Types of Errors in Measurement:
The error may arise from the different source and are usually classified
into the following types. These types are.
Gross Errors
Systematic Errors
Random Errors
Gross Errors:
The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes. For examples
consider the person using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or
they can record the incorrect data. Such type of error comes under the
gross error. The gross error can only be avoided by taking the reading
carefully.
For example – The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while the
actual reading is 21.5Cº. This happens because of the oversights. The
experimenter takes the wrong reading and because of which the error
occurs in the measurement.
Such type of error is very common in the measurement. The complete
elimination of such type of error is not possible. Some of the gross error
easily detected by the experimenter but some of them are difficult to
find. Two methods can remove the gross error.
Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are
1. The reading should be taken very carefully.
2. Two or more readings should be taken of the measurement
quantity. The readings are taken by the different experimenter and
at a different point for removing the error.
2. Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories.
I. Instrumental Errors
II. Environmental Errors
III. Observational Errors
2 (i) Instrumental Errors
These errors mainly arise due to the three main reasons.
(a) Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments – Such types of errors are
inbuilt in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may
be due to manufacturing, calibration or operation of the device. These
errors may cause the error to read too low or too high.
For example – If the instrument uses the weak spring then it gives the
high value of measuring quantity. The error occurs in the instrument
because of the friction or hysteresis loss.
(b) Misuse of Instrument – The error occurs in the instrument because
of the fault of the operator. A good instrument used in an unintelligent
way may give an enormous result.
For example – the misuse of the instrument may cause the failure to
adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustment, using lead to too
high resistance. These improper practices may not cause permanent
damage to the instrument, but all the same, they cause errors.
(c) Loading Effect – It is the most common type of error which is
caused by the instrument in measurement work. For example, when the
voltmeter is connected to the high resistance circuit it gives a
misleading reading, and when it is connected to the low resistance
circuit, it gives the dependable reading. This means the voltmeter has a
loading effect on the circuit.
The error caused by the loading effect can be overcome by using the
meters intelligently. For example, when measuring a low resistance by
the ammeter-voltmeter method, a voltmeter having a very high value of
resistance should be used.
2 (ii) Environmental Errors
These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices.
Such types of errors mainly occur due to the effect of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or because of the magnetic or
electrostatic field. The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to
reduce these undesirable effects are
The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as
possible.
Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these
disturbances.
By applying the computed corrections.
2 (iii) Observational Errors
Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading.
There are many sources of observational error. For example, the pointer
of a voltmeter resets slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an
error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line of vision of the
observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimise the parallax error
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales.
3. Random Errors
The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric
condition, such type of error is called random error. These types of error
remain even after the removal of the systematic error. Hence such type
of error is also called residual error.
Limiting Errors:
For any instrument, the manufacturer defines or guarantees a
certain accuracy, which depends upon the type of material and the effort
required to manufacture the instrument. The accuracy is defined within
a certain percentage of full-scale reading. In other words, the
manufacturer specifies certain deviations from the nominal value. The
limits of these deviations are known as Limiting or Guarantee Errors.
The error is guaranteed within the limits.
The ratio of error to the specified nominal value is termed as Relative
Limiting Error.
Note that smaller the voltage to be measured, greater is the percentage
error, though the magnitude of limiting error is fixed.
Computing limiting error for a combination of two or more quantities,
each having a limiting error, is found by considering the relative
increment of the function if the result is an algebraic equation.
