Computer ch3 what I learnt and retained after reading

CPU is known as the microprocessor or processor.

It is the central part of the modern day computer.
It is responsible for the execution of instructions and data in a
computer application.
It consists one 3 things
Control unit (cu)
Arithmetic and logic unit (alu)
Registers and buses.
The early day computers were fed data while running.
The von Neumann architecture introduced the concept of the
stored program computer.it is based on these concepts
Cpu
The cpu can access the memory directly.
The comp memories could stored as well as data.
Stored programs were made up of instructions that could be
carried out in a sequential order.
It has 3 components control unit arithmetic logic unit
And system clock.
Arithmetic and logic units allowed the the command of
carrying out the arithmetic operations while a program is
being runned.
Control unit reads an instruction from memory. The address
of the location where the instruction is stored is in pc program
counter.it is then interpreted while using fetch decode
execute cycle. Signals are then made in control unit which tells
other components what to do.it is responsible for
synchronization of data flow and instructions. The system
clock sets timing signals in control bus were data is
synchronized . Otherwise comp would crash.
Rams holds all the important data needed to be accessed by
cpu. Cpu takes all the data held in hard disk drive and puts
them in ram because read/write are done faster in ram rather
than hard disk drive . any key data needed by an application
will be temporarily stored in ram to speed up operation.
One of the most fundamental components of von Neumann is
registers.
Special registers
(Cir)this register stores the current instruction which is being
executed or decoded.
(Acc) this register is used when carrying out alu calculations.
(Mar) this register stores the address of the current memory
location being read or written to.
(Mdr) this register this register stores the data being read by
memory or written to memory.
(Pc ) this register stores the the address where next
instruction can be read or found.
The comp memory is divided in partitions each partition
contain address which identify location in memory and the
content is the binary value stored in each location.
Input and output devices: it is the main method of getting
data into and out of comp systems. The input devices take in
the data in form which comp can understand and process.
And the output devices convert the result in the form which
humans can understand.
System buses: are used as parallel transmission
components .each wire in this bus transmits 1 bit of data.
There are 3 buses used in von Neumann architecture
1) Address bus it carries address in b/w cpu and memory it
is unidirectional. Which prevents it from sending data
back to cpu. The width of the bus is very imp the wider
the bus the more memory locations that can be
addressed.
2) Data bus it is bidirectional and can carry data from cpu to
memory and to/from input/output devices. (a word is
the group of bits which are transported.
3) Control bus is also bidirectional it carries signals from cu
to all other comp components. it is 8 bits wide
FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE:cpu need to carry out set
of instruction it fetch data, instructions from memory and
store them in registers.then these instructions are
executed it is known as fetch decode execute cycle.
FETCH: it fetch instructions stored from memory address
in (MAR) and sent it to (MDR) for execution and pc is
incremented by 1 so next instruction can be processed.
Decode: instruction is then decoded so cpu can execute
it.
Execute: cpu pass thes decoded instructions in control
signals to comp components. And are executed in logical
sequence.
Factors that determine performace of comp/cpu
1) System clock defines clock cycle that synchronized all
comp operations and increasing the clock speed will
enchance comp processing power. The typical value is
3.5ghz mean 3.5 billion clock cycles per sec.
2) The width of address bus or data bus increasing them
will better comp performance.
3) Overclocking: using higher speed than comp was
designed for will result in unsynchronized operations
and crashing and heating of cpu.
4) Core is made up alu,cu and registers. Increasing no of
cores will increase the clock speed but we have to take
in consideration of cpu communication using channels
 that could also effect its performance. In general using
more cores will increase comp performance.
5) Data and instructions can be accessed faster in cache
memory and is frequently used if data is not there cpu
will look for it in main memory/ram overall increasing
cache memory will better the of computer.
Instruction set: instruction are set of operations
decoded to be executed and instruct alu or cu .
Operation is made up of opcode and operand
Opcode : tell cpu what operation to perform.
Operand: is data that need to be acted on or refer to a
register in memory.
______________________________________
There are a limited no of opcodes that can be used in
operation and it is known as instruction set. Example of this is
X86 cpu all comp based on this share identical instruction sets.
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An embedded system is a combination of hardware, software
used to carry specific set of instructions
When an embedded system is installed in device data can be
inputed manually or it will be automatically inputed by a
sensor. Output will carry out functions of embedded system
by sending signals to components being controlled.
Embedded systems can be programmable or
nonprogrammable depending on the device. Generally non
programmable devices need to be replaced if require software
update.
There are 2 methods in which programmable devices permit
to be upgraded:
1) Device connected to computer and allowing to download
updates.(e.g used to update gps system like this)
2) Automatic updates by wifi,satellite etc.(e.g cars allow
updates to engine management system).
________________________
Benefits of embedded systems:
1) East to fit in devices due to small size.
2) Low cost to make
3) They are dedicated to 1 task allowing simple interface.
4) Consume little power.
5) Reliable because they are made in mass production.
6) Can be controlled remotely.(e.g mobile phones)
drawbacks
1) Difficult to upgrade some devices
2) Lots of trouble shooting faults in device.
3) Are discarded because they can not be upgraded and lot
of faults in device.
4) Simple interface can cause more confusion.
__________________--
Remember embedded systems carry out one task at a
time.
Examples of embedded system
Motor vechicles: there some parts of a vehical that are
controlled by it.
SET-TOP-BOX: it uses embedded system to allow for
recording and playing back of television programs.it can
be controlled remotely.
SECURITY SYSTEMS: . You use a code to control a security
system with keypad. sensors around your home sent
information to controller which compare it to value is ssd
if an issue is detected it give out put like flashing lights
home owner can interact with system remotely as well.
__________
Lighting systems: in this we will concentrate how
embedded systems make lighting systems work in office
It will consider 3 factors:
1) Time of day or day of week.
2) Room is occupied or not.
3) Brightness of natural light.
It will control lighting system using inputs such as light
sensors. If it is a working day it will switch to high level
lighting if it is a holiday it will switch to low level
lighting or shut down to save power if room is
occupied same thing will happen as above and if
natural is dim it switch to high level lighting and if it is
bright day then it will dim lighting system.
Vending machines: it use an embedded system in the
form of microcontroller. Input is given from keypad or
sensors( such as used to count coins inserted by
customer) output is given:
1) Actuators operate motors and power helixes to give
customer desired item.
2) Item description or any change in item are displayed
in LCD screen.
3) Data from vending machines sent back to company
to check sales and activity.
Washing machines: it uses a keypad or dial that
select washing cycle etc which give input to
embedded system and it carry out the task without
human interruption.
3.2 input and output devices
Barcode scanners: barcode is a series of dark and
light parallel lines of varying thickness. And the no 0-
9 are represented by a unique series of lines.

Each digit is made up of 2 dark,light lines and gap

b/w digits is same. The digits on left side have odd
no of dark bars and begin with light bar while digits
on right start with dark bars and have even no of
dark bars. It allow them to be scanned in any
direction.
How is barcode scanned?
1) It is scanned by a red laser.
2) Light is reflected back by white areas nothing is
reflected back from dark areas. Allowing scanner
to recognize pattern and the barcode being read.
3) The pattern is then coverted into digital data so
comp can understand.
There are other input output devices used in
super market such as:
1) Keypads: used to enter items bought by buyer
or weight.
2) Screen/monitor: used to show cost of item.
3) Speaker: used to make beeping sound every
time barcode is read correctly.
4) Printer: to print out recipt.
5) Touchscreen: to select items by touching icons.
What happens when barcode has been read?
1) Barcode no is like a key and is unique to that
product cashier use that key to find its
information in stock item list.
2) When the barcode no is found on the list the
product record is seen.
3) The price of item and other details are sent
back to checkout counter.
4) No of stock items are reduced by one each
time barcode of that product is scanned.
5) This new value of stock items is recorded in
the list.
6) No of stock items is compared to minimum
item you want of that product and if it is less
or equal to that value more stock item are
automatically ordered.
7) Once items are ordered a flag is added to
stop it from ordering more.
8) And stock levels are updated.
Advantages of barcodes to management
1) Faster to change prices of stock items.
2) More up/to date sales information.
3) Saves time on pricing items.
4) Easy to check customer buying habits.
Advantages of barcodes to customers
1) Faster checkout queues.
2) Errors are reduced.
3) Better track of food expiration date.
Quick response(QR) codes
They can hold more information than
barcodes they consist of small block of sq.
and (light, dark) known as pixels. It can
hold up to 7089 digits compared to 30
digits barcode.
The 3 large sq. function as alignment and
other small sq. ensure correct angle of
camera when being read.
There can be used to:
1) Advertising products
2) Giving automatic access to website.
3) Storing boarding passes electronically.
Qr codes can read by following method:
1) Point phone or tablet to QR code.
2) App process the image and convert
into readable data.
3) Browser software read the data and
decode the information contained by
QR code.
4) User will then be sent to website
automatically.
5) If it contain boarding pass it will be
sent to them.
Advantages of QR codes to bar codes
1) Hold more information.
2) It has built in error checking
method.
3) Easier to read.
4) East to encrypt them giving greater
protection.
Disadvantages of QR codes to bar
codes
1) More than one code which can
lead to confusion.
2) Qr code can be used to transmit
malicious codes.
Frame QR codes
They can add more advertising logo
signs and has a canvas so you can
add graphics or images. But it isn’t
free.
Digital cameras: it has replaced
traditional cameras as they were
more expensive to operate while
they are simply linked to a comp
using usb port allowing transfer of
photographic files.
They are controlled by embedded
system and carry out following
tasks:
1) adjust shutter speed
2) focus image automatically
3) adjust size of image
4) it adjust aperture size.
What happens when a photograph
is taken:
*when image is captured light pass
through lens onto a light sensitive
cell.(ccd convert light to electricity)
* each sensor is referred as pixel
because they make up the image.
*image is converted into tiny
electric charges which is passed
through ADC to form digital image
array.
*ADC coverts the information about
brightness in each pixel to digital
form so comp can understand.
* sensors also measure color which
produce binary pattern.
No of pixels determine size of
image.
Quality of image depend on
device/camera lens.
Keyboards: they are most common
method of data entry and are used
as input devices in the comp. they
are connected to comp using USB
connection. It is often virtual or
touch screen.
This a slow method of data entry
and is prone to errors and frequent
use of devices can lead to repetitive
strain injury (RSI). Ergonomic comp
are built to overcome this problem
which give support to hand,wrists.
How comp recognize a letter
pressed on keyboard:
1) there is a circuit board
underneath the keys.
2) After key is pressed circuit is
complete.
3) Cpu then determine which key is
pressed.
4) It refer to a index file to know
which character the key pressed
represent.
Microphones: are built in devices
in comp or external devices
connected to comp using
Bluetooth.
This is how a microphone work:
1) When sound is created air
vibrate.
2) When diaphragm listens to air
vibrations it also start to
vibrate.
3) Diaphragm vibrations move
connected cone causing the
coil to move back and forward.
4) Forward/backward motion
cause coil to cut through the
field of magnet causing electric
current
5) The electric current is then
send to a recording device.
Optical mouse: it is a pointing
device it can work on any
surface.
This is how it works:
There is a red led at the base
of mouse and that light is
bounced off surface and picked
by (CMOS). It then create
electric signal and sent to
(DSP) it then work out the
coordinates of mouse then
comp move cursor to
coordinates sent by mouse.
Benefits of optical mouse:
1) No moving parts more
reliable.
2) Dirt can’t get trap in parts.
3) Can work on any surface.
Benefits of a wired mouse:
1) No signal loss as there is
constant signal wire.
2) Cheaper to operate.
3) Longer durability no need
to throw old batteries.
2D and 3D scanners
2D scanners: it most
common form and is used
to input documents.
Image is converted in
electric form that a comp
can understand.
How a document is
scanned:
Cover is raised then
document is placed on
glass panel cover is closed
then a light illuminates
the document and the
scan head scan the
document it is then sent
to lens it focus the image
and then CCD converts
light into electric current
and convert image into
electric form.
Comp equipped with
(OCR) allow text to edited
or manipulated.
3D scanners: it scan solid
objects and produce 3
dimensional image.
Digital image which
represent object is
formed and that image is
used in CAD to produce
working model of image.
Application of 2D
scanners: they are used at
airports to read passports
and use OCR technology
to produce digital images
which represent passport.
OCR allowed it to be
reviewed . the
photograph in passport is
stored as jpeg image.
Passenger face is also
 photographed and
compared to photo in
passport. Key parts of
face are compared:
1) Distance b/w eyes
2) Width of nose
3) Shape of cheek bones
4) Length of jawline
5) Shape of eyebrows
Application of 3D scanners: Ct scanners create a 3D image of
solid object this ct technology builds 3D image through slices.
Each slice is built by use of x rays etc. and each slice is stored
in comp memory.
TOUCH Screens: very common form of input device allow
simple touch selection to launch an app. And carry out same
functions as you would with pointing device.
3 types of touch screens:
1) Capacitive
2) Infrared
3) Resistive( most common at the time)
Capacitive touch screens: is composed of a layer of glass
beneath it a layer of electrode and a another layer of
glass. So when we touch screen electrostatic field is
changed and microcontroller determine the coordinates.
2 types of capacitive touch screens:
1) Surface
2) Projective
Surface capacitive screens: sensors are placed at
corners of screen and voltage is applied to create an
electric field. When we touch screen and it will reduce
the capacitance and microcontroller measure the
decrease and determine the coordinates of where it is
touched.
Projective touch screens: transparent conductive layer
form a grid. It create a 3 dimensional electrostatic
field. and when we touch It disturb the field and
microcontroller calculate the coordinates.
ADVANTAGES compared to other 2:
1) Better image clarity than resistive screens
2) Very durable screens
3) Allow multi touch
Disadvantages compared to other 2:
1) Only work bare fingers or stylus
2) Sensitive to electromagnetic radiation.
Infrared touch screens: it use sensors and
radiation. Sensors detect radiation if we touch
and beam is broken the radiation reaching sensors
is reduced new reading is sent to microcontroller
and it calculate coordinates.
Advantages:
1) Allow multi touch
2) Good screen durability
 3) Operability not affected by scratched screen.
Disadvantages:
1) Sensitive to water/moisture
2) Accidental activation is possible
3) Sensitive to light interference
Resistive touch screens: made up of 2
electrically resistive layers. Top layer and
bottom layer have resistive coating on each
side and when top layer is touched both
surfaces are in contact which complete a
circuit and allow flow of electricity point of
touch is detected by change in voltage.
Advantages:
1) Good resistance to dust and water.
2) Can be used with bare fingers or stylus.
Disadvantages:
1) Low touch sensitivity
2) Don’t support multi touch
3) Poor visibility in sunlight
4) Vulnerable to scratches
Output devices3.2
Actuators: it is used to start/stop devices such as
conveyor belt or valve controlled by comp. it is an
mechanical/electromechanical device such as solenoid
& motor.
 Example solenoid: if plunger is placed inside coil it will
move when current is applied to coil. It would allow it
to operate a switch/valve. & will cause rotational
movement.
Light projectors: 2 types of light projector
1) Digital light projector.(DLP)
2) Liquid crystal display. (LCD)
They are used to project comp output onto large screens.
(DLP): tiny mirrors are arranged on DMD chip and reflect light
from the light source to create light/dark pixels. If it switch off
more than on it produce greyscale image. When light source
pass through colour filter it separate into RGB and then DLP
create and produce a coloured image with 16mil colours.
Note: DMD chip is (moems).
(LCD): older technology than (DLP). Light source produce
white light it is then light is reflected from mirrors and
separate into RGB they pass through 3LCD panels image is
then recombined by special prism to produce colored image
and is projected through lens.
Advantages(DLP)
1) High contrast ratios
2) Higher reliability
3) Quieter while running
4) Better adaptability to dusty/smoky atmospheres.
5) Smaller lighter in size.
 Advantages(LCD)
1) Sharper image than (DLP)
2) Better color saturation.
3) More effective use of energy.
Disadvantages(DLP)
1) Image suffer from shadows.
2) No grey components in image.
3) Colour saturation not as good as(LCD).
Disadvantages(LCD)
1) Contrast ratios not as good as (DLP)
2) Have limited life.
3) LCD panels degrade over time which degrade
colours as well.
Inkjet and laser printers
Inkjet : print head which have nozzles and spray ink to
form chracters on paper and ink cartridges are used a stepper
or motor move print head across page side to side and a paper
feed which feed pages to printer.
Ink droplets are produced using 2 diff technologies.
Thermal bubble: tiny resisters create heat which vaporize ink.
It create a tiny bubble then bubble expand and drop on paper.
Small vaccum is created which allow fresh ink to be drawn.
Piezoelectric: crystal is located at back of ink reservoir for
each nozzle. It is given electric charge which eject ink on
paper.this process is repeated until done.
Steps in inkjet printing process
1) Data from document is sent to printer driver.
2) Driver ensure that data can be understood by printer.
3) A check is made by driver to make sure printer is
available to print.
4) Data is stored in printer buffer.

5) Sheet of paper is then fed to printer.

6) Print head moves side to side across the paper to print.
7) Paper is advanced so that next line can be printed.
8) Once it is done request is sent to CPU to sent more data
until whole process is done.
Laser printer: they use dry powered ink instead of liquid
ink and use 4 tonner cartridges. And use static electricity
to print colored dots are used to build up images and
print in 1 go.
Steps in laser printing process:
1) Data is sent to printer driver.
2) Driver ensures that data will be understood by printer.
3) Check is made by driver to see if printer is available to
print.
4) Data is stored in printer buffer.
5) Printing drum is given positive charge then the charge
is removed by laser beam and negative charge is given.
6) Then toner is attracted to – charged places on drum.
7) Since toner is positively charged it attract negatively
charged parts.
8) So sheet is rolled on drum with – charge.
9) And exact copy is printed. Electric charge is removed to
prevent paper sticking to drum.
10) Fuser permanently fix ink on paper
Application of inkjet printers and laser printers:
Inkjet: it is used to print few pages of good quality
color
Printing is needed it has small ink cartridges and paper
trays.
Laser printers: it produce high quality printouts of
multiple copies of document very fast. Flyers or
posters would be printed using this printer it has large
toner cartridges and paper trays.
3D printers: it produce solid objects that work using
materials like powdered resin, metal etc.
Features of 3D printing:
1) These printers size range from microwave to small
car.
2) 3D printers produce the object by building it up layer
by layer until it was formed. It is diff from tradition
method which is subtractive method.
3) Direct 3D printing print head can move sideways and
up and down to build up layers of object.
4) Binder 3D printing in first pass dry powder is sprayed
and then glue is sprayed to form solid layer.
How to create solid objects using 3D printers
1) Design is made using CAD software.
2) Drawing is then sent to special software which put
it in a format comp can understand.
3) Printer is set up.
4) The object is built up layer by layer.
5) Object is then removed from printer.
Uses of 3D printing: it is known to be the next
industrial revolution. These are some of the things
that can be made by 3D printers:
1) Covering of prosthetic limbs
2) Making items used in surgery which aims to
repair body parts.
3) Allowing new constructive ideas to be
developed. In fashion and art.
4) Making parts of items that are no longer in
production.
LED screens: it is made up of tiny light emitting
diodes. It can be of diff colors varying on
electric current. Brightness level can also be
controlled.
They are displayed outdoors due to sharp
colours produced.
LCD screens: they are made up of tiny liquid
crystals. They do not produce their own light so
they are backlit using light emitting diodes
which is LED screen technology. Before this
they used CCFL which used 2 fluorescent tubes.
LEDs have become more popular as backlit
method of LCD due to some advantages over
CCFL:
1) LEDs reach their max brightness immediately.
2) They give more whiter light which produce
sharp image.
3) It has brighter light.
4) Monitors are very thin using this technology.
5) It is more reliable and consistent product.
6) Consume less power.
(OLED): it uses organic light emitting diodes.
organic material that emits light it consist of
multiple layers such as emissive and
conductive layer. when electric current is
applied emissive layer produce energy in
form of light. And diff materials and adjusting
intensity of current result to display of wide
range of colors.
Advantages of OLED:
1) Plastic, organic layers are thinner and
lighter.
2) Light emitting layers are lighter because
made from plastic.
3) Give brighter light.
4) Do not require backlighting.
 5) Consume very less power.
6) Have large field of view about 170 degrees
which make them ideal for advertising
screens.
Loudspeakers: is output device that
produce sound.
This is how digitized sound is converted
into following sound: 1) digital data pass
through ADC which is changed in electric
current.
3) Then it goes though amplifier which
produce large enough current to
drive loud speaker.
4) It is then fed to loud speaker where
it is converted.
This is how it works: 1) a coil is wrapped behind a cone and
the coil is surrounded by a permanent magnet. When
electrical signal pass through this magnet interact which
changing magnetic field causing cone to move back and forth
which create sound wave and we hear it as sound.
Sensors: they are input devices that measure physical
properties around there surrounding. And this data needs to
be converted from analogue using ADC. When comp is
controlling devices it uses actuators. And sensor readings will
cause microprocessor to alter a valve or motor which impact
next reading taken by sensor.
 Some commonly sensors used
Temperature: will temp around surrounding and sent signals
this will change as temp change.
Moisture: measure water levels in atmosphere or soil.
Humidity: measure amount of water vapour ex air sample.
Light: it sense light and give output in electric signal
depending on brightness level of light.
Infrared(active): use invisible beam of infrared radiation this is
picked up by sensor and if beam is broken the amount
received change.
Infrared(passive): measure heat radiation given off by object.
Pressure: It is a transducer for example ADC convert energy
from one form to another. Generate electric current
depending on pressure applied.
Sound sensors: microphones that convert sound into electric
signals.
Gas sensor: it use various methods to detect gas being
monitored and tell you the level of gas present.
Ph: it measure acidity level by changes in voltages.
Magnetic field: measure change in magnetic field and output
depend how it changes.
Accelerometer: it measure acceleration or motion of an
object.
Proximity: detect presence of an object nearby.
Flow: it measure flow rate of liquid passed over sensor and
produce an output based on amount passed over sensor.
Level: it use high pitched sounds to detect liquid levels in tank
or river etc.
Sensors are also used in control or monitoring applications
there is a diff in how this works in both of them:
For example in monitoring systems: sensor send signal to
microprocessor. It then converts signals using ADC. It then
analyze this data with stored values. If data is outside
acceptable range warning is send and microprocessor has no
effect in what is being monitered.
Control systems: everything is exactly the same except when
data is outside acceptable change in control system the micro-
processor take immediate action to control valves or motor
which impact next set of inputs.
Examples of monitoring systems using sensors:
1) Monitoring a patient in hospital.
2) Monitoring for intruders.
3) Checking pollution levels in river.
4) Checking temp in car engine.
Examples of control systems using sensors:
1) Turning street lights on/off depending on time of day.
2) Controlling temp in heating/cooling system.
 3) Chemical process control.
Security monitoring system how does it work:
First you activate the system by setting a password this
security system uses 3 sensors infrared sensor which
pick up movement of burglar, the acoustic sensor pick
up sounds of burglar footsteps and pressure sensor
checks the weight of intruder. Then this data is
converted using ADC. It is then analyzed and compared
with stored value by microprocessor and if it is outside
the acceptable range comp send signal to siren or flash
light. And it continues until password is reset.
Monitoring patients in hospital:
No of sensors are attached to patient to measure heart rate
temp etc it regularly send data back to comp and it sample the
data. Acceptable values are keyed by comp it compare value
of sensors with one,s keyed if it is outside range signal is sent
to sound alarm by comp and it continue until sensors are
disconnected from patient.
Control street lighting system: sensor is fitted in light bulbs of
street lamps and it send data to ADC then to microprocessor
where data is sampled if data from sensors < value stored in
memory signal is sent to lamp to switch on for 30 min before
data is sampled again and if data from sensors=>stored in
memory lamp is switched off until data is sampled again.
Anti-lock braking systems: if one wheel of car is rotating to
slowly the magnetic field sensor send data to microprocessor
and reduce the breaking pressure on that wheel so it can
match the speed of other wheels this process is done several
times a sec so that the wheels don’t lock up.
Central heating system: this is how it works
1) A pre set value of temp is stored in microprocessor.
2) The temp sensor constanly sent data to microprocessor.
3) First it sent data to ADC.
4) Then it is sent to microprocessor.
5) Microprocessor compare this value with pre set value.
6) If the value sent >=to pre set value no action is taken.
7) If it<then pre set value signal is sent to actuator.
8) To open gas valve or water pump.
Chemical process control: to conduct a certain chemical
process the temp should be >70 and acidity level should
be >3.5. this is how it works:
1) Temp and ph sensors read data from chemical process.
2) Then this data is converted by sending to ADC.
3) Then it is sent to comp where it compare this value
with preset value.
4) If temp >=70 then signal sent to switch off heater.
5) If temp is <70 then signal send to switch on.
6) If acidity level>=3.5 signal sent to close valve.
7) If acidity level<3.5 signal sent to open valve.
Greenhouse environment control: read from book.
 3.3
Data storage:
All comp require some form of memory and storage.
Memory is the internal device use to store data
temporarily or imp for running comp they are known
as primary memory device.
Storage devices allow user to store Data, apps and
files. Data is stored permanently in it and it can be
changed. They are larger then memory devices.
Memory and storage devices can be split in 2
groups:
1) Primary memory.
2) Secondary storage.
Diff b/w primary memory and storage device
Primary memory:
1) Directly accessible by CPU.
2) Contain Ram,ROM and cache memory.
Secondary storage:
1) Not directly accessible by CPU.
2) Non volatile devices.
3) Can be external or internal to comp.
4) Include SSD,HDD and DVD.
Primary memory: is part of comp memory it include (Ram)
and (Rom).
RAM: all comp system have some form of ram. Data from ram
can be quickly accessed by comp so when an app or program
is run data is taken from secondary devices and placed into
ram because it can be accessed faster.
Some features of RAM:
1) Data can be written or read from.
2) Used to store data, files of application.
3) It is volatile which means data is lost after comp shut
down.
The larger the size of ram the faster the comp will
operate but ram slows down as more data is stored. So
increasing Ram size is benefical.
There are2 types of RAM technology:
1)(DRAM).
2) (SRAM).
Dram: each DRAM chip consists of transistors and
capacitors.
Capacitor: it holds the bit information. 0,1
Transistor: it act like switch. It allow chip control circuitry
to read capacitor value or change it.

So, in simple terms, if you don't regularly refresh the

charge in the capacitor, it will gradually lose its stored
energy, just like water leaks out of a bucket with a hole in
it.
DRAMs advantages over SRAM
1) Less expensive to manufacture.
2) Consume less power.
3) Higher memory capacity.
SRAM
It doesn’t need to be constanly refreshed it makes use
of flip flop.
SRAM has faster data access than DRAM.
Dram is the most common type of ram used in comp.
but when speed is preferred sram is the choice so all
the data is put in Sram so it can access it.
Diff b/w DRAM and SRAM
DRAM: 1) consist of no of transmitors and capacitors.
3) Need to be constanly refreshed.
4) Less expensive to manufacture.
5) Consume less power.
6) Higher memory capacity.
SRAM:
1) Use flip flop.
2) Does not need to be constanly refreshed.
3) Is preferred when speed is needed.
ROM
It is another form of primary memory. It shares
some of the properties with ram but data
cannot be changed or written to.
Here are its features:
1) It is non volatile device.
2) Data is stored permanently.
3) It store data which comp need in start up.
Types of ROM
1) PROM: is used in embedded system and
data cannot be changed.
2) EPROM: its content can be changed only in
ultra violet circuits.
3) EEPROM: read write content again until
life cycle is complete.
Function of RAM and ROM
ROM:
1) Store factory settings such as remote
control controls.
2) Store start up routines.
3) Storing of set routines. Ex what happen
if this button pressed.
RAM:
1) New instructions will be stored.
2) Data/instructions received from
remote control will be stored.
Secondary storage devices:
They are not directly accessible by
CPU and they are non volatile devices
which mean data can be stored for as
long as user want. Data access is
slower than RAM and ROM.
 These type of devices can be divided
into 3 categories:
1) Magnetic
2) Solid state
3) Optical.

Magnetic HDD: it is a common method used to store data on

comp and it stored in digital format on magnetic surfaces of
disks/platters. HDD have no of platters that spin 7000 times a
sec. it consist of read/write heads that read data from or write
data to platters. And can access all surface in platters. It is
stored in surface in sectors or tracks. It is slowly accessed
that’s why latency effect become important. When data is
stored in HD it will undergo editing leading to sectors
becoming fragmented declining performance of HDD. But it
can be fixed by tidying up sectors.
Removable HDDs, often called external hard drives can be
useful for data sharing, backup, or storage expansion.

SSD: they don’t have latency issue because it has no

moving parts. It store data by controlling movement of
electrons within Nand chips. Each intersection contain
memory cell which contain data. It consist of floating
gate and control gate transistors which use CMOS and
Nand tech. dielectric coating seprate 2 transistors
which allow floating gate to retain its charge so it is
 non-volatile memory. It has value of 1 when charged
but 0 when not.
Charge of SSD leak away after 1 year so it should be
used 1 to retain its memory.
Advantages of SSD:
1) More reliable no moving parts.
2) Data access faster than HDD.
3) Lighter because no moving parts.
4) Lower power consumption.
Its drawback is its SSD endurance which is 20 gb
write operation per day that why it is not used in
servers.

Memory stick/flash memories: known as pen drives. Usually

connect to comp using usb port and allow transferring of files
and used as back devices. It uses dongle to run software
properly.
Optical media
CD/DVD disks: they are described as optical storage
devices. Both systems use spiral track which runs from the
centre to the edge of disk. So when disk spins optical head
moves to the point where laser beam contact disk. Disk follow
spiral track. Data is stored in pits and land. It uses dual
layering which increase it storage capacity in which there are
2 recording layers joined with spacer and reflector. It has
larger storage capacity because of shorter wavelength of
650nm.
Blu-ray discs: they are also optical storage devices. But a bit
diff from DVDS.
Main diff b/w Blu-ray and DVDS
1) It uses blue laser unlike DVD which use red.
2) Using blue laser means pits and lands are smaller.
3) They have an automatic secure encryption system.
4) Faster data transfer about 36Mbps.
Comparison of capacity and interactivity b/w blu-ray and
DVDs:
1) Standard dual layer DVD has storage capacity of 4.7GB.
2) Single blu-ray disc has storage capacity of 27GB.
3) Dual blu-ray disc has storage of 50GB.
With blu-ray it is possible to:
1) Record high definition tv programs.
2) Create playlists of recorded movies.
3) Edit or re-order programs recorded.
4) Access websites and download sub-titles.
Virtual memory:1 problem of memory management
is when it runs out of ram because of multiple
programs being runned which cause system to crash.
But it can be solved by using HDD/SSD. Ram is phy
memory . and virtual is Ram+swap space on
HDD/SSD. To execute program data is loaded into
memory from HDD/SSD.
Look at with and without diagrams of virtual
memory as cannot be made here.
This will be continued until all ram is no longer being
used by programs being runned in memory. It give
illusion of unlimited memory by moving data in/out
HDD/SSD.
Paging: is used by memory management to retrieve
data from HDD/SSD and copy into RAM.
Page : is fixed length of block of data utilized in
virtual memory.
Accessing data in virtual memory is slower so
increasing ram size is benefical.
Advantages of virtual memory:
1) Program can be executed even if bigger than phy
memory.
2) No need to waste memory with data not being
used.
3) Reduces the need to buy more costly ram
memory.

Using HDD for virtual memory has 1 drawback

which is disk thrashing which is swaping data
in/out of memory leading to high rate of
read/write movements. And it reach to point
where execution is stopped because system is too
 busy known as thrash point.it cause pre mature
failure of HDD. It can be reduced by increasing
ram size reducing no of programs runned or use
SSD instead of HDD.

Cloud storage: it is method of storage where you basically rent

space on the internet from big companies which store your
data in servers and it can be accessed by customer any time it
is known as data redundancy.
3 common systems:
1) Public cloud: the storage services are provided by one
company, while the customer or client who uses the
storage services is another company or individual.
2) Private cloud: This means that a private cloud is like
having a storage system that set up within company's
own network, protected by its security measures, such as
a firewall.
3) Hybrid cloud: it is combo of both mentioned above some
data is stored in private cloud while less confidential data
is stored in public cloud.
Advantages of cloud storage:
1) Data can be accessed any time if internet access
provided.
2) No need to carry external storage devices
3) It offers unlimited storage capacity.
4) Provide remote back up of data.
Disadvantages:
1) If client has slow data access will get problem while
accessing data.
2) Cost can be high if large storage capacity is required.
3) Potential failure of cloud storage will result in loss of
back-up data.
Data security when using cloud storage:
When you transfer data from your systm to server
you give up security of you own data. For ex
1) What phy security is provided to building where
data is stored.
2) Cloud service resistence to natural disasters or
power cut.
3) Can safe guard access data through codes for
money purposes.
Potential data loss when using cloud storage:
When using cloud storage, there is a risk that
important data could be lost from the cloud storage
facilities from the actions of hackers. These are some
of the reasons regarding security which makes people
nervous using cloud storage.
1) Xi'an security threat which forced several cloud
operators to reboot their cloud servers t was a
problem caused by Xi'an hypervisor.
2) a large cloud service provider permanently lost data
during the routine backup permanently lost data
during the routine backup.
3) The celebrities photos stored in the cloud storage
were published on the internet.
 4) National Electrical Institute of Mexico suffered cloud
security breach in which 93 million voter
registrations stored on database were compromised
and became publicly available to everyone.
Network hardware 3.4:
NIC: Network Interface Card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to be
connected to a network. It contains a MAC address generated at
manufacturing. There are two types of NIC: wired and wireless. The
MAC address is made up of 48 bits and consists of 6 hexadecimal
digits.

Types of MAC Address:

 UAA (Universally Administrated MAC Address)

 LAA (Locally Administrated MAC Address)

UAA is the most common type of MAC address, but sometimes users
might want to change it. However, this can cause some problems if
the changed address is not unique. Network Interface Card (NIC) is
needed to allow a device to be connected to a network. It contains a
MAC address generated at manufacturing. There are two types of
NIC: wired and wireless. The MAC address is made up of 48 bits and
consists of 6 hexadecimal digits.

Types of MAC Address:

 UAA (Universally Administrated MAC Address)

 LAA (Locally Administrated MAC Address)

UAA is the most common type of MAC address, but sometimes users
might want to change it. However, this can cause some problems if
the changed address is not unique.

 Reasons for Changing MAC Address Using LAA

 formatting requirements on device MAC addresses, so you
have to change mac address.
  In some cases, it may be essential to bypass MAC address
filters on routers or firewalls, which only allow MAC addresses
with specific formats to pass through.
 To overcome certain types of network restrictions, it may be
necessary to emulate unrestricted MAC addresses.
 This involves altering the device's MAC address to mimic.
_______________________
Ip address 3.4.3
In private networks, devices get private IP addresses from the router. These IPs
are unique within the network but can match others elsewhere. When the router
connects to the internet, it gets a unique public IP from the ISP. Each device in the
private network shares this public IP but has its own private IP.

It introduces IPv4 and IPv6, highlighting their distinct structures: IPv4 with 32-bit
addresses and IPv6 with 128-bit addresses. Advantages of ipv6 over ip v4.

1) removes risk of IP address collisions.

2) Has built in authentication checks.
3) Allow more efficient packet routes.
4) Aspect MAC Address IP Address
Identifies physical address of
Identification device It identifies global address on internet.
Length 48 bits Variable: typically 32 bits (IPv4) or 128 bits (IPv6)
Administration Set by device maker Set by ISP (Dynamic) or manually (Static)
Changes with internet connection (Dynamic) or remains constant
Changeability Stays the same (Static)
Purpose Identifies device on local network Enables internet communication and routing
Static and dynamic ip address
When a device connects to the internet, static IP addresses remain
constant, often for servers hosting websites online database and ftp
server.. In contrast, dynamic IP addresses, assigned by the ISP using
DHCP, change with each connection, offering variability.
Diff b/w both.Dynamic IPs change, with each login as DHCP use ISP to assign ip
address, offering privacy but can disrupt connections like VOIP. Static IPs stay
consistent, ensuring traceability and potentially faster speeds, though
maintenance may cost more.
Routers:
Routers are vital for connecting different networks, ex LAN TO WAN
transmitting data packets by converting formats for seamless
communication. They link local and wide area networks, ensuring internet
transmission protocols are maintained while connecting multiple devices.
Routers also provide firewall protection, inspecting data packets.

Computers in a network share parts of IP addresses, helping routers find

the right destination for data. Data packets are sent to the designated
device using its MAC address. If there's no match, the router sends the
packet to another switch until the correct recipient is found. This routing
system ensures efficient data delivery in both wired and wireless
networks.