to liquid
biofuels
3. Food, yard, and wood waste in garbage—burned to generate electricity in power
plants or converted to biogas in landfills
4. Animal manure and human sewage—converted to biogas, which can be burned as a
fuel

Fig. Baomass

Different Ways of Extracting Energy From Biomass

1.Combustion
The direct combustion of biomass in presence of oxygen to produce heat. This heat
energy is used for various applications like space heating or cooling, power generation,
process heating in industries etc. The moisture content in biomass produces low calorific
value of fuel.

2. Pyrolysis
It is the heating of biomass in a closed vessel at temperature range of 5000c to 9000c
in the absence of oxygen with steam. It produces solid, liquid & gases. This process includes

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 13

all type of organic materials with plastic & rubber. The gases produced by this process
include mixture of CO, CH4, N2, H2, CO2 & other hydrocarbons. The liquids produced are oil
like materials & solids produced are similar to pure carbon charcoal.

3.Anaerobic-Digestion
Biogas is produced when wet sewage sludge, animal dung or green plants are allowed to
decompose in a sealed tank under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions.

4.Fermentation
If the biomass used is (or can be converted into) mostly sugar, then yeast can be added. The
fermentation that follows produces alcohol which is a very high energy fuel that makes it
very practicle for use in cars. This has been tried successfully in Brazil.

Applications of biomass Energy

Biomass systems range from small stoves used in homes for heating or cooking to large
power plants used by centralized utilities to produce electricity.

In residential applications, biomass can be used for space heating or for cooking. Wood is the
most common source of fuel, although many different materials are used. New designs for
woodstoves can improve the efficiency of the cooking or heating system, decreasing the
amount of fuel that is needed.

Industry and businesses use biomass for several purposes including space heating, hot water
heating, and electricity generation. Many industrial facilities, such as lumber mills, naturally
produce organic waste.

Photovoltaic cell
In this cell, the light energy coming from sun is directly converted into electrical energy. This
conversion is due to quantum interaction between radiated photons & electronic structure of
cell material. The photons have a quantum of energy & when it is lost falling on the cell, it
comes out in the other form of energy that is electrical energy.

Fig. Photovoltaic Cell

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 14

Fig shows the schematic arrangement of this generator using p-n semiconductors. For the
operation of the cell, it is essential that the solar rays strike the junction. To achieve this, a
thin slice of n – type semiconductor is cut and coated with a very thin layer of p – type which
is extremely thin (in microns). This is essential for the sun rays to penetrate & reach the
junction. Whenever, the sunlight strikes the junction , it generates an excess free electrons &
e.m.f.

The efficiency of this system lies between 8 to 15 % with the use of best material.

For appreciable power output, a large number of individual cells are connected electrically to
produce desired power.

Advantages:-

1. It coverts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going through thermal
mechanical link, it has no moving parts.
2. Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable & generally maintenance free.

3. These systems are quiet, compatible with almost all environments, expected life span
of 20 years or more.
4. It can be located at the place of use and hence no distribution network is required.

Disadvantages:

1. For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,

Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus
increasing the investment cost for PV panels considerably.

2. Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared to the
efficiency levels of other renewable energy systems.
3. The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable sources of energy.

Tidal energy
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of
the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth.

Tidal power or tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal
energy has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than the
wind and the sun.

Types of tide:- High tide & Low tide

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 15

Tidal Power Plant:-

During high tide the water level in sea is higher than basin water level so water flows from
sea to tidal basin through reversible water turbine & turbine rotates. The shaft of turbine &
shaft of generator are coupled with each other produces electricity.

During low tide the basin water level is higher than sea water level so water flows from basin
to sea through reversible turbine & turbine rotates. The shaft of turbine & shaft of generator
are coupled with each other produces electricity.

Advantages:-

4. Running costs are very low.

5. No waste or pollution is produced. T
6. The technology is very reliable.
7. No fuel is required.

Disadvantages:

1. There are only a few suitable places for tidal energy projects.
2. Tidal stream technology is at a very early stage of development.
3. Very expensive to build.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 16

 4. Only generate electricity twice a day.
5. Affect wildlife habitats and farming areas.
6. Very limited choice of suitable sites.

Grades of Energy: High and low grade energy

High-Grade Energy
Electrical and chemical energy are high-grade energy, because the energy is concentrated in a
small space. Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of
work. The molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered and
compact and thus considered as high grade energy. High-grade energy like electricity is better
used for high grade applications like melting of metals rather than simply heating of water.

Low-Grade Energy
Heat is low-grade energy. Heat can still be used to do work (example of a heater boiling
water), but it rapidly dissipates. The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and
water molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a coal. This
disordered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified as low-grade
energy.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 17

Energy conversion devices:
Pumps
The function of pump is to lift a quantity of liquid from a low level to high level or to
transfer it from one place to another place.
Pump is defined as a device which converts mechanical energy of a motor into kinetic
energy of fluid.
In short pump is a device which converts the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy.
Classification

Centrifugal Pump

Fig. Centrifugal Pump

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 18

Impeller
It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved blades or
vanes. It is mounted on a shaft which is usually coupled to motor. The motor provides the
required input energy to rotate the impeller.
Casing
The impeller is enclosed in watertight casing with delivery pipe on one side and
suction pipe on suction side which are connect by eye of empeller.
It is designed in such a way that it helps in converting the K.E. of liquid into pressure
energy.
Suction pipe
The pipe which connect sump to eye of impeller is called suction pipe. The sump
carries liquid to be lifted by the pump. The suction pipe at its inlet is provided with strainer &
foot valve. The function of strainer is to prevent the entry of any waste material like sand,
leaves from water into suction pipe. The foot valve is non return valve which allows the flow
of water only in upward direction.
Delivery pipe
The pipe which connects the outlet of pump to delivery point is called delivery pipe.
A delivery valve is provided to regulate the supply of liquid from pump to delivery pipe.

Working:-
Priming is the most basic and first step in the working of centrifugal pump. The process of
filling the casing, suction pipe and delivery pipe up to the delivery valve before starting the
pump is known as priming. In order to remove the air gap present in pump, it is filled by
liquid.
1. First priming is done before starting the pump. Delivery valve is still kept closed.
2. Now the motor starts. The rotation of impeller in the casing full of liquid accelerates
liquid and there is generation of powerful centrifugal force which results in
enhancement in liquid pressure.
3. This increase in pressure is directly proportional to the square of angular velocity and
distance of point from the axis.
4. Therefore, if the impeller rotates with faster speed, there is greater amount of
production of required pressure energy.
5. Now the delivery valve open and allow liquid to flow at desired location.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 19

Advantages:
1. Centrifugal pumps don’t have any leakage issue.
2. They are able to pump hazardous as well as sensitive fluids.
3. There is also no problem of heat transfer as the space between the motor and chamber
is sufficiently large.
4. There is no loss of power due to friction and they are very simple in structure and
easy in handling.

Disadvantages:
1. Magnetic resonance in centrifugal pump results in small loss of energy.
2. The risk of the clogging of pipe may arise due to particle attractive nature of magnetic
drive.
3. Vibrations due to surrounding atmosphere can damage these pumps.
4. The risk of cavitations is always there.

Applications:
5. These pumps are used in buildings for pumping the regular water.
6. They are used in the fire protection related services.
7. Centrifugal pumps are used to transfer lactose and other drugs in pharmaceutical
industry.
8. They are also used in coolant recirculation, refrigerants.
9. These pumps are used in sprinkling, irrigation, drainage.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 20

 Compressor
It is a device that compresses the atmospheric air (any gas) to a higher pressure at the
expense of external work supplied either by a prime mover.
Compressed air is supplied and stored in a closed vessel, from which it is further
supplied to point of application.

Classification

Reciprocating Compressor
The fig shows the cross section of single acting reciprocating air compressor.
It consists of piston which reciprocates in a cylinder. The piston is driven through connecting
rod and crank. The crankshaft is driven by an electric motor.
The suction valve and delivery valve are mounted on the cylinder head. The valves
are automatically opened and closed depending upon pressure difference across the valve.

Fig. Reciprocating Compressor

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 21

Working
Suction stroke:-
When piston is moving downwards, the delivery valve is closed. When the pressure
inside the cylinder falls below the atmosphere pressure and suction valve opens. The
atmospheric air is sucked inside the cylinder up to the end of suction stroke.

Compression & delivery stroke:-

When the piston is moving upward, the air sucked inside the cylinder during suction
stroke is compressed gradually. When the pressure become higher than atmospheric pressure
, the inlet valve closes.
With the further movement of piston upward, air pressure increases. When the
pressure reaches above the pressure on delivery side, the delivery valve opens. The
compressed air is discharged to the receiver.

Advantages:
1. It is used to produce high pressure gas.
2. High efficiency and flexibility

Disadvantages:
1. The size of compressor is very large for given capacity.
2. High vibrations and noise.
3. Part of work input is lost due to frictional resistance between piston & cylinder.
4. The risk of cavitations is always there.

Applications:-
1. It is used to produce high pressure gas output.
2. It is used in refrigeration cycle.
3. It is used in oil refineries, gas pipelines, natural gas processing units, chemical plants
etc.
4. It is also used in blowing of the plastic bottles.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 22

Hydraulic Turbines
It is a machine which converts pressure & kinetic energy of water into mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy is further converted into electrical energy through generator.

Pelton Wheel

Fig. Pelton wheel turbine

1. The water stored at high head is made to flow through the penstock and reaches the
nozzle of the Pelton turbine.
2. The nozzle increases the K.E. of the water and directs the water in the form of jet.
3. The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. This made
the runner to rotate at very high speed.
4. The quantity of water striking the vanes or buckets is controlled by the spear present
inside the nozzle.
5. The generator is attached to the shaft of the runner which converts the mechanical
energy ( i.e. rotational energy) of the runner into electrical energy.

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 23

Numerical on Efficiency calculation of Thermal Power Plant

1. A Steam Power Plant has Coal Consumption of 165 Tons Per Hour. Calorific Value of
Coal is 3500 kcal/kg. If the power generation is 250 MW, find overall efficiency of the
plant. Use relation 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ.

2. A small generating plant of 100 KW capacity uses gas of a calorific value of 4000
3
KJ/m .The volume of gas required per hour when the plant is running at full load
3
condition is 450 m / hr. Find: (a) Input Power and (b) Overall Efficiency of the plant.

3. A Steam Power Plant has Coal Consumption of 16200 Kg/hr with Calorific Value of Coal
as 17793.9 kJ/kg. If the speed of steam turbine is 1000 rpm and generated torque is
477464.8293 Nm. Find: (a) Input Power, (b) Output Power and (c) Efficiency.

4. A Steam Power Plant has Coal Consumption of 16300 Kg/hr with Calorific Value of Coal
as 17793.9 kJ/kg. If the speed of steam turbine is 1100 rpm, radial distance is 1.5m and
generated force is 318309.8862 N. Find: (a) Generated Torque, (b) Input Power , (c)
Output Power and (d) Efficiency.

5. For a thermal power plant efficiency is 38 %. The workdone by turbine is 1 Kj/kg and
amount of heat supplied by the boiler is 2.2 Kj/kg. Find work consumed by the pump .

6. In a steam power plant the heat supplied by boiler is 2900 J/kg. For this amount of heat
supplied, the turbine work is 900 J/kg and pump work is 100 J/kg. Find effiieny of the
plant. If it is required to increase efficiency by 3 % for the same amount of heat supplied
and turbine work then what will be the pump work?

7. The coal consumption in a steam power plant is 100 tonnes per day having calorific value
of 21000KJ/kg. Average power output per day from the plant is 5800 KW. Find overall
efficiency of plant.

8. Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade length is 50 Air
3
density ρ = 1.23 kg/m .

PCCOER, Ravet Systems in Mechanical Engineering 24

 UNIT II
Introduction to Thermal Engineering
Syllabus:-Laws of thermodynamics, heat engine, heat pump, refrigerator (simple
numerical) Modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation, Fourier’s
law, Newton’s law of cooling, Stefan Boltzmann’s law. (Simple numerical), Two stroke
and four stroke engines (Petrol, Diesel and CNG engines). Steam generators.

Introduction:-
Thermal Engineering is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical
engineering that deals with the movement of heat energy and transfer. The energy can be
transformed between two mediums or transferred into other forms of energy.
System, Surroundings & Boundaries

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundaries of a system can be fixed or movable. Mathematically, the boundary has
zero thickness, no mass, and no volume.

Types of systems
Two types of systems can be distinguished. These are referred to, respectively, as
closed systems and open systems or control volumes. A closed system or a control mass
refers to a fixed quantity of matter, whereas a control volume is a region in space through
which mass may flow. A special type of closed system that does not interact with its
surroundings is called an isolated system.

1
 Two types of exchange can occur between the system and its surroundings:
1. Energy exchange (heat or work) and
2. Exchange of matter (movement of molecules across the boundary of the system
and surroundings).

Based on the types of exchange, one can define

Isolated systems: No mass transfer and no energy transfer across the system boundary.
Example: - Thermo flask

Closed systems: No mass transfer, but energy may transfer across the system boundary.
Example: - Piston Cylinder Assembly

Fig. Piston Cylinder Assembly

Open systems: Both mass and energy allowed to transfer across the system boundary.
Example: - Turbine

Fig. Turbine

2
Laws of thermodynamics
1. Zeroth Law:-
‘If two bodies A & B are individually in thermal equilibrium with third body C,
then the two bodies A & B will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.’
Example:-

:
Fig. Thermometer
2. First law of thermodynamics (Law of conservation of energy)
‘Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can only be transferred from
one form to another, the total amount of energy in the universe is constant.’

When closed system executes a cyclic process the algebraic sum of work
transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers. i.e. (∑W) cycle =
(∑Q) cycle.
Heat and work are mutually convertible, since the energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, therefore, the total energy conversion associated with an energy
conversion remains constant during cycle.

3. Second Law of thermodynamics

Based on limitations of first law of thermodynamics there are two statements of
second law of thermodynamics,
a. Kelvin – Planck statement
It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in cyclic process whose sole
effect is to convert total amount of heat provided into an equivalent amount of work.
Which means no thermodynamic system can operate with 100% efficiency.

3
Heat Engine:-
A device which can produce the work continuously (i.e. which operates on cyclic
processes) at the expense of heat input is called heat engine.

Fig. Heat Engine

Consider an engine which receives heat Q1 from high heat reservoir at T1, rejects
heat Q2 to low temperature T2 heat reservoir and does the work.

Thermal Efficiency of Heat Engine

Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work output to the energy input. It is a
measure of performance of the heat engine.

Thermal efficiency,
𝑇
ƞ = 1 − 𝑇2
1

4
 b. Clausius Statement:
It is impossible to construct a device operating in cyclic process whose sole effect
is to transfer heat from low temperature reservoir to a higher temperature heat reservoir.
This means, heat cannot naturally flow from lower to higher temperature unless
external work is applied to the system.
E.g. refrigerator, heat pump

Fig. Heat Pump & Refrigerator

Heat pump:-
Heat Pump is reversed heat engine

It’s a device operating on cycle which removes heat from a body at low
temperature and rejects it to a body at high temperature on the expense of external work
supplied.
If objective of system is to deliver heat energy at high temperature T1 (e.g. heating
in winter), then the temperature T2 corresponds to ambient temperature.

Refrigerator
Refrigerator is a reversed heat engine
It is a device operating on a cycle which removes the heat from a body at low
temperature ‘T2’ (heat source) and rejects it to a body at high temperature ‘T1’ (heat sink)
on the expense of external work supplied.

5
 If the objective of the system is to produce cooling effect at low temperature, then
the heat rejection temperature T1 corresponds to ambient temperature. Such a device is
called refrigerator.

Coefficient of Performance (C.O.P.)

The efficiency of refrigerator & heat pump is expressed in terms of
Coefficient of Performance (C.O.P.)

Difference between Refrigerator and Heat Pump

6
Heat Reservoir or Thermal Energy Reservoir
It is defined as the source of infinite heat energy and a finite amount of heat
absorbed or heat rejected from the heat reservoir will not affect its temperature. The
temperature of heat reservoir remains constant.
Examples of heat reservoir:
1. Large bodies of water such as ocean, lakes or rivers
2. Atmosphere
A heat reservoir which supplies heat to a system is called the source.
A heat reservoir which absorbs heat from the system is called sink.

4. Third Law of thermodynamics

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at a
temperature of zero Kelvin (absolute zero) is equal to zero. Entropy, denoted by 'S', is a
measure of the disorder/randomness in a closed system.

Problems:-
1. A refrigeration system is used to maintain a cold storage at 40 0C. The heat leakage
from the surrounding into the cold storage is estimated to be 1800 kJ/min. If
COP is 1.5, find the amount of heat rejected to the surrounding and power required
for driving the system. Draw the sketch of system.

2. A heat pump is used to maintain the house at 25 0C. The house is losing the heat at
the rate of 60000 kJ/hr to the surrounding. While the heat generated in the house by
various appliances is 4000 kJ/hr. If COP of heat pump is 1.7, find the power
required to drive the heat pump.

3. An engine develops 80 kw of work output when heat is supplied at the rate of 240
kw. Find the efficiency of the engine & heat rejected to atmosphere. Draw the
sketch of the system.

4. A heat engine operates between source & sink temperatures of 235 0C & 30 0C
respectively. If heat engine receives 35 kw from the source, find the net work done
by the engine, the heat rejected to the sink by the engine and the efficiency of the
engine. Draw the sketch of system.

5. A refrigerator with COP of 1.6 absorbs heat from food compartment at the rate of
360 kJ/min. Draw the sketch of the system & find power consumed by the
refrigerator and the amount of heat rejected to the surrounding.

7
6. A household refrigerator with a COP of 1.8 removes heat from the refrigerated
space at the rate of 90 kJ/min. Determine electrical power consumed by the
refrigerator and the rate of heat transfer to kitchen air.

7. A heat pump is used to maintain the house at 24 0C. The house is losing the heat at
the rate of 1800 kJ/min to the surrounding. The heat pump is driven by an electric
motor of power rating 12 kw. Find the amount of heat absorbed from surrounding
and COP of the heat pump. Draw the sketch of the system.

8. A heat pump used for winter air conditioning to heat a room draws heat from the
surroundings at the rate 60 kw. The heat pump is driven with the help of a motor
which supplies 8 kw of power to heat pump. Find the COP of the pump. If the same
unit is used for summer air conditioning to cool the room requiring 60 kw of heat
removal from the room with same power input, find the COP of the machine.

9. A reversible heat engine operates with efficiency of 30%. Find the heat supplied
and power output if heat rejected from the engine is 70kw. Estimate COP of the
pump if the engine is reversed to work as heat pump. Draw the sketch of the heat
engine & heat pump.

8
HEAT TRANSFER
Introduction:-
The term heat is used for the energy which becomes mobile as a result of
temperature difference between two locations. Naturally, heat always flows from high
temperature region to a low temperature region.
The subject Heat Transfer deals with the study of different modes of flow of energy
& estimation of rate of such energy in transit.
There are three modes of heat transfer. Heat transfer or transmission of heat from
one place to another takes place by three different ways that are:
1. Conduction
2. Convection and
3. Radiation

Fig. Modes of Heat Transfer

In solids, heat passes from one point to another through conduction. In Liquids and
gases, heat transfer takes place by convection. Heat transfer takes place by the process of
radiation when there are no particles of any kind which can move and transfer heat. So, in
an empty space or vacuum heat is transferred by radiation.

1. Conduction
Definition: - It is the mode of heat transfer in which the flow of energy through a
substance takes place without any actual movement of an individual molecule.

This mode is accomplished by two different mechanisms:-

1. Lattice Vibrations: - The molecules of every substance continuously vibrate in
random orientation about some mean position. These vibrations are known as

9
 lattice vibrations. While vibrating, the neighbouring molecules collide with each
other. At the time of physical contact, exchange of energy takes place amongst
them. This process occurs repeatedly and results in the flow of energy through the
substance. The rate of heat flow due to lattice vibrations depends upon number of
collisions taking place per unit time.
2. Flow of free electrons:-
The valance electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom, gets excited on availability
of energy. They overcome the binding force & become free to move anywhere
within the boundaries of the substance. These electrons known as free electrons.
While moving from one location to another, these electrons carry certain amount of
energy along with them. Thus they contribute to conduction.
Examples:-
1. In boiler, the heat flow from the flue gases to water, takes place across the tubes by
conduction,
2. In IC engines the heat flow from the combustion gases to atmospheric air, takes
place across the cylinder walls by conduction,
3. When steam flows through pipeline then the energy loss from the steam to the
atmospheric air across the pipe wall, by conduction.

2. Convection
Definition: - It is the mode of heat transfer in which the flow of energy through a
substance takes place with actual movement of an individual molecule.
Process of heat transfer between a surface and its surrounding fluid is known as
convection.
Types:-
1. Forced Convection: - In this type, the molecules of fluids are forced to move over
the surface with the help of some external source. In this higher rate of heat transfer
is obtained.
Example:-
Induced drought & forced drought fans are used to obtain the flow of flue gases in
the boiler.

10
 2. Natural Convection:- In this type, the motion of fluid molecules takes place not
because of external forces but due to gravitational force & buoyancy force.
Example:- Cooling of tea put in a plate.

3. Radiation
Definition: - It is the mode of heat transfer in which the heat is transferred in the
form of electromagnetic waves.
Example: - Energy obtained from sun.
Radiation does not require the presence of any material medium as in case of heat
transfer by conduction or convection.

Important definitions:-

1. Heat: - It is the form of energy in transit for which the driving force is the
temperature difference.
2. Heat transfer rate: - The amount of heat energy transferred over a given period of
time is called heat transfer rate.
Its unit is J/s or Watts
3. Heat flux: - The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to direction of heat flow
is called heat flux.
Its unit is W/m2

Laws of heat transfer

The laws are giving basic kind of relationship amongst the associate parameters
and the rate of heat transfer & they are
a. Fourier’s law of heat conduction
It states that the rate of flow of heat flux due to conduction in any direction is
directly proportional to the temperature gradient present in that direction.

So, for the heat flow in X direction,

qx dT
∝
A dx
Introducing the constant of proportionality,
𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇
= −𝐾
𝐴 𝑑𝑥

11
Where,
‘𝑞𝑥 ’ is the heat flow rate by conduction (W)
‘k’ is the thermal conductivity of body material (W/mK)
‘A’ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2) and
‘dT/dx’ is the temperature gradient (K/m).

The negative sign shows that heat always flows in the direction of decreasing
temperature; hence the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow is negative.
Thermal conductivity
It is the property of material which indicates the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
𝑞𝑥
𝐴
𝐾=
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥

Definition: - It is defined as the rate of flow of heat flux obtained because of unit
temperature gradient.
Values of thermal conductivity (K)

Thermal conductivity
Material
(W/m K)*
Diamond 1000
Silver 406.0
Copper 385.0
Gold 314
Brass 109.0
Aluminum 205.0
Iron 79.5
Steel 50.2

b. Newton’s law of cooling (Law of convection)

It states that the rate of flow of heat due to convection is directly proportional to the
surface area normal to heat flow direction & the difference between the surface
temperature (Ts) & surrounding fluid temperature (Tf).
q ∝ A (TS − Tf )
Introducing the constant of proportionality,

12
 𝑞 = h A (TS − Tf )
Where,
‘h’ is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

c. Stefan Boltzman law of radiation

It states that the rate of flow of heat due to radiation is directly proportional fourth
power of its absolute temperature.
The rate of radiation from one surface to other is estimates as,
𝑞 ∝ A ∈ (T1 4 − T2 4 )
𝑞 = 𝜎 A ∈ (T1 4 − T2 4 )
Where
𝜎 is Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2 k4
A is the surface area,
∈ is the emissivity of surface (For black body it is one)
T1 & T2 = Absolute temperatures of surfaces

Thermal Resistance:-
a. For conduction,
𝑥
Conductive thermal resistance Rth conduction =
𝐾𝐴
b. For convection,
1
Convective thermal resistance Rth convection =
ℎ𝐴
c. For radiation,
(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
Radiation thermal resistance Rth radiation =
𝑞

13
Heat Exchangers
These are the devices in which the exchange of energy takes place between two
fluids at different temperatures.
Types:-
Parallel flow heat exchangers:
In parallel flow heat exchangers, both the tube side fluid and the shell side fluid
flow in same direction. In this case, the two fluids enter the heat exchanger from the same
end with a large temperature difference.
Counter flow heat exchangers:
In counter flow heat exchangers, the two fluids flow in opposite directions. Each of
the fluids enters the heat exchanger from opposite ends. Because the cooler fluid exists the
counter flow heat exchanger at the end where the hot fluid enters the heat exchanger, the
cooler fluid will approach the inlet temperature of the hot fluid.

Cross flow heat exchangers:

In cross flow heat exchangers, one fluid flows through tubes and second fluid
passes around the tubes perpendicularly.

Fig. Parallel & counter flow heat exchangers

14
 Fig. Cross flow heat exchanger
Problems:-
1. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area through a copper plate 0.045 m thick
whose one face is maintained at 350 0C and the other face at 50 0C. Thermal
conductivity of copper is 370 W/mC.

2. The wall of a oven is 40 cm thick having its thermal conductivity of 0.7 w/mk. The
interior surface of the oven is maintained at a temperature of 800 degree Celsius
and the outside wall temperature is 200 degree Celsius. The total surface area of the
Wall of the oven is 1 m2. Find the thermal resistance heat flow rate and heat flux.
3. An immersion water heater of surface area 0.1 m2 and rating 1 kw is designed to
operate fully submerged in water. Estimate the surface temperature of heater when
the water is at 40 degree Celsius and hwater = 300 w/m2k. If this heater is by
mistake used in air at 40 degree Celsius & hair = 9 w/m2k, what will be the surface
temperature?
4. The wall thickness of the oven is 8.25 and thermal conductivity of wall insulation is
0.04 w/mk . The temperature of inner surface of the wall is 175 degree Celsius.
The energy dissipated by the electric coil with the oven is 40.5W. Determine the
area of wall surface perpendicular heat flow so that temperature on the other side of
the will not exceed 75 degree Celsius.
5. A pipe of 2 cm diameter at 40 degree celsius is placed in
a) an air flow at 50 degree Celsius with h = 20 w/m2k
b) water at 30 degree Celsius with h = 80 w/m2k
Find the heat transfer per unit length of the pipe and comment on the results in the
both cases.
6. A black body at 1100 degree Celsius at surrounding at 200 degree Celsius find the
heat loss per unit area by radiation.
7. A body having 3 m2 of surface area is maintained at 600k. It exchanges heat by
radiation with another surface enclosing it at 300 Kelvin. Its emissivity is 0.65.
Find the rate of heat loss by radiation, radiation thermal resistance and the value of
equivalent Convection coefficient.

15
STEAM GENERATORS (BOILER)
Definition: - Boiler is a closed vessel made up of steel whose function is to convert water
into steam by using heat energy obtained from combustion of fuel.
Working Principle of a Boiler:-

Fig. Working Principle

The boiler works on the same principle as the water is heated in a closed vessel and due to
heating, the water changes into steam. This steam possesses high pressure kinetic energy
The boiler contains water. The water is heated to its boiling temperature by the use of heat
from the furnace. Due to heating of water, it gets converted into high pressure steam. The
steam generated is passed through the steam turbines. As the high pressure steam strikes
the turbine, it rotates the turbine. A generator is attached to the turbine and the generator
also starts to rotate with the turbine and produces electricity.

Classification:-
There are following Boilers Types,
1. According to the position of water and hot gasses

a. Water Tube Boiler: - If the water passes through the tubes and hot gases
surrounding the tubes is called water tube boiler.
Example: - Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

16
 b. Fire Tube Boiler:- If the hot gases of combustion from the furnace pass through
the tubes and water is surrounding the tubes is called fire tube boilers.
Example: - Cochran, Lancashire, Locomotive.
2. According to Axis of Shell
a. Horizontal Boiler: - If the axis of boiler is horizontal then it is called horizontal
boiler.
Example: - Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler.
b. Vertical Boiler: - If the axis of boiler is vertical then it is called vertical boiler.
Example: - Cochran boiler.
c. Inclined Boiler: - If the axis of boiler is inclined then it is called inclined boiler.
3. According to the position of the boiler
a. External Fired Boiler:- In this boiler the furnace is placed outside the boiler
shell.
Example:- Generally water tube boilers are externally fired.
a. Internally Fired Boiler:- In this boiler the furnace is placed inside the boiler
shell.
Example:- Generally fire tube boilers are internally fired.

4. According to the pressure

a. Low-Pressure Boiler: - The range of working pressure is between 3.5 to 10 bar.
Example: - Cochran and Cornish boiler.

b. Medium - Pressure Boiler: - The range of working pressure of this boiler is

between 10 bar to 25 bar.
Example: - Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler.

c. High-Pressure Boiler:- The working pressure of this boiler is higher than 25 bar.
Example:- Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

5. According to the method of circulation

a. Natural Circulation Boiler:- In this boiler, water flow take place naturally, by
density difference of water. The flow of water and steam are set up due to
density difference resulting from difference in temperature.
Example:- Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
b. Forced Circulation Boiler:- In this boiler, water flow takes place by a pump.
Example:- Benson boiler, La- mont boiler, Velox boiler.

17
6. According to use of boilers
a. Mobile Boiler: - It is portable boiler and can be easily moved. This is used in
marine and locomotive.
Example: - Locomotive boiler.
b. Stationary Boiler: - This boiler cannot be moved easily from one place to
another place. These are used in power generation or process heating in
industries.
Example:- Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

7. According to numbers of tubes in the boiler

a. Single tube boiler:- This boiler having only one fire or water tube for circulation
of hot gases or water.
Example:- Cornish boiler.
b. Multi-tubular boiler:- This boiler having two or more fire or water tubes for the
circulation of hot gases or water.
Example:- Locomotive, Cochran, Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

8. According to the nature of drought

a. Forced drought Boiler:- The forces draught is produced by artificial mean such
as: Steam Jet, Mechanical.
a. Natural drought Boiler: - The natural draught is produced by chimney.

9. According to fuel firing

a. Solid fuel-fired Boiler:- Solid fuels are used for combustion.

b. Liquid fuel-fired Boiler:- Liquid fuels are used for combustion
c. Gaseous fuel-fired Boiler:- Gaseous fuels are used for combustion

18
Water Tube Boiler:-

Fig. Water Tube Boiler

In a water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters the
boiler drum. The circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and converted into
steam at the vapour space in the drum. These boilers are selected when the steam demand
as well as steam pressure requirements are high.
Most modern water tube boiler designs are within the capacity range 4,500 –
120,000 kg/hour of steam, at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers are of
packaged construction if oil and /or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube
designs are available but packaged designs are less common.
Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible.

Example: - Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

19
Fire Tube Boiler:-

Fig. Fire Tube Boiler

Fire tube boilers operate by sending combustion/flue gas through a series of straight tubes
surrounded by hot water stored in the same vessel. Often identified by the number of
passes used (such as a 3-pass or 4-pass fire tube boiler), this refers to the number of times
combustion gas flows the length of the pressure vessel as it transfers heat to the water.
Fire tube boilers cost typically less up front than water tube boilers, and offer lower
operating costs when compared to a similarly sized water tube boiler. They are also easier
to maintain due to better fireside access and their efficient straight tube design.

Examples: - Cochran, Lancashire, Locomotive.

20
Difference between Fire Tube & Water Tube Boiler

21
INTRODUCTION TO IC ENGINES

Heat engines are also called as Thermal Engines. It is a machine which converts heat
energy in to useful mechanical work. Heat engines develop more than 80% the energy
generated in the world. Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories

(i) External combustion engine: An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place
outside the engine cylinder is called external combustion engine. These engines
are generally called EC engines. Ex: Steam engines, steam turbines, closed
cycle gas turbine etc.
(ii) Internal combustion engine: An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place
inside the engine cylinder is called internal combustion engine. These engines
are generally called IC engines. Ex: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas engine etc.
An Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine) is a type of combustion engine that
converts chemical energy into thermal energy, to produce useful mechanical work.
In an IC engine, combustion chamber is an integral part of the working fluid circuit.

Principle of operation:
Air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber (inside the cylinder) is ignited, either
by a spark plug (in case of Spark Ignition Engines) or by compression (in case of
Compression Ignition engines). This ignition produces tremendous amount of heat and
pressure inside the cylinder. This induces reciprocating motion in the piston.
Power of the piston is transmitted to a crankshaft which undergoes rotary motion.
The rotary motion is ultimately transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle, via a transmission
system, to produce propulsion in the vehicle.
As the combustion takes place internally inside the cylinder (a part of working fluid
circuit), the engine is called internal combustion engine.
Internal combustion heat engines work on the principle of the ideal gas
law: pV=nRT. Raising the temperature of a gas increases the pressure that makes
the gas want to expand.

Types of Internal Combustion Engines:

Internal combustion engines can be classified into a large number of types based on
several criteria. The classification of IC engines is given below:
1. According to the type of fuel used
a. Petrol engines: In this type of engines, the fuel used is petrol.
b. Diesel engines: In this type of engines, the fuel used is diesel.
c. Gas engines: In this type of engines, the gaseous fuels like natural gas, biogas,
are used.
d. Bi-fuel engines: These engines use a mixture of two fuels.

22
2. According to the number of strokes per cycle
a. 4-stroke engine: In this type of engines, the working cycle is completed in four
different strokes.
b. 2-stroke engine: In this type of engines, the working cycle is completed in two
different strokes.

3. According to the method of ignition

a. Spark ignition engine (S.I. Engine): In this type of engines, fuel is ignited by an
electric spark generated by a spark plug.
b. Compression ignition engine (C.I. Engine): In this type of engines, the fuel gets
ignited as it comes in contact with the hot compressed air.

4. According to the cycle of combustion

a. Otto cycle engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel takes place at
constant volume
b. Diesel cycle engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel takes place at
constant pressure
c. Duel combustion engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel first takes
place at constant volume and then at constant pressure.

5. According to the number of cylinders

a. Single cylinder engine: This type of engines consists of only one cylinder.
b. Multi cylinder engine: This type of engines consists of 2, 3, 4, 6 or 8 cylinders

6. According to the arrangement of cylinders

a. Vertical engine: In this type of engines, the cylinder is arranged in a vertical
position
b. Horizontal engine: In this type of engines, cylinder is arranged in horizontal
position.
c. Inline engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged in line
d. Radial engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged along the
circumference of a circle.
e. V-engine: In this type of engines, combination of two inline engines equally set an
angle.

7. According to the method of cooling

a. Air cooled engine: In this type of engines, the heated cylinder walls are cooled by
continuous flow of air
b. Water cooled engine: In this type of engines, water is used for cooling the heated
cylinder walls.

23
 8. Based on the arrangement of valves
a) L-head Engine
b) I-head Engine
c) T-head Engine
d) F-head Engine

9. Based on application

a) Aircraft Engine
b) Locomotive Engine
c) Marine Engine
d) Stationary Engine
e) Automobile Engine

Parts of Engine

Fig. Engine Components

24
Important Definitions

Fig. Terminology in IC engine

1. Top Dead Centre:- When the piston is at top most position , the crank position is
called TDC.

2. Bottom Dead Centre: - When the piston is at bottom most position , the crank
position is called TDC.

3. Cylinder Bore: - The inner cylinder diameter of the engine is called bore.

4. Stroke: - The travel of piston from TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC is called stroke
of piston.

5. Clearance Volume: - The volume contained in the cylinder above the piston from
its top dead centre is called clearance volume.

6. Stroke Volume: - Volume covered by piston when it travels from TDC to BDC or
BDC to TDC is called stroke volume.

7. Clearance ratio: - The ratio of clearance volume to stroke volume is called

clearance volume.

8. Compression ratio: - The ratio of cylinder volume when piston reaches to BDC to
clearance volume is called compression ratio.

25
Four Stroke Petrol Engine

Fig. Four Stroke Petrol Engine

The four stroke-cycles refer to its use in petrol engines in which the mixture of air fuel is
drawn in the engine cylinder. Since ignition in these engines is due to a spark, therefore
they are also called spark ignition engines.

1. SUCTION STROKE: In this Stroke the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel-
air mixture is sucked in the engine cylinder. Thus the piston moves from top dead
centre (T.D.C.) to bottom dead centre (B.D.C.). The exhaust valve remains closed
throughout the stroke.
2. COMPRESSION STROKE: In this stroke both the inlet and exhaust valves
remain closed during the stroke. The piston moves towards (T.D.C.) and
compresses the enclosed fuel-air mixture drawn which increases its temperature &
pressure. Just before the end of this stroke the operating plug initiates a spark which
ignites the mixture and combustion takes place at constant pressure.
3. POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE: In this stroke both the valves
remain closed during the start of this stroke but when the piston just reaches the
B.D.C. the exhaust valve opens. When the mixture is ignited by the spark plug the
hot gases are produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and
thus the work is obtained in this stroke.

26
 4. EXHAUST STROKE: This is the last stroke of the cycle. Here the gases from
which the work has been collected become useless after the completion of the
expansion stroke and are made to escape through exhaust valve to the atmosphere.
This removal of gas is accomplished during this stroke. The piston moves from
B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder.

Four Stroke Diesel Engine

Fig. Four Stroke Diesel Engine

1. SUCTION STROKE: With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C.
during this stroke, the inlet valve opens and the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn
inside the engine cylinder; the exhaust valve however remains closed.
2. COMPRESSION STROKE: The air drawn at atmospheric pressure during the
suction stroke is compressed to high pressure and temperature as the piston moves
from B.D.C. to T.D.C. Both the inlet and exhaust valves do not open during any
part of this stroke.
3. POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE: As the piston starts moving
from T.D.C to B.D.C, the quantity of fuel is injected into the hot compressed air in
fine sprays by the fuel injector and it (fuel) starts burning at constant pressure.
The fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke but in actual practice the
ignition of the fuel starts before the end of the compression stroke. The hot gases of
the cylinder expand, thus doing work on the piston.

27
 4. EXHAUST STROKE: The piston moves from the B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the
exhaust gases escape to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. When the piston
reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve closes and the cycle is completed.

Two Stroke Petrol Engine

Fig. Two stroke petrol engine

Fig shows the simplest form of a two-stroke engine. The cylinder is connected to
the closed crank chamber. Instead of valves they use the port to transfer air or fresh charge
and to remove exhaust gases.
During the upward motion, (from Bottom Dead Center to Top Dead Center) of the
piston gas in the cylinder gets compressed. At the same time, the pressure inside the
crankcase is reduced; air-fuel mixture or charge is inducted to the crankcase through the
spring loaded inlet valve.
When the piston moves from TDC to BDC (expansion stroke) the charge in the
crankcase gets slightly compressed. Near the end of this stroke, the piston uncovers the
exhaust port burnt gas to escape through the port. Cylinder pressure drops into
atmospheric. Further movement of the piston uncovers transfer port, slightly compressed
charge in the crankcase then flows to the cylinder.
The piston head has a hump or deflector, which deflects the fresh charge to upward.
The incoming fresh charge helps to drive away the burnt gas from the cylinder. The piston

28
again moves from BDC to TDC, transfer port close first and then exhaust port and charge
get compressed. Thus, the cycle is repeated.
The incoming fresh charge pulls out burnt gas. This process is known as
scavenging.

Two Stroke Diesel Engine: - Replace spark plug by fuel injector

29
 Difference Between two stroke & four stroke engine

Sr.
No.
Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine
The cycle is completed in two strokes of The cycle is completed in four strokes of
1. piston or in one revolutions of the piston or in two revolutions of the
crankshaft. crankshaft.
It generates less torque due to 2
It can generate high torque compare to 4
2. revolution of crankshaft between one
strokes engine.
power strokes.
3. It used port to inlet and outlet of fuel. It used valve to inlet and outlet.
2 stroke engines require lighter flywheel
It requires heavy flywheel because it
compare to other engines because it
4. generates unbalance force due to two
generates more balanced force due to
revolutions for one power stroke.
one revolution for one power stroke.
The charge is partially burn and mix In four stroke engine charge is fully burn
5. with the burn gases during inlet. It is due and does not mix with burn charge in
to port mechanism. ideal condition.
Easy lubrication due to lubrication oil
6. Comparatively complicated lubrication.
mix with the fuel.
More lubricating oil requires because Comparatively less lubricating oil
7.
some oil burns with fuel. requires.
These engines give less thermal These engines give more thermal
8.
efficiency. efficiency.
It has high power to weight ratio 4 stroke engines have less power to
9.
compare to others. weight ratio.
10. It creates more noise. It is less noisy.
Two stroke engines are less efficient andFour stroke engines are more efficient
11.
generate more smoke. and generate less smoke.
These engines are comparatively These engines are expansive due to valve
12.
cheaper. and lubrication mechanism.
These engines are comparatively hard to
13. These engines are easy to manufacture.
manufacture.
These engines are comparatively heavier
14. These engines are generally lighter. than 2 strokes due to heavy flywheel and
valve mechanism.
These are mostly used in ships, scooters These engines mostly used in car, truck,
15.
etc. and other automobiles.
Due to poor lubrication more wear and
16. Less wear and tear occurs.
tear occurs

30
CNG:-

Advantages of CNG:

1. Natural gas is significantly less expensive than gasoline. The cost of natural gas can
go as low as $0.64 a GGE or Gasoline Gallon Equivalent. In some areas, natural
gas costs as low as a third of the cost of gasoline, on average.
2. CNG is more eco-friendly than gasoline. Natural gas produces far fewer harmful
emissions and hydrocarbons than gasoline.
3. Using CNG makes the engine cleaner and more efficient. Unlike gasoline, CNG
minimizes harmful carbon deposits when combusted. This results to a cleaner and
more efficient engine as well as longer lasting spark plugs. Oil changes are also
minimized because of carbon deposits that contaminate the oil is eliminated.

Disadvantages of CNG:

1. CNG tanks require storage space. You may need to sacrifice some of the space in
the trunk (for cars), truck bed (for pickup trucks) or behind the back seat (for
SUVs). The CNG cylinder can be heavy; the added weight of the tank is offset by
the reduced weight of a gasoline fuel.
2. CNG Filling stations have limited availability. CNG conversion is most practical
and convenient for people living in areas with easy access to CNG filling stations

Question Bank:-
1. Explain system, surrounding & boundary.
2. Explain with examples various thermodynamics systems.
3. State & explain zeroth law of thermodynamics
4. State any two statements of first law of thermodynamics.
5. Define sink & source.
6. Draw neat sketch of heat engine, heat pump & refrigerator using source & system.
7. Define heat engine, heat pump & refrigerator.
8. Distinguish between heat pump & refrigerator with sketch.
9. Show that COP of pump is greater than COP of refrigerator by unity.
10. State two statements of second law of thermodynamics.
11. What is heat transfer? State various modes of heat transfer.
12. Explain conduction, convection & radiation with examples.
13. What is the difference between forced & natural convection?
14. Define heat transfer rate & heat flux.
15. State & explain Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
16. Define thermal conductivity. Obtain its unit.
17. State & explain Newton’s law of cooling.
18. State & explain Steafan-Boltzman law of radiation.
19. Define TDC, BDC, stroke, stroke volume, clearance volume, clearance ratio.
20. With neat sketch explain four stroke petrol engine.

31
21. With neat sketch explain four stroke diesel engine.
22. With neat sketch explain two stroke diesel engine.
23. With neat sketch explain two stroke petrol engine.
24. Distinguish between two stroke & four stroke engine.
25. Distinguish between petrol & diesel engine.
26. What is boiler? Give its classification.
27. With neat sketch explain water tube boiler.
28. With neat sketch explain fire tube boiler.
29. Distinguish between water tube & fire tube boiler.
30. Give advantages & disadvantages of CNG.

32
 UNIT III: Vehicles and their Specifications

Q1. What is automobile or vehicle? Explain the classification of Vehicles.

Automobile engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with everything about
automobiles and practices to propel them. Automobile is a vehicle driven by an internal combustion
engine and it is used for transportation of passengers and goods on the ground. Automobile can also be
defined as a vehicle which can move by itself.

Examples: Car, jeep, bus, truck, scooter, etc.

Automobile means self moving or self propelled vehicle.

Automobiles are used to transport people and items from one location to another location.

Classification of Vehicles

Automobiles or vehicles can be classified on different bases as given below:

1. On the Basis of Load:

(a) Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV), e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
(b) Light transport vehicle (LTV) e.g. pickup, station wagon, etc.
(c) Light motor vehicle (LMV), e.g. cars, jeeps, etc.
2. On the Basis of Wheels:
(a) Two wheeler vehicle, for example: Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.
(b) Three wheeler vehicle, for example: Auto rickshaw, three wheeler scooter and tempo, etc.
(c) Four wheeler vehicle, for example: Car, jeep, trucks, buses, etc.
(d) Six wheeler vehicle, for example: Big trucks with two gear axles each having four wheels.
3. On the Basis of Fuel Used:-
(a) Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.
(b) Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
(c) Electric vehicle, e.g. battery drive
(d) Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam.
(e) Gas vehicle, e.g. LPG and CNG vehicles, where LPG is liquefied petroleum gas and CNG is
compressed natural gas.
4. On the Basis of Body:-
On the basis of body, the vehicles are classified as:
(a) Sedan with two doors
(b) Sedan with four doors
(c) Station wagon
(d) Convertible, e.g. jeep, etc.
(e) Van
(f) Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.
5. On the Basis of Transmission:-
(a) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.
(b) Semi-automatic
(c) Automatic: In automatic transmission, gears are not required to be changed manually. It is
automatically changes as per speed of the automobile.
6. On the Basis of Position of Engine:-
(a) Front Engine: Most of the vehicles have engine in the front. Example: most of the cars, buses,
trucks in India.
(b) Rear Engine: Very few vehicles have engine located in the rear. Example: Nano car.
7. Based on Purpose:
(a) Passenger vehicles: These vehicles carry passengers. e.g: Buses, Cars, passenger trains.
(b) Goods vehicles: These vehicles carry goods from one place to another place. e.g: Goods lorry,
Goods carrier.
(c) Special Purpose: These vehicles include Ambulance, Fire engines, Army Vehicles.
8. Based on Drive of the vehicles:
(a) Left-Hand drive: Steering wheel fitted on the left-hand side.
(b) Right-Hand drive: Steering wheel fitted on the right-hand side.

Q2. List & explain the various components in I.C. engine.

Fig. Components of IC Engine

Components of I.C. engine:-

1. Cylinder Block
The main supporting structure for the various components.
This Cylinder block with the Cylinder head will be tightened with the number of bolts and
studs.
Cylinder Block is provided with the cooling fins if the engine cooling system is an air cooling
system
If it is a water cooling system the water jackets will be provided on the walls of the Cylinder
blocks
For multi-cylinder engines, the cylinder block will be cast as a single unit.
The bottom portion of the Cylinder Block is called the Crank Case. It will act as the sump for
the lubrication oil.
2. Cylinder
Inside the Cylinder Block, there will be a cylindrical shape which is machined accurately to
accommodate the piston to reciprocate. It is called a cylinder.
This cylinder filled with the working fluid and undergoes the different thermodynamic
processes to produce work output.
3. Piston
A cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder is called as the piston.
Plays a crucial role in producing the work output.
It forms the moving boundary of the combustion system by creating a gas-tight space with the
help of piston rings and the lubricant.
Piston rings fitted into the slots available in the piston itself to provide a tight seal between the
piston and the cylinder.
4. Combustion Chamber
The space between the upper part of the cylinder and the piston top as shown in fig called the
combustion chamber.
The combustion of the fuel takes place in the combustion chamber.
Combustion of the fuel release the thermal energy results in building the pressure in the
cylinder.
5. Inlet Manifold
The pipe which connects the intake system to the Inlet valve of the engine is called Inlet
manifold.
Thru the Inlet manifold, the air and the fuel mixture and directly drawn into the cylinder.
6. Exhaust Manifold
The pipe which connects the Exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine is called
Exhaust manifold.
Thru the Exhaust manifold, the combustion products will be escaped into the atmosphere.
 7. Inlet & Exhaust Valves
Value is a device to operate the fluid in one direction only.
Inlet and the Exhaust valves are provided on the cylinder head or the side of the cylinder for
regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (Inlet Valve) or for discharging the combustion
products from the cylinder (Exhaust Valve).
Valves will be available if it is a 4 stroke engine only. In 2 stroke engines, there are ports
available for the regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (Transfer port) or
for discharging the combustion products from the cylinder (Exhaust port).
8. Spark Plug
The component used to initiate the combustion process in the spark ignition system.
Spark plug will be located in the Cylinder Head.
Spark plug will be only available in the Spark Ignition engines only.
9. Connecting Rod
Connects the piston and the crankshaft
One end of the connecting rod is called a small end which is connected on the piston side
by gudgeon pin.
The other end of the connecting rod is called the big end which is connected to the crankshaft
by crank pin.
10. Crank Shaft
Cranks shaft converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion to an output
shaft.
There are some balance weights are provided on the crankshafts for dynamic balancing of the
rotating system.
11. Cams & Cam Shaft
To operate the Inlet and outlet valves at the correct timing, cams are provided on the camshaft.
And also drives the ignition system
The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.
The associated parts in the cams and the camshaft are the pushrods rocker arms, valve springs,
and tappets
12. Fly Wheel
To achieve a uniform torque generation an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is provided on
the crankshaft called as the flywheel.

Q3. State and explain various specification parameters of automobile engine.

The engine is like the heart of the car. It is a machine that converts power into motion or
produces the force that propels the vehicle into motion. Engines commonly three types - petrol (runs
on gasoline), diesel (powered by diesel), electric (powered by batteries) and hybrid (using a
combination of a fuel-driven engine and an electric one).
Specification parameters:-

1. Fuel type: - It indicates the type of fuel used for engine. It may be petrol, diesel, electric or
hybrid.
2. Engine type:- It indicates,
a. Method of engine cooling: - Air cooled or water cooled.
b. Working cycle of engine: - Four stroke or two stroke.
3. Bore & stroke
Bore:- It is the inside diameter of cylinder.
Stroke:- It is the distance travelled by piston as it moves from TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.
4. Displacement: - The measurement of the volume of the engine's cylinders is called
displacement and it is measured in liters or cubic centimeters.
a. Swept volume: - It is the volume covered by piston as it moves from TDC to BDC or
BDC to TDC.
b. Clearance volume:- It is the volume between the piston top and cylinder head when
piston is at TDC.
5. Maximum power:- In automobile , as engine speed increases the power output of engine
increases.
6. Maximum Torque:- In automobile , as engine speed increases the output torque of engine
increases.
7. Number of cylinders:- It indicates number of cylinders used in automobile.
8. Valves per cylinder:- It indicates number of valves used in each cylinder.
9. Fuel Supply system:- It indicates the type of fuel supply used in automobile. It may be MPFI
(Multipoint fuel injection) or PGM FI (Programmed fuel injection) .
10. Compression ratio:- It is the ratio of total volume of cylinder to the clearance volume.
OR
The compression ratio is defined as (Swept Volume + Clearance Volume) / Clearance Volume

Q4. State and explain various specification parameters of TWO wheeler.

1. Engine :- All engine specification parameters discussed above.
2. Fuel Consumption:-
a. Fuel tank capacity (Liters)
b. Reserve fuel capacity (Liters)
c. Mileage
d. Overall riding range.
3. Transmission:-
a. No of gears used :- 3,4 or 5
b. Type of clutch used: - Wet type multiplate clutch.
4. Braking:-
a. Front brake type:- Drum/Disc type
b. Rear brake type:- Drum/Disc type

5. Suspension:-
a. Front suspension:- Telescope shock absorber or spring loaded hydraulic damper.
b. Rear suspension:- Telescope shock absorber or spring loaded hydraulic damper.
 6. Wheels & tyres:-
a. Type of wheel:- Cast alloy wheel.
b. Tyre specification:-

7. Battery:-
a. Voltage:- 12 V or 18 V or 24 V
b. Ampere – Hour rating:- 2.5 Ah or 5 Ah or 7.5 Ah

8. Body Dimensions:-
a. Kerb Weight:- Weight of vehicle without passengers.
b. Total Length of vehicle
c. Max. width of vehicle.
d. Max. height of vehicle.
e. Wheel base:- It is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels.
f. Ground clearance.

Q5. Write the specifications of any one TWO wheeler.

Honda Livo:-
Q6. State and explain various specification parameters of Passenger Car.
1. Engine:- All engine specification parameters discussed above.

2. Fuel efficiency :-
a. Fuel tank capacity (Liters)
b. Mileage
c. Top speed:- Max speed of car.
d. Acceleration:- Max acceleration of car.
3. Transmission:-
a. No of gears used :- (5 forward + 1 reverse) or (6 forward + 1 reverse)
b. Type of clutch used: - Dry type single plate clutch.

4. Braking:-
c. Front brake type:- Drum/Disc type
d. Rear brake type:- Drum/Disc type

5. Suspension:-
c. Front suspension:- McPherson Strut type
d. Rear suspension:- McPherson Strut type

6. Wheels & tyres:-

c. Type of wheel:- Cast alloy wheel.
d. Tyre specification:-

7. Steering: - Type of steering used.

8. Body Dimensions:-
a. Kerb Weight:- Weight of vehicle without passengers.
b. Total Length of vehicle
c. Max. width of vehicle.
d. Max. height of vehicle.
e. Wheel base:- It is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels.
f. Ground clearance.
g. Front track:- It is the distance between centerline of two front wheels.
h. Rear Track:- It is the distance between centerline of two rear wheels.
Q7. Write the specification of any passenger car.
Honda City Petrol
Q8. Write the specification of any multi axle motor vehicle
Multi axle Bus: - Volvo Bus
Q9. What is meant by cost analysis of vehicle? Explain its various types.
Cost analysis of the vehicle deals with calculating the average cost of using the vehicle per
year of per kilometer of use.

Vehicle Costs include direct user expenses to own and use private vehicles.

Types of cost of vehicles:

1. Fixed cost: - The costs which are unaffected by the amount a vehicle is driven are called fixed
cost. (Which will continue irrespective of whether the vehicle is in use or not)

Various fixed costs:-

a. Depreciation cost: - It means the decrease in value of a vehicle over the period of time due
to use.
In India, the depreciation is 100 % in 10 years for cars and in 20 years for buses.
Car depreciation rate in India is given below,

b. Interest cost: - It is the interest on the loan taken for purchasing the vehicle.
c. Registration & vehicle taxes: - It is the amount spent on registration & vehicle taxes.
d. Insurance cost: - It is the premium paid for vehicle & it is third party insurance.

2. Variable cost: - The costs which vary with the use of vehicle are called variable cost.
These costs are:-
a. Maintenance & repair cost.
b. Fuel & oil cost.
c. Parking & toll cost.
d. Driver cost.
Q10. Explain cost analysis of vehicle on following parameters.
1. Engine torque:-More the torque of engine at rated speed more will be the cost of vehicle.
2. Engine speed: - As the speed of the engine is decided depending on the engine standard.
More will be the BHP of engine at rates speed more will be the cost of engine.
3. No of cylinders: - Cost of the vehicle go on increasing as no of cylinders go on increasing.
More no of cylinders having more cost because material cost , manufacturing cost & labor
cost is increased wrt no of cylinders.
4. Type of brake used: - The vehicle fitted with hydraulic brakes having more cost that the
vehicles which are fitted with pneumatic brakes as hydraulic brakes are more costly than
pneumatic brakes.
5. Cooling system used:- Water cooled engines are more costlier than air cooled engines.
The vehicles with water cooled engines are more costly than the engines having air cooled
engines.

Q11. Explain the need of electric vehicles.

1. Better Energy Efficiency
Electric vehicles (EV) are 75 percent efficient at turning input energy into moving
energy (kinetic energy). On the other hand, gas-powered vehicles with internal combustion
engines (ICE) are only 25 percent efficient.
Electric cars, having less parts to transfer energy through, undergo less energy
conversion. This result in less energy loss compared to gas-powered engines.
Instead of using a brake pad that converts friction into heat, electric cars run on a
generator that helps to recover some wasted energy back into the battery.

2. Less Greenhouse Emissions

One of the primary reasons for the introduction of electric cars into the market is the concern
over greenhouse gas emissions and their contribution to global warming.
The purpose of creating electric cars that reduced or eliminated exhaust emissions was
to help combat this issue.
The greatest impact of reduced carbon emissions is in urban areas, where millions of
people drive cars.
Decreased air pollution due to the elimination of the exhaust pipe in electric cars
promotes sustainable mobility. This in turn greatly reduces the negative impact of
transportation needs on the atmosphere.
3. Better for the Environment
Electric cars don’t require drilling for oil (for fuel). Furthermore, they don’t release
tailpipe exhaust.
The greatest risk to the environment from gas-powered cars has been air pollution and
depletion of the ozone layer from emitted chemicals. Not to mention the oil and radiator
chemicals that occasionally leak. These chemicals seep into the soil and water supply thus
harming plants, wildlife and eventually humans.
Parts unique to electric cars, like lead or lithium batteries, do not promote smog, air
pollution or water contamination.
 4. Creates Economic Growth
Electric car innovation and technology helps grow the economy.
Electricity generated to fuel electric cars and homes must come from somewhere.
Often, it comes from oil or coal but it can be generated by solar, wind, hydro, nuclear or
biofuel sources.
The increased demand for a constant and reliable energy source for electric cars allows
for the growth of renewable sources of energy, like solar and wind.
While oil prices fluctuate greatly, the price of solar and other renewable sources of
energy stay quite constant. In addition, there won’t ever be a shortage of solar power,
unlike the oil shortages that plaque the world.
This means that electric vehicle charging stations are more likely to buy electricity from
renewable energy sources that are consistent and reliable. This is already true with many
EV charging networks, like the Tesla Supercharger Network.

5. EV Maintenance Costs

It costs a lot less to maintain an electric vehicle than a traditional gas vehicle.
Since electric cars run simply on a battery and electric motors, there are very few
mechanical parts that have the chance of breaking. This means less replacement costs in the
future.
In addition, because EVs have no engine, there is no need for regular filter and oil
changes.

6. Technological Growth
The increased demand for electric cars has encouraged auto makers to get better at
making them. This encourages innovation and economic growth.
Electric cars have introduced a future in which green technology is in high use and
demand.

Q12. Explain the elements of electric vehicle with block diagram. State its types.
Electric vehicle is an automobile propelled by onr or more electric motors using the energy
stored in rechargeable battery with no IC engine.

Types of electric vehicles,

1. Battery electric vehicles,

2. Hybrid electric vehicles.

Basic elements of electric vehicle,

1. Charger: - It gets electricity supplied by electric grid.

2. Rechargeable battery:-
It is charged through charger. The battery may be Lead-acid battery or Lithium-ion
battery.
The distance travelled by electric vehicle depends upon the energy storage capacity of
battery which ranges from 30kWh to 150 kWh.
 3. Drive control unit:- It controls the supply of electric current from battery to inverter.
4. Inverter:- It converts D.C. supply of battery to A.C.supply
5. Electric motor:- A.C. motor or D.C. motor drives the transmission unit. If D.C. motor is
used, inverter is not required.
6. Transmission unit:- It drives the rear wheels.

Fig. Electric Vehicle

Q13. State advantages & disadvantages of electric vehicle.

Advantages:-

1. No air pollution:- The electric vehicles operate with zero exhaust emission.
2. Less noise:- Less noise compared with IC engine vehicles.
3. Simple in design:- Electric vehicles have limited number of components so simple in
design.
4. Rapid acceleration:- They have very good acceleration compared IC engine vehicles.
5. Low running cost:- The running cost of electric vehicles is much less than IC engine
vehicles.
6. Low maintenance cost:- These vehicles are simple in design so less maintenance cost.

Disadvantages:-

1. Limited travelling range:- The electric vehicles can travel only about 100 to 150 km on
single charge because of limited battery capacity.
2. Non availability of network of charging stations:- People travelling long distance using
electric vehicles need a network of charging stations.
3. High initial cost:- Because of large capacity battery, the initial cost of electric vehicle is
high.
4. Short battery life:- The life of rechargeable battery is short, hence vehicle need frequent
battery replacement. This increase the running cost of the electric vehicle.
5. Low speed:- The maximum speed of most of the electric vehicle is 60 Kmph.
Q14. What is meant by hybrid vehicles? Explain with neat sketch series & parallel
hybrid vehicles.
The hybrid vehicles are propelled by two power sources.

1. Electric motor driven by rechargeable battery,

2. I.C. Engine

Hybrid vehicles minimizes the drawbacks of conventional I.C engine powered automobile
vehicles.

Types of Hybrid Vehicles:-

1. Series hybrid vehicles,

2. Parallel Hybrid vehicles.

1. Series hybrid vehicles:-

Fig:- Layout of Series Hybrid Vehicle

1. In series hybrid vehicles, electric motor is the only providing the power to the wheels
through transmission unit.
2. The electric motor receives electric power from :-
a. Rechargeable battery or
b. Generator run by I.C. engine
3. The computer assisted drive control unit decides the quantity of power to come from
battery and the IC engine generator.
4. The excess electric power from generator is used to charge the battery. In addition, during
braking, the electric motor acts as a generator and uses the regenerative braking energy to
charge the battery. The battery is charged through charger from electric grid.
5. In series hybrid vehicle, engine is of smaller capacity, as it has to meet only partial power
requirement. The battery is m ore powerful.
2. Parallel hybrid vehicles:-

Fig. Layout of parallel hybrid electric vehicle

1. In parallel hybrid vehicle, the IC engine as well as electric motor drives the wheels through
transmission unit.
2. When power demand is low, the electric motor acts as a generator and utilizes the excess
power from IC engine to charge the battery. In addition, during braking the electric motor acts
as a generator and uses the regenerative braking energy to charge then battery.
3. In parallel hybrid vehicles engine is of higher capacity as compared to series hyrid vehicles.
4. Parallel hybrid vehicles use a smaller capacity battery compared to series hybrid vehicles.
 UNIT IV

VEHICLE SYSTEMS
Syllabus
Introduction of chassis layouts, steering system, suspension system, braking system, cooling
system and fuel injection system and fuel supply system. Study of Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
systems. Study of power transmission system, clutch, gear box (Simple Numerical), propeller shaft,
universal joint, differential gearbox and axles. Vehicle active and passive safety arrangements: seat,
seat belts, airbags and antilock brake system.

Introduction of chassis layouts:-

Chassis frame is the basic frame work of the automobile. It supports all the parts of the
automobile attached to it.It are made of drop forged steel. All the parts related to automobiles are
attached to it only. All the systems related to automobile like power plant, transmission, steering,
suspension, braking system etc are attached to and supported by it only

Fig. Automobile Chassis Layout

Components:-
1. Chassis (Frame) :-
It is the most significant components of vehicle. It is the skeleton frame of a vehicle on which
various components or systems of vehicle are mounted.
2. Axles:- These are the components on which chassis is mounted.
 Types of axles:-
a. Front axle: - The front axle supports the chassis on front side. The steering
mechanism is mounted on front axle.
b. Rear axle:- The rear axle supports the chassis on rear side.
3. Wheels:- Wheels support the axle. The load on the vehicle & passengers is supported by
wheels through axle.
4. Suspension system:- Chassis is mounted on the axle through the suspension system. It
isolates the vehicle body and passengers from road shocks.
5. Steering system:- It is used for turning the wheels in desired direction. It is mounted on front
axle.
6. Engine:- It is an internal combustion engine which converts chemical energy of fuel into
mechanical power at the crankshaft. It if the first element in power transmission system.
7. Clutch:- It is mounted between the engine & the gear box. It is used to engage or disengage
the engine from the gear box as per the will of driver. When clutch is engaged the power is
transmitted from engine to gear box. When clutch is disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal,
there is no power transmission from engine to gear box.
8. Gear box:- It receives power from engine through clutch and transmits the power to propeller
shaft. In gear box torque is increased & speed is reduced. It provides different speed ranges
for the vehicle.
9. Propeller Shaft :- It s a mechanical element that transmits the power from gear box to the
differential on rear axle.
10. Differential gear box:- It transmits the power from propeller shaft to shaft of rear axle. The
shaft of rear axle is right angle to propeller shaft. The shaft of rear axle transmits the power to
wheels. It allows the two wheels to rotate at different speeds when vehicle is taking turn.
11. Radiator:- It is the heat exchanger placed at the front of the vehicle. It cools the hot coolant
coming from the engine and sends it back to the engine.
Types of chassis layouts
1. Front engine rear wheel drive

2. Front engine front wheel drive

3. Rear engine rear wheel drive

 4. Four wheel drive

Steering System:-

1. Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle to follow
the desired course.
2. The system allows a driver to use only light forces to steer a heavy car.
3. The function of a steering system is to convert the rotary movement of the steering wheel
in driver's hand into the angular turn of the front wheels on road.

Types of Steering Mechanisms

1. Ackerman steering mechanisms.
2. Davis steering mechanisms.
Out of these Ackerman mechanism is almost universally used because of its simplicity.
1. Ackerman steering mechanisms.

In Ackermann steering gear, the mechanism ABDC is a four bar crank chain. The
shorter links AC and BD are equally inclined to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
For the correct steering the following three positions are obtained:
1. When the vehicle moves along the straight path, the longer links AB and CD are parallel
and shorter links AC and BD are equally inclined to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
2. When the vehicle is moving to the right or left, the lines of the front wheel axle intersect on
the back wheel axle at I for correct steering.
Types of suspension system

1. Front End Suspension System

Wishbone type, Mac Pherson Strut Type
2. Rear End Suspension System

Function of Suspension System

1. To prevent the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling while in motion.
2. To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.
3. Suspension system prevents the road shocks from being transferred to the vehicle frame.
4. To provide good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
5. To maintain proper steering geometry.

Telescopic shock absorber

Construction:
The telescopic shock absorber is shown in fig its upper eye is connected to the axle
and the lower eye to the chassis frame. A two way valve A is attached to a rod and another
two way valve B is attached to the lower end of cylinder.
The fluid (Combination of Transformation oil & Turbine oil) is present in the space
above and below the valve A and also in the annular space between the cylinder and tube
 which is connected to the space below the valve B. Any fluid scraped off by the rod is brought
down into the annular space through the inclined passage.

Working:
When the vehicle comes across a bump the lower eye moves up. Therefore the fluid
passes from the lower side of the valve A to its upper side but since the volume of the space
above valve A is less than the volume of the rod the fluid exerts pressure on the valve B. This
pressure of the fluid through the valve opening provides the damping force. Similarly when
the lower eye moves down the fluid passes from the upper side of the valve A to the lower
side and also from the lower side of the valve B to its upper side.

Braking System
Braking is the mechanism in the motor vehicle which is used to slowing down and stopping
the vehicle to rest in the shortest possible distance.
Principle of Braking system: While operating the braking system the KINETIC ENERGY of
moving vehicle is converted in to HEAT ENERGY.

Functions of Brakes:
1. It is used to stop the vehicle in the shortest possible time
2. It is used to control the speed where and when required.
3. It is used to control the vehicle while descending along the slope.
4. To park the vehicle and held it in stationary position without the presence of Driver.

The following are the classifications of Brakes

1. By method of power
a) Mechanical brakes
b) Hydraulic brakes
c) Air brakes
d) Vacuum brakes
e) Power assisted hydraulic brakes
2. By method of application:
a) Foot brakes
b) Hand brakes
 3. By method of operation:
a) Manual
b) Servo
c) Power operation
4. By method of Braking contact
a. Internal Expanding Brakes
b. External Contracting Brakes
5. By Method of Applying Brake force:
a. Single Acting Brakes.
b. Double Acting Brakes.

Drum Brake:-

Fig. Drum Brake

It is an internal expanding brake consists of two brake shoes. The outer surface of the shoes are lined
with some friction material (usually with Ferodo) to increase the coefficient of friction and to prevent
wearing away of the metal. Each shoe is pivoted at one end about a fixed anchor and made to contact
a cam or wheel cylinder at the other end.
After application of brake the cam rotates, the shoes are pushed outwards against the rim of the drum.
(Force F). The friction between the shoes and the drum produces the braking torque and hence
reduces the speed of the drum.
After releasing brake pedal brake shoe return to its original position by the action of retractor spring.
All these parts are fitted in the back plate and enclosed with brake drum.
Disc Brake:-

Fig. Disc Brake

In a disc brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses against a
piston. The piston in turn crushes two brake pads against the disc that is being attached to wheel,
making it to stop or slow down. Main advantage of disc brakes is their resistance to wear as the discs
remain cool even after repeated brake applications.
Friction materials used for brake shoes:
1. Asbestos 2. Ferodo 3. Cork 4. Leather

Difference between Drum and Disc type brake system

Engine Cooling System

A vehicle's engine-cooling system serves not just to keep the engine cool, but to also keep its
temperature warm enough to ensure efficient, clean operation.

Function
1. It removes excess heat from the engine
2. It maintains the engine operating temperature where it works most efficiently
3. It brings the engine up to the right operating temperature as quickly as possible.

Types of Cooling System

1. Air cooling system

2. Water cooling system

Water cooling system

Fig. Water Cooling System

1. The water cooling system is used in the engines of cars, buses, trucks, etc. In this system, the
water is circulated through water jackets around each of the combustion chambers, cylinder,
valve seats and valve stems
2. The coolant is kept continuously in motion by a centrifugal water pump which is driven by a
V-belt from the pulley on the engine crankshaft. After passing through the engine jackets in
the block and cylinder heads.
3. The thermostat allows to flow the coolant only one direction. If temperature of coolant
coming from engine crosses the range then it wills allow to flow through radiator otherwise it
will allow to flow only through bypass pipe.
4. The coolant is passing through the radiator. In the radiator, the coolant is cooled by air drawn
through the radiator by a fan. Usually, the fan and water pump are mounted and driven on a
common shaft. After passing through the radiator, the coolant is drained and delivered to the
water pump through a cylinder inlet passage. The coolant again circulated through the engine
jackets.
 UNIT V

INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING
Syllabus
Conventional Manufacturing Processes: Casting, Forging, Metal forming (Drawing, Extrusion,
etc.), Sheet metal working, Metal joining, etc. Metal cutting processes and machining operations-
Turning, Milling and Drilling, etc. Micromachining. Additive manufacturing and 3D Printing.
Reconfigurable manufacturing system and IOT, Basic CNC programming: Concept of Computer
Numerical Controlled machines.

Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a
final product. The manufacturing process begins with the creation of the materials from which the
design is made. These materials are then modified through manufacturing processes to become the
required part.
The process of converting the raw material into finished goods with the combination of 4
elements i.e. money, man, material, machine.

Manufacturing Processes:
1. Casting,
2. Forging,
3. Metal forming (Drawing, Extrusion, etc.),
4. Sheet metal working,
5. Metal joining,
6. Metal cutting processes and machining operations- Turning, Milling and Drilling

Casting
It is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
Types of casting…!!!
Following are the basic types of casting..:
1. Sand casting
2. Die casting
3. Shell mold casting
4. Permanent mold casting
5. Investment casting (lost wax casting)
6. Lost-foam casting
7. Centrifugal casting
Sand casting
Sand casting also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by
using sand as the mold material.
The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process.
Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal
castings are produced via a sand casting process.
Sand casting is used to produce a wide variety of metal components with complex geometries.
Basic process
There are six steps in this process:
1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting

Fig. Sand Casting Process

 Fig. Sand Casting
The pattern is placed in the flask (consisting of the cope and drag) and molding sand is tightly
rammed around it. Usually, the mold is made in two halves, with the pattern lying at the parting line.
Removing the pattern from the rammed sand leaves the desired cavity from which the casting is
produced. The molder then produces a sprue for pouring metal into the cavity and an opening for a
riser to permit air in the cavity to be expelled. Both the sprue and riser also act as a source of hot
metal during solidification and help eliminate shrinkage cavities in the casting. Cores can be added to
the mold cavity to shape internal casting surfaces.

Advantages of Casting
1. The components of intricate shapes which are difficult to produce by other manufacturing
process can be produced.
2. No restrictions on size of the components. (Few grams to few tons)
3. No restrictions on type of metal or alloy used. Almost all metals, alloys and some plastics can
be cast.
4. It is one of the cheapest manufacturing process. Operating as well as initial cost of equipment
is much lower as compared to other manufacturing processes
5. Suitable for small quantity job production as well as mass production
6. Does not requires high initial investments and highly skilled manpower
7. Cost of the component is very low
8. Casting components possess better damping properties

Disadvantages / Limitations of Casting

1. Restriction on minimum thickness of the component produced. Thickness less than 6 mm can
not be produced by sand casting
2. Requires melting of metal and hence high energy is consumed
3. Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Hence not suitable for making precision
castings
 4. In sand casting, the mould has to be broken to take out the casting form the mould. Therefore
each casting requires one mould. Hence, this process requires large man power for mould
making
5. Requires large working space.
6. Environmental pollution is very high
7. The blow holes, gas cavities and non-metallic inclusions in castings reduces the strength of
the components

Application
1. Gear box housing
2. Bearing house
3. Machine tool bed
4. Machine tool frames
5. Gears
6. Turbine blades
7. Pump casing

Forging
Manufacturing process in which a piece of (usually hot) metal is formed into the
desired shape by hammering, pressing, rolling and other such operations in one or more
forging equipment.
Similar to casting, the forging is one of the oldest processes of manufacturing the
metallic components.
In ancient days, forging was used for making war tools like swords, knives, arrows,
protecting armors, helmets, etc.

Working principle of Forging:

Fig. Working principle

 In forging process, the material (billet) is deformed into the desired shape between two parts
called dies. The shape of the dies matches with desired shape of the forged component.
The forging press shown in figure consists of a lower die fixed to the frame (Anvil) while
upper die is connected to the ram. The material is kept on the lower die.
Electric motor drives the crankshaft
The rotary motion of the crankshaft is converted into the reciprocating motion.
In mechanical press, the ram is driven by the crank shaft through the connecting rod where as
in hydraulic press the ram is driven by the hydraulic cylinder.
During the downward stroke of the ram, the upper die exerts sudden compressive force on the
hot material.
Due to this sudden compressive force the material is converted into the desired shape.
Forging press operates at about 30 – 60 strokes per minute.

Open Die Forging

Fig. Open Die Forging

In open die forging, the material or work piece is deformed between two flat dies or dies of
very simple shape.
It carried out between two flat dies or simple shape. This process is used mostly for large
objects and smaller quantities.

Advantages:-
1. It is Simple in design,
2. It has Good strength,
3. These are inexpensive dies,
4. Wide range of sizes are available
Limitations:-
1. It has only simple shapes,
2. It is difficult to hold close tolerance,
3. It has low production rate,
4. It has poor utilization of material,
5. High skill is required.
Closed Die Forging
In closed die forging, the material and work piece is deformed between two dies which have
the impressions of desired shape
When two dies are closed, the cavity formed is of the desired final shape.

Fig. Close Die Forging

Difference between open die and close die forging

Advantages:-
1. Good utilization of material,
2. It has good dimensional accuracy,
3. High production rate,
4. It has good reproducibility.
Limitations:-
1. High die cost for small quantities.
2. Often machining is necessary.

Applications of forging include

1. Bolts,
2. Disks,
3. Gears,
4. Turbine disk,
 5. Crank shaft,
6. Connecting rod,
7. Valve bodies,
8. Small components for hydraulic circuits etc.

Metal forming processes

Metal forming:
Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed plastically to
take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation are called die, punch
etc. depending on the type of process.

Drawing:-

.
It is an operation in which the cross section of solid rod, wire or tubing is reduces or changed
in shape by pulling it through a die.
Working Principle:-
The principle of this procedure consists of reducing the thickness of a pointed, tapered
wire by drawing it through a conical opening in a tool made of a hard material. The wire will
take shape of the hole.
Extrusion:-
Metal extrusion is a metal forming process in which a work piece, of a certain length
and cross section, is forced to flow through a die of a smaller cross sectional area, thus
forming the work to the new cross section.
The length of the extruded part will vary, dependent upon the amount of material in
the work piece and the profile extruded. Numerous cross sections are manufactured by this
method. The cross section produced will be uniform over the entire length of the metal
extrusion.
Extrusion is a metal forming process involving shaping a metal billet (hot or cold) by
forcing it through a die with an opening.
The metal billet is placed to the container of the extrusion press. The die with an
opening is mounted at the end of the container.
When the hydraulically driven ram presses the billet, the metal starts to flow through
the opening forming the extruded product of the required cross section.
 Fig. Direct & Indirect Extrusion
In the direct extrusion the extruded metal flows in the direction of the ram motion.
In the indirect extrusion the metal flows in the direction opposite to the ram motion.
Indirect extrusion requires a lower force than direct process as there is no friction
between the billet and inside walls of the container.
In the hot extrusion process the metal billet is preheated to the required temperature:
840°F - 930°F (450°C - 500°C) for extrusion aluminum alloys and 1300°F - 1470°F (700°C -
800°C) for Copper alloys.
The dies are manufactured from hard alloyed steels.
Extrusion is used for manufacturing round and hexagonal rods, tubes, various profiles (mainly
aluminum) and other shapes.
Advantages-high strength, good surface finish, low cost, metal and plastic component,
large length component
Disadvantages
High initial cost
Variable cross section component can be produced
Applications
Aluminium cans, cylinders, bars, tibes, gear blanks, collapsible tube
Sheet metal working
It is the process of manufacturing the components from the sheet metal of thickness ranging
from 0.1 mm to about 8 mm.
It is carried out by a machine tool called press (Press working).
Sheet metal working is generally associated with press machines and press working.
Press working is a chip-less manufacturing process by which various components are
produced by sheet metal.
Advantages of Sheet Metal Working
1. Sheet metal working is associated with press machine , on which number of operations
can be performed.
 2. Metal sheets of less thickness can be formed into various shapes.
3. Components produced are of low cost.
4. Production rate of press machine is very high.
5. The process does not require skilled labor.
Disadvantages of Sheet Metal Working
1. It is only used for mass production.
2. The cost of die is very high.
3. Initial cost of press machine is also very high.
4. Metals of thickness more than 10 mm are difficult to form.
5. The operations produce more noise and vibration.
Punching

It is the operation of producing a circular hole in the metal sheet by using punch and die
In punching, the metal sheet with the hole is the required component while the material
punched out of form a hole is waste production.
In punching a circular hole is punched while in piercing the hole of any shape is produced
In punching punch size is made equal to hole size and clearance is provided on die size

Blanking
 It is the operation of cutting out a piece of required shape from metal sheet using a punch and
a die. In blanking die size is made equal to blank size and clearance is provided on punch.

Bending

It is a metal forming process by which a straight length metal sheet is transformed into a
curved length. It is a common forming process for changing the metal sheets into angles or
channels.
It is also defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight edge
In bending operation, the metal sheet is stressed beyond its elastic limit but below its ultimate
tensile strength.
U Bending

Shearing (Sheet Metal Cutting)

Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of
chips or the use of burning or melting.
It is metal cutting with punch and die.
Shearing-type operations include: blanking, piercing, perforating, slitting, lancing, notching.
It is used in metalworking and also with paper and plastics.
Metal Joining Process
Various engineering products and machines are made of multiple number of parts.
These parts, which are manufactured individually, are joined together to form the product.
Engineering products like: Bridges, electric towers, automobile bodies, ship bodies,
boilers, water pipelines, steel furnaces, etc.
Types of Metal Joining Process
1. Welding
2. Brazing
3. Soldering
4. Mechanical fasteners (bolted joints and riveted joints)
5. Adhesive Bonding.
Only bolted joints are temporary joints, while remaining are either permanent of semi-
permanent joints
Welding
It is a process of joining two metal pieces as a result of significant diffusion of the
atoms of the welded pieces into the joint (weld) region. Welding is carried out by heating the
joined pieces to melting point and fusing them together (with or without filler material) or by
applying pressure to the pieces in cold or heated state
Welding is a process of joining the two metal parts together by heating them to a
plastic state or semi – molten state, with or without the application of (a) pressure and (b)
filler material
Welding Process

Fig. Welding Process

Advantages of welding:
1. Strong and tight joining;
2. Cost effectiveness;
3. Simplicity of welded structures design;
Disadvantages of welding:
Internal stresses, distortions and changes of micro-structure in the weld region;
Harmful effects: light, ultra violate radiation, fumes, high temperature.
Applications of welding:
1. Buildings and bridges structures;
2. Automotive, ship and aircraft constructions;
3. Pipe lines;
4. Tanks and vessels;
5. Machinery elements.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (Stick welding, Manual metal arc welding) uses a metallic
consumable electrode of a proper composition for generating arc between itself and the parent
work piece. The molten electrode metal fills the weld gap and joins the work pieces.
This is the most popular welding process capable to produce a great variety of welds.
The electrodes are coated with a shielding flux of a suitable composition. The flux melts
together with the electrode metallic core, forming a gas and a slag, shielding the arc and the
weld pool. The flux cleans the metal surface, supplies some alloying elements to the weld,
protects the molten metal from oxidation and stabilizes the arc.
The slag is removed after Solidification.

Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

1. Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
2. Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
3. Suitable for outdoor applications.
4.
Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
1. The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
2. Weld may contain slag inclusions;
3. Fumes make difficult the process control.
Metal cutting processes
It is the process of removing the material from the work piece, in the form of chips, by
means of cutting tools so as to give the desired shape and size to the component.
Machining operations
Following are the Lathe machine operations done either by holding the workpiece
between centres or by a chuck:
1. Turning Operation
2. Plain or Straight Turning
3. Rough Turning
4. Shoulder Turning
5. Taper Turning
6. Eccentric Turning
7. Facing Operation
8. Chamfering Operation
9. Knurling Operation
10. Thread cutting Operation
11. Filing Operation
12. Polishing Operation
13. Grooving Operation
14. Spinning Operation
15. Spring Winding
16. Forming
Lathe machine operations which are performed by holding the work by a chuck or a faceplate
or an angle plate are:
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Taper boring
6. Tapping
7. Undercutting
8. Internal thread cutting
9. Parting-off
The operation which is performed by using special attachments are:
1. Grinding
2. Milling
Turning:
It is the most common type of operation in all lathe machine operations. Turning is the
operation of removing the excess material from the workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface
to the desired length.

The job held between the centre or a chuck and rotating at a required speed. The tool moves in
a longitudinal direction to give the feed towards the headstock with proper depth of cut. The
surface finish is very good.
Taper Turning:
A ”taper” is the uniform increase or decrease in the diameter of the workpiece and measured
along with its length.
Taper turning means to produce a conical shape by a gradual reduction in diameter from a
cylindrical workpiece.

Drilling:
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece. It is done by a rotating
tool, the rotating side of the cutter, known as drilling drill.In this operation, The workpiece is
revolving in a chuck or a faceplate and the drill is held in the tailstock drill holder or drill
chuck.
 The feeding is adopted is affected by the movement of the tailstock spindle. This method is
adopted for the drilling regular shaped work piece.
Milling:
Milling is the operation of removing metal by feeding the work against a rotating cutter
having multiple cutting edges.
For cutting keyways or grooves, the work is supported on the cross-slide by a special
attachment and fed against a rotating milling cutter held by a chuck. The depth of cut is given
by vertical adjustment of the work provided by the attachment.
The depth of cut is given by verticle adjustment of the work provided by the attachment. The
feeding movement is provided by the carriage and the vertical movement of the cutter is
arranged in the attachment.

Fig. Milling
Micromachining
Micromachining is an advanced technology that enables micro components with dimensions
in the range of 1–500µm to be fabricated using micro fabrication techniques.
Why Micro Machining?
Present day High-tech Industries, Design requirements are stringent.
– Extraordinary Properties of Materials (High Strength, High heat Resistant, High hardness,
Corrosion resistant etc)
– Complex 3D Components (Turbine Blades)
– Miniature Features (filters for food processing and textile industries having few tens of
microns as hole diameter and thousands in number)
– Nano level surface finish on Complex geometries (thousands of turbulated cooling holes in
a turbine blade)
– Making and finishing of micro fluidic channels (in electrically conducting & non conducting
materials, say glass,quartz, &ceramics)
Different Micromachining Techniques
1. Photolithography
2. Etching
3. Silicon Micromachining
4. LIGA
5. Mechanical Micromachining
Additive manufacturing and 3D Printing
How Does Additive Manufacturing Work?
3D printing, Rapid Prototyping and Additive Manufacturing are all terms used to
broadly describe the same processes, which involve the creation of complex structures and
components by the layering of materials which are gradually built up.
A technology that’s been around for more than three decades, it’s only recently
exploded in popularity, moving on from merely being a means of producing prototypes to
offering fully functional components. The possibilities offered are almost endless with
industries from heavy industry to medicine keen to take advantage of the precision
engineering on offer.
But although Additive Manufacturing provides the potential for new possibilities in
science, the concept behind it and how it works is surprisingly simple.

Fig. 3 D Printing
There are different types of Additive Manufacturing and arguably one of the simplest
is the use of direct or binder 3D printing.
Direct 3D printing makes use of common inkjet technology, but rather than moving
back and forth, the nozzles move up and down dispensing polymers and wax, rather than ink.
These polymers and waxes come out as a liquid but quickly solidify, creating a sturdy base for
each level of the cross section. This type of Additive Manufacturing was very popular with
Rapid Prototyping and even today, Multi-jet Modeling (MJM) is often used, where large
numbers of nozzles work simultaneously to create plastic or wax designs.
Binder 3D printing is not vastly dissimilar, also relying on inkjet technology, but
instead using two separate materials to create each layer. The printer releases both a fine
powder and then separately, a liquid binder, and it’s the combination of these two substances
that creates each layer. The advantages of this method are that different materials can be
combined during the same printing design.
Advantages of 3D Printing
1. Speed:- One of the main advantages of additive manufacture is the speed at which parts
can be produced compared to traditional manufacturing methods. Complex designs can be
uploaded from a CAD model and printed in a few hours. The advantage of this is the rapid
verification and development of design ideas.
2. Single step manufacture:- One of the biggest concerns for a designer is how to
manufacture a part as efficiently as possible. Most parts require a large number of
manufacturing steps to be produce by traditional technologies. The order these steps occur
affects the quality and manufacturability of the design.
3. Risk mitigation:- Ordering a faulty prototype costs the designer time and money. Even
small changes in a mold or fabrication method may have a large financial impact.
4. Sustainability:- Subtractive manufacturing methods, such as CNC milling or turning,
remove a significant amount of material from an initial block, resulting in high volumes of
waste material.

Concept of Computer Numerical Controlled machines

Fig. CNC Machine

Main Parts of CNC Machine
The main parts of the CNC machine are
(i) Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the CNC
machine. There are three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape reader,
magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-232-C communication.
(ii) Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the
controlling action of the CNC machine, the various functions performed by the MCU are
1. It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
 2. It decodes the coded instruction.
3. It implements interpolation ( linear, circular and helical ) to generate axis
motion commands.
4. It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the
axis mechanisms.
5. It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
6. It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle
on/off and tool change.
(iii) Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of
the position and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the
spindle is controlled in the Z axis direction.
(iv) Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits,
drive motors and ball lead screw. The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of
each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are than augmented (increased) to
actuate the drive motors. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to position
the machine table.
(v) Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that acts like sensors. It is also
called as measuring system. It contains position and speed transducers that continuously
monitor the position and speed of the cutting tool located at any instant. The MCU receives
the signals from these transducers and it uses the difference between the reference signals and
feedback signals to generate the control signals for correcting the position and speed errors.
(vi) Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful
data of CNC machine.

Advantages
1. It can produce jobs with the highest accuracy and precision than any other manual machine.
2. It can be run for 24 hours a day.
3. The parts produced by it have the same accuracy. There is no variation in the parts
manufactured by a CNC machine.
4. A highly skilled operator is not required to operate a CNC machine. A semi-skilled operator
can also operate accurately and more precisely.
5. Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduces the delay time.
6. It has the capability to produce complex designs with high accuracy in minimum possible
time.
7. The modern design software, allows the designer to simulate the manufacturer of his/her
idea. And this removes the need for making a prototype or model and saves time and money.
8. Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC machine and save labor cost.
Disadvantages
Despite of having so many advantages, a CNC machine has some disadvantages too. And
these are:
1. The cost of the CNC machine is very high as compared with a manually operated
machine.
2. The parts of the CNC machines are expensive.
3. The maintenance cost in the case of CNC is quite high.
4. It does not eliminate the need for costly tools.
Application
Almost every manufacturing industry uses CNC machines. With an increase in the
competitive environment and demands, the demand for CNC usage has increased to a greater
extent. The machine tools that come with the CNC are lathe, mills, shaper, welding, etc. The
industries that are using CNC machines are the automotive industry, metal removing
industries, industries of fabricating metals, electrical discharge machining industries, wood
industries, etc.

What is G-Code?
G-code is a programming language for CNC that instructs machines where and how to move.
Most machines speak a different “dialect” of g-code, so the codes vary depending on type,
make, and model. Each machine comes with an instruction manual that shows that particular
machine’s code for a specific function.
G-code stands for “geometric code
some common, standard G-codes are:

G00 - Positioning at rapid speed; Mill and Lathe

G01 - Linear interpolation (machining a straight line); Mill and Lathe
G02 - Circular interpolation clockwise (machining arcs); Mill and Lathe
G03 - Circular interpolation, counter clockwise; Mill and Lathe
G04 - Mill and Lathe, Dwell
G09 - Mill and Lathe, Exact stop

Miscellaneous Codes

The line of a program might also include m-codes, which are generally codes that tell a
machine how to perform an action. While not guaranteed to be the same across machines,
some common, standard m-codes are:

M00: Program stop

M01: Optional program stop
M02: End of program
M03: Spindle on clockwise
M04: Spindle on counterclockwise
M05: Spindle stop
 UNIT VI
Engineering Mechanism & their application in Domestic
Appliances
Introduction to Basic mechanisms and equipment: Pumps, blowers, compressors, springs, gears,
Belt-Pulley, Chain-Sprocket, valves, levers, etc. Introduction to terms: Specifications, Input, output,
efficiency, etc.
Applications of: Compressors - Refrigerator, Water cooler, Split AC unit; Pumps - Water pump for
overhead tanks, Water filter/Purifier units; Blower - Vacuum cleaner, Kitchen Chimney; Motor -
Fans, Exhaust fans, Washing machines; Springs - Door closure, door locks, etc.; Gears - Wall clocks,
watches, Printers, etc.; Belt-Pulley/Chain-Sprocket - Photocopier, bicycle, etc.; Valves - Water tap,
etc.; Levers - Door latch, Brake pedals, etc.; Electric/Solar energy - Geyser, Water heater, Electric
iron, etc. (simple numerical on efficiency calculation)

Introduction to Basic mechanisms and equipment

1. Pumps:-
Definition: - Pump is defined as a device which converts the input mechanical energy of motor of
engine into pressure energy or into kinetic energy of a fluid.
Function: - Its function is to lift a quantity of liquid from a low level to a high level or transfer the
fluid from one place to another place.
a. Centrifugal Pump:-

Impeller
It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved blades or vanes. It is
mounted on a shaft which is usually coupled to motor. The motor provides the required input energy
to rotate the impeller.
Casing
The impeller is enclosed in watertight casing with delivery pipe on one side and suction pipe
on suction side which are connect by eye of impeller.
It is designed in such a way that it helps in converting the K.E. of liquid into pressure energy.
Suction pipe
The pipe which connect sump to eye of impeller is called suction pipe. The sump carries
liquid to be lifted by the pump. The suction pipe at its inlet is provided with strainer & foot valve.

1
The function of strainer is to prevent the entry of any waste material like sand, leaves from water into
suction pipe. The foot valve is non return valve which allows the flow of water only in upward
direction.
Delivery pipe
The pipe which connects the outlet of pump to delivery point is called delivery pipe. A
delivery valve is provided to regulate the supply of liquid from pump to delivery pipe.
Working:-

Priming is the most basic and first step in the working of centrifugal pump. The process of
filling the casing, suction pipe and delivery pipe up to the delivery valve before starting the pump is
known as priming. In order to remove the air gap present in pump, it is filled by liquid.
1. First priming is done before starting the pump. Delivery valve is still kept closed.
2. Now the motor starts. The rotation of impeller in the casing full of liquid accelerates liquid
and there is generation of powerful centrifugal force which results in enhancement in liquid pressure.
3. This increase in pressure is directly proportional to the square of angular velocity and
distance of point from the axis.
4. Therefore, if the impeller rotates with faster speed, there is greater amount of production of
required pressure energy.
5. Now the delivery valve open and allow liquid to flow at desired location.

Advantages:
1. Centrifugal pumps don’t have any leakage issue.
2. They are able to pump hazardous as well as sensitive fluids.
3. There is also no problem of heat transfer as the space between the motor and chamber is
sufficiently large.
4. There is no loss of power due to friction and they are very simple in structure and easy in
handling.

Disadvantages:
1. Magnetic resonance in centrifugal pump results in small loss of energy.
2. The risk of the clogging of pipe may arise due to particle attractive nature of magnetic
drive.
3. Vibrations due to surrounding atmosphere can damage these pumps.
4. The risk of cavitations is always there.

Applications:

1. These pumps are used in buildings for pumping the regular water.
2. They are used in the fire protection related services.
3. Centrifugal pumps are used to transfer lactose and other drugs in pharmaceutical industry.
4. They are also used in coolant recirculation, refrigerants.
5. These pumps are used in sprinkling, irrigation, drainage.

b. Reciprocating Pump:-
The main components of reciprocating pump are as follows:

1. Suction Pipe
Suction pipe connects the source of liquid to the cylinder of the reciprocating pump. The liquid is
suck by this pipe from the source to the cylinder.

2
2. Suction Valve
Suction valve is non-return valve which means only one directional flow is possible in this type of
valve. This is placed between suction pipe inlet and cylinder. During suction of liquid it is opened and
during discharge it is closed.

3. Delivery Pipe
Delivery pipe connects cylinder of pump to the outlet source. The liquid is delivered to desired outlet
location through this pipe.

4. Delivery Valve
Delivery valve also non-return valve placed between cylinder and delivery pipe outlet. It is in closed
position during suction and in opened position during discharging of liquid.

5. Cylinder
A hollow cylinder made of steel alloy or cast iron. Arrangement of piston and piston rod is inside this
cylinder. Suction and release of liquid is takes place in this so, both suction and delivery pipes along
with valves are connected to this cylinder.

6. Piston and Piston Rod

Piston is a solid type cylinder part which moves backward and forward inside the hollow cylinder to
perform suction and deliverance of liquid. Piston rod helps the piston to its linear motion.

7. Crank and Connecting Rod

Crank is a solid circular disc which is connected to power source like motor, engine etc. for its
rotation. Connecting rod connects the crank to the piston as a result the rotational motion of crank
gets converted into linear motion of the piston.

8. Strainer
Strainer is provided at the end of suction pipe to prevent the entrance of solids from water source into
the cylinder.

3
Working of Reciprocating Pump

The working of reciprocating pump is as follows:

1. When the power source is connected to crank, the crank will start rotating and
connecting rod also displaced along with crank.
2. The piston connected to the connecting rod will move in linear direction. If crank
moves outwards then the piston moves towards its right and create vacuum in the
cylinder.
3. This vacuum causes suction valve to open and liquid from the source is forcibly
sucked by the suction pipe into the cylinder.
4. When the crank moves inwards or towards the cylinder, the piston will move towards
its left and compresses the liquid in the cylinder.
5. Now, the pressure makes the delivery valve to open and liquid will discharge through
delivery pipe.
6. When piston reaches its extreme left position whole liquid present in the cylinder is
delivered through delivery valve.
7. Then again the crank rotate outwards and piston moves right to create suction and the
whole process is repeated.
8. Generally the above process can be observed in a single acting reciprocating pump
where there is only one delivery stroke per one revolution of crank. But when it comes
to double acting reciprocating pump, there will be two delivery strokes per one
revolution of crank.
Uses of Reciprocating Pump

Reciprocating pump is mainly used for

1. Oil drilling operations

2. Pneumatic pressure systems
3. Light oil pumping
4. Feeding small boilers condensate return

4
2. Blowers:-

Blowers are used to circulate the air from one section to another section. Usually
blower consists of DC motor which creates centrifugal force to circulate the air.

5
3. Compressors
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing
its volume.

Reciprocating Compressor

The fig shows the cross section of single acting reciprocating air compressor.

It consists of piston which reciprocates in a cylinder. The piston is driven through

connecting rod and crank. The crankshaft is driven by an electric motor.

The suction valve and delivery valve are mounted on the cylinder head. The valves are
automatically opened and closed depending upon pressure difference across the valve.

Working
Suction stroke:-

When piston is moving downwards, the delivery valve is closed. When the pressure
inside the cylinder falls below the atmosphere pressure and suction valve opens. The
atmospheric air is sucked inside the cylinder up to the end of suction stroke.
6
Compression & delivery stroke:-
When the piston is moving upward, the air sucked inside the cylinder during suction stroke is
compressed gradually. When the pressure become higher than atmospheric pressure , the inlet
valve closes.
With the further movement of piston upward, air pressure increases. When the pressure reaches
above the pressure on delivery side, the delivery valve opens. The compressed air is discharged to
the receiver.

Advantages:
1. It is used to produce high pressure gas.

2. High efficiency and flexibility

Disadvantages:
1. The size of compressor is very large for given capacity.

2. High vibrations and noise.

3. Part of work input is lost due to frictional resistance between piston & cylinder.

4. The risk of cavitations is always there.

Applications:-
1. It is used to produce high pressure gas output.

2. It is used in refrigeration cycle.

3. It is used in oil refineries, gas pipelines, natural gas processing units, chemical plants

7
4. Springs

8
9
 5. Gears

A toothed wheel that works with others to alter the relation between the speed of a
driving mechanism (such as the engine of a vehicle) and the speed of the driven
parts (the wheels).

Spur Gear
Gears having cylindrical pitch surfaces are called cylindrical gears. Spur gears belong to
the parallel shaft gear group and are cylindrical gears with a tooth line which is straight
and parallel to the shaft. Spur gears are the most widely used gears that can achieve high
accuracy with relatively easy production processes. They have the characteristic of having
no load in the axial direction (thrust load). The larger of the meshing pair is called the gear
and smaller is called the pinion.

10
6. Belt-Pulley

11
7. Chain-Sprocket

12
8. Valves

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Remember this for Match the pair

Compressors - Refrigerator, Water cooler, Split AC unit;

Pumps - Water pump for overhead tanks, Water filter/Purifier units;
Blower - Vacuum cleaner, Kitchen Chimney;
Motor - Fans, Exhaust fans, Washing machines;
Springs - Door closure, door locks, etc.;
Gears - Wall clocks, watches, Printers, etc.;
Belt-Pulley/Chain-Sprocket - Photocopier, bicycle, etc.;
Valves - Water tap, etc.;
Levers - Door latch, Brake pedals, etc.;
Electric/Solar energy - Geyser, Water heater, Electric iron, etc.
20
21
 SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Course Code: 102003
First Year, Bachelor of Engineering (2019 Course)
Question Bank of Unit 1 & 2
1. Differentiate between renewable & non renewable energy sources.
2. Draw a layout of solar power plant. State the limitations of the plant.
3. Explain classification of boiler in brief.
4. Draw a layout of hydroelectric power plant and explain the energy extraction process.
5. Explain working of centrifugal pump with neat sketch and state its applications.
6. Explain Kelvin Plank & Clausius statements of second law of thermodynamics.
7. Draw a sketch of heat pump & refrigerator using source and sink. Prove that COP of
pump is greater than COP of refrigerator by unity.
8. With neat sketches explain nuclear power plant. Explain energy extraction process.
9. Explain various types of thermodynamic system.
10. Compare two stroke & four stroke engine cycle.
11. Explain the principle of working of four stroke spark ignition engine with neat sketch.
12. Explain working of thermal power plant with neat sketch.
13. Explain with examples, closed & open system
14. State & explain second law of thermodynamics.
15. Define: - heat source, heat sink, thermal efficiency & COP.
16. Differentiate between fire tube boiler and water tube boiler.
17. With neat sketches explain principle of working of four stroke petrol engine.
18. State various statements and limitations of first law of thermodynamics.
19. Explain second law of thermodynamics for heat engine.
20. Define thermodynamic system. Explain its types with examples.
21. With neat sketch explain geothermal power plant. State its limitations.
22. With neat sketch explain hydrogen cell.
23. What is biomass? Explain various methods of energy extraction from biomass.
24. How tides are generated? Explain with neat sketch tidal power plant.
25. With neat sketch explain wind turbine.
26. Explain grade of energy.
27. Explain Pelton turbine with neat sketch.
28. Define pump & give its classifications.
29. State and explain various modes of heat transfer.
30. Distinguish between conduction & convection.
31. Distinguish between natural & forced convection.
32. State & explain Fourier’s law of conduction.
33. Define thermal conductivity and obtain its unit.
34. State & explain Newton’s law of cooling, Stefan Boltzmann’s law.
35. Explain the principle of working of four stroke compression ignition engine with neat
sketch.
36. Compare petrol & diesel engine.
37. State and explain Zeroth Law.
38. Difference between heat pump & refrigerator.
39. State third law of thermodynamics.
40. With neat sketch explain water & fire tube boiler.
41. Define heat exchanger & explain its types with neat sketch.
0
42. A refrigeration system is used to maintain a cold storage at 40 C. The heat leakage from
the surrounding into the cold storage is estimated to be 1800 kJ/min. If COP is 1.5, find
the amount of heat rejected to the surrounding and power required for driving the system.
Draw the sketch of system.
0
43. A heat pump is used to maintain the house at 25 C. The house is losing the heat at the rate
of 60000 kJ/hr to the surrounding. While the heat generated in the house by various
appliances is 4000 kJ/hr. If COP of heat pump is 1.7, find the power required to drive the
heat pump.
44. An engine develops 80 kw of work output when heat is supplied at the rate of 240 kw.
Find the efficiency of the engine & heat rejected to atmosphere. Draw the sketch of the
system.
0 0
45. A heat engine operates between source & sink temperatures of 235 C & 30 C
respectively. If heat engine receives 35 kw from the source, find the net work done by the
engine, the heat rejected to the sink by the engine and the efficiency of the engine. Draw
the sketch of system.
46. A refrigerator with COP of 1.6 absorbs heat from food compartment at the rate of 360
kJ/min. Draw the sketch of the system & find power consumed by the refrigerator and the
amount of heat rejected to the surrounding.
47. A household refrigerator with a COP of 1.8 removes heat from the refrigerated space at
the rate of 90 kJ/min. Determine electrical power consumed by the refrigerator and the
rate of heat transfer to kitchen air.
48. A heat pump is used to maintain the house at 24 0C. The house is losing the heat at the
rate of 1800 kJ/min to the surrounding. The heat pump is driven by an electric motor of
power rating 12 kw. Find the amount of heat absorbed from surrounding and COP of the
heat pump. Draw the sketch of the system.
49. A heat pump used for winter air conditioning to heat a room draws heat from the
surroundings at the rate 60 kw. The heat pump is driven with the help of a motor which
supplies 8 kw of power to heat pump. Find the COP of the pump. If the same unit is used
for summer air conditioning to cool the room requiring 60 kw of heat removal from the
room with same power input, find the COP of the machine.
50. A reversible heat engine operates with efficiency of 30%. Find the heat supplied and
power output if heat rejected from the engine is 70kw. Estimate COP of the pump if the
engine is reversed to work as heat pump. Draw the sketch of the heat engine & heat pump.
51. A heat engine operates between source and sink temperatures of 225°C and 25°C
respectively. If heat engine receives 40 KW from the source, find the net work done by the
engine, the heat rejected to the sink by the engine and the efficiency of engine. Draw the
sketch of system.
52. A small generating plant of 100 KW capacity uses gas of a calorific value of 4000
KJ/m3.The volume of gas required per hour when the plant is running at full load
condition is 450 m3 / hr. Find: (a) Input Power and (b) Overall Efficiency of the plant.
53. A Steam Power Plant has Coal Consumption of 16200 Kg/hr with Calorific Value of Coal
as 17793.9 kJ/kg. If the speed of steam turbine is 1000 rpm and generated torque is
477464.8293 Nm. Find: (a) Input Power, (b) Output Power and (c) Efficiency.
54. A Steam Power Plant has Coal Consumption of 16300 Kg/hr with Calorific Value of Coal
as 17793.9 kJ/kg. If the speed of steam turbine is 1100 rpm, radial distance is 1.5m and
generated force is 318309.8862 N. Find: (a) Generated Torque, (b) Input Power , (c)
Output Power and (d) Efficiency.
55. Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade length is 50 Air
density ρ = 1.23 kg/m3.
56. Find the diameter of wind turbine to generate 6 kw at a wind speed of 9 m/s and the speed
of rotor is 120 RPM. Assume efficiency 40 %, density of air 1.2 kg/m3.
57. Wind density 1.2 kg/m3 has a velocity of 16 m/s. The overall efficiency of wind turbine is
50%. Find total power contained in the wind & power output of wind generator. Assume
the diameter of turbine as 100m.
58. The capacity of an overhead tank is 2400 m3. This is required to be filled by a pump which
required to pump water up to a height of 18 m in 50 minutes. Find the power required by
pump.
59. Determine power required by the pump to raise the 2 m3/min of water to a reservoir at a
height of 10 m if its efficiency is 80 %.
60. A water turbine receives water from a reservoir under a head of 50 m at the rate of 900
liters per second. Turbine discharges water at the rate of 10 m/s/ Find the input power ,
output power and the efficiency of turbine. Assume densidt of water = 1000 kg/m3.
61. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area through a copper plate 0.045 m thick whose
one face is maintained at 350 0C and the other face at 50 0C. Thermal conductivity of
copper is 370 W/mC.
62. The wall of a oven is 40 cm thick having its thermal conductivity of 0.7 w/mk. The
interior surface of the oven is maintained at a temperature of 800 degree Celsius and the
outside wall temperature is 200 degree Celsius. The total surface area of the Wall of the
oven is 1 m2. Find the thermal resistance heat flow rate and heat flux.
63. An immersion water heater of surface area 0.1 m2 and rating 1 kw is designed to operate
fully submerged in water. Estimate the surface temperature of heater when the water is at
40 degree Celsius and hwater = 300 w/m2k. If this heater is by mistake used in air at 40
degree Celsius & hair = 9 w/m2k, what will be the surface temperature?
64. The wall thickness of the oven is 8.25 and thermal conductivity of wall insulation is 0.04
w/mk . The temperature of inner surface of the wall is 175 degree Celsius. The energy
dissipated by the electric coil with the oven is 40.5W. Determine the area of wall surface
perpendicular heat flow so that temperature on the other side of the will not exceed 75
degree Celsius.
65. A pipe of 2 cm diameter at 40 degree celsius is placed in
a) an air flow at 50 degree Celsius with h = 20 w/m2k
b) water at 30 degree Celsius with h = 80 w/m2k
Find the heat transfer per unit length of the pipe and comment on the results in the both
cases.
66. A black body at 1100 degree Celsius at surrounding at 200 degree Celsius find the heat
loss per unit area by radiation.
67. A body having 3 m2 of surface area is maintained at 600k. It exchanges heat by radiation
with another surface enclosing it at 300 Kelvin. Its emissivity is 0.65. Find the rate of heat
loss by radiation, radiation thermal resistance and the value of equivalent Convection
coefficient.
68. A small steam power plant of capacity 150 kw uses the gaseous fuel of C.V. 4000 kj/kg. If
the efficiency of the plant is 40%, find the fuel consumption in m3/day.
Total No. of Questions : 4] SEAT No. :

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P1271 [Total No. of Pages : 2

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OCT/FE/INSEM-4

4s
F.E. (Semester - I)

2:5
SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

01 91
0:4
(2019 Pattern)

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91
Time : 1 Hour] 3/1 13 [Max. Marks : 30
0
CO 1 : Describe and compare the conversion of energy from renewable and non renewable
0/2
.23 GP

energy.
CO 2: Explain basic laws of thermodynamic, heat transfer and their applications.
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8
Instructions to the candidates:
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1) Solve Q. 1 or Q. 2, Q.3 or Q.4.

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2) Assume suitable data if necessary.

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4s
3) Figures to the right indicate full marks.
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2:5
91
Q1) a) Explain working of hydroelectric power plant with neat labeled diagram.
49

0:4
Write two advantages of hydroelectric power plant. [8]
30
91

b) A coal fired power plant uses 5000 tons of coal per day. The average
01
01

power output from plant is 200MW. Compute the efficiency of power

0/2
GP

plant. Take calorific value of coal as 15000kJ/kg. Write two advantages

3/1

and disadvantages of thermal power plant. [7]

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80

38
OR

c-2
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Q2) a) Explain working of Centrifugal Pump with neat labeled diagram and its i
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application. [8]
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4s
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2:5

b) Compare Conventional and non conventional energy source. Draw neat

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labeled diagram of solar steam power plant. [7]

0:4
30
91
01
01

Q3) a) Describe the concept of Heat Pump and Refrigerator with diagram and
0/2

write expression for COP. Compare Heat Engine & refrigerator. [8]
GP
3/1

b) State Stefan Boltzman’s law of radiation. A body having 5m2 of surface

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area is maintained at 227°C. It exchanges the heat with another surface

enclosing it at 27°C by radiation. Its emissivity is 0.1,  = 5.67 x 10-8 W/
.23

m2K4. Compute the rate of heat lost by radiation. [7]

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 OR

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Q4) a) Explain the working of Four Stroke CI Engine with line diagram. Write

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Advantages. [8]

tat
4s
b) State Second law of thermodynamics. A refrigerator with COP of 1.6

2:5
removes heat from freezer at the rate of 400 kJ/min. Draw block diagram

01 91
of system. Compute the power consumed by compressor and heat

0:4
rejected to the surroundings. [7]

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3/1 13 M M M
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0:4
30
91
01
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38
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2:5
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0:4
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FE/Insem.-4 2
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 8
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Total No. of Questions—8] [Total No. of Printed Pages—3

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Seat

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[5667]-1003

01 91
No.

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F.E. (I Semester) EXAMINATION, 2019
8 2 P0
SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
.23 G

(2019 PATTERN)
CE

Time : 2½ Hours Maximum Marks : 70

8
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Course Outcome :—

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(CO3) List down the types of road vehicles and their specifications.
8.2

5s
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(CO4) Illustrate various basic parts and transmission system of

8:5
91
49

a road vehicle.
9:4
30
90
(CO5) Discuss several manufacturing processes and identify the
01
01

suitable process.
2/2
GP

(CO6) Explain various types of mechanism and its application.

8/1
CE

N.B. :— (i) Solve Q. No. 1 or Q. No. 2, Q. No. 3 Or Q. No. 4,

82

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Q. No. 5 or Q. No. 6, Q. No. 7 or Q. No. 8.

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(ii) Assume suitable data, if necessary.

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8.2

5s
(iii) Figures to the right indicate full marks.
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8:5
91
49

9:4
30

1. (a) Classify automobiles and explain any two. [7]

90
01
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(b) Define specification of vehicle and compare specification of LMV

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P

and Multi-axel vehicles (three points). [7]

.23 G
8/1
16 E

(c) Explain the following Engine Specification : [4]

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(1) Torque
(2) Cubic Capacity.
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49
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Or

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2. (a) List specification of vehicle and explain any three specifications

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for two wheeler. [7]

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2/2 0
(b) Explain working of Electric Vehicle with neat diagram. [7]

90
8/1 13
(c) Explain Cost analysis of vehicle.
8 2 P0 [4]
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CE

3. (a) Explain working of Disc Brake with neat line diagram. [7]

8
23
(b) Explain telescopic supension system with neat diagram. [7]

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(c) A two stage spur gear assembly is having teeth number of
8.2

5s
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input gear as 30, intermediate gear as 60 and output gear

8:5
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as 120. If input speed is 1000 rpm, compute speed ration

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and output speed. [3]
01
01
2/2
GP
8/1

Or
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4. (a) Explain with neat diagram Front Engine Front Wheel Drive.

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23
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Write any two advantages. [7]
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8.2

(b) Explain working of single plate clutch with neat diagram. [7] 5s
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8:5

(c) Write a short note on safety arrangement in vehicles. [3]

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49

9:4
30
90

5. (a) Explain sand casting manufacturing process with neat

01
01
2/2

diagram. [7]
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P
8/1

(b) List type of joining process and compare welding and soldering
16 E
82
C

process (three points). [7]

(c) Write a short note on 3D-Printing technology. [4]

8.2

[5667]-1003 2
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6. (a) Define Machining operation and explain turning and drilling

5
8:5
01 91
operation principal with neat diagram. [7]

9:4
2/2 0
(b) Define forging process. Explain open and close forging process

90
8/1 13
with neat diagram.
8 2 P0 [7]
(c) Write a short note on micromachining. [4]
.23 G
CE

8
23
7. (a) Explain working of split AC with neat diagram. [7]

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(b) Explain working of Solar Heater with neat diagram. [7]
8.2

5s
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(c) Write a short note on use of gear in Clock. [3]

8:5
91
49

9:4
30
90
Or
01
01

8. (a) Explain working of printer with neat diagram. [7]

2/2
GP
8/1

(b) Explain concept of open belt pulley drive with neat diagram
CE
82

and list two applications. [7]

8
23
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(c) Write a short note on Electric iron. [3]
16

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8.2

5s
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9:4
30
90
01
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2/2
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[5667]-1003 3 P.T.O.
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