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Review

A report on soap making in Nigeria using indigenous

technology and raw materials
Warra, A. A.
Department of Biochemistry, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 1144, Aliero, Nigeria.
Accepted 31 January, 2013

In everyday life we use soap to wash dishes, clean clothes, or keep our bodies presentable to nose and
eye. Soap therefore has numerous applications in our daily life. One of its great values is keeping our
household a far better place to live and work. However, contrary to what one may think, soap was
invented not only for the purpose of personal hygiene; rather, it was invented to solve other purposes.
Colourful yarns were valued very early in the history of textiles; wool as it comes from the sheep is
coated with a layer of grease that interferes with the application of dyes, soap was used to solve this
problem. This report attempts to explore the technology of soap production in Nigeria using indigenous
raw materials.

Key words: Soap, raw materials, technology, chemistry, quality control.

INTRODUCTION

There could be hundred different ways of explaining what A short history

really a soap is and what can be regarded as a soap; we
can regard it as any cleaning agent, manufactured in Throughout history people were known to have taken
bars, granules, flakes, or liquid form, made from a bath in herb waters and other additions to the bathing
mixture of mostly sodium or potassium salts of various medium thought to be beneficial. Cleopatra of Egypt for
fatty acids of natural oils and fats. example used mare’s milk, honey and essential oils in
In addition to basic raw materials, other substances of her bathing rites.
medicinal importance are added as ingredient to produce Historical studies revealed that soap were utilized in
medicated soaps; there are other types of soap which are both ancient Egypt and Babylonia 5000 years ago.
soaps of metals other than sodium and potassium called Mixtures of animal fats and alkaline plant ash were used
metallic insoluble soaps that are not used as cleaning to produce soap (Phanseil, 1998). Ancient peoples were
agents, but are used for other purposes. Examples are, believed to have employed wood ashes and water for
calcium and magnesium soap used as lubricants and washing and to have relieved the resulting irritation with
driers, aluminum and chromium soaps for sizing paper, grease or oil. In the first century A.D., Pliny describes a
lithium stearate (a lithium soap) for thicken oils into soap of tallow and wood ashes used by Germanic tribes
grease etc. to brighten their hair. It is recorded that Babylonians were
In this context, our discussion will be limited to soaps making soap around 2800 B.C and it was known to the
as cleaning agents. Phoenicians around 600 B.C. These early references to

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140 Afr. J. Pure Appl. Chem.

Table 1. Fatty acid profiles Shea butter versus competitors.

Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic

Oil type
(12:0) (14:0) (16:0) (18:0) (18:1) (18:2) (18:3)
Cocoa butter 25 35 30 - 40 2-4
Olive 12 2 72 8 1
Palm oil (husk) 44 16 8 3 5 2
Coconut
Shea butter
Literature 0 - 0.5 0 - 1.6 3-9 30 - 50 41 - 50 4 - 11 0 - 7.5
Uganda 6.5 26.4 59.3 6.2 0.2
Nigeria 3.2 38.9 47.5 6.5 0.2
Burkina Faso 12.1 42.5 39.3 4.5 0.2
Mali 19 31.1 42.6 5.7 0.2
Source: (Ferris et al., 2001).

soap and soap making were for the use of soap in the Shea nut fat is composed principally of triglycerides
cleaning of textiles fibers such as wool and cotton in (triacylglycerols) containing an oleic acid moiety at the 2-
preparation for weaving into cloth. From the long history position and saturated fatty acids, usually stearic or
of ancient civilizations until today, the basics of soap palmitic acids, at the 1- and 3-positions (Acquaye et al.,
making has not fundamentally changed, meaning that the 2001). Chemical analysis of Shea butter extracted from
basic process has not changed. Hence, blending the old nuts samples from four African countries (Uganda,
tradition with modern day knowledge of surface active Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Mali) were conducted by the
agents, accuracy, combination of good and carefully Ben Gurion University, Isreal, as part of the ongoing EU
selected ingredients mixed and stirred at the right funded INCO project on Shea. Fatty acid analysis shows
temperature and time can with experience produce the there is a high level of variability in Shea oils across
finest soaps (Ellis, 2008) Africa (Table 1). The Ugandan sample had a 59% oleic
In this work, attempt was made to explore the ways of acid content compared with 47% for Nigeria and only
improving indigenous technology for soap production by 39% for Burkina Faso (Ferris et al., 2001).
the use of available local raw materials.

Jatropha seed oil

TECHNOLOGY OF SOAP PRODUCTION UTILIZING
INDIGENOUS RAW MATERIALS Oil for soap making is the most profitable use; the fruit of
Jatropha contain viscous oil that can be used for soap
Indigenous raw materials making (Openshaw, 2000). It is rich in palmitic acid, with
high levels of hydrophobicity, and makes a soft, durable
Animal fat soap under even the simplest of manufacturing
processes (Pratt et al., 2002). High oil content of
Tallow is one of the principal fatty materials used in soap Jatropha curcas indicated that J. curcas are suitable as
making. Romans were doing soap made from animal fats non-edible vegetable oil feedstock in oleochemical
and wood ashes 2500 years ago (McGraw-Hill industries (biodiesel, fatty acids, soap, fatty nitrogenous
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2007). Soaps derivatives, surfactants and detergents (Akbar et al.,
made from animal fat contain more of 16- and 18- carbon 2009).
fatty acids and are generally harder and easy to form into
shapes (Robertson, 2006). Tallow oil include, palmitic
acid (CH3(CH2)14CO2H, stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH) Castor seed oil
and oleic acid (CH3(CH2)7CHCH(CH2)7COOH
Abitogun et al. (2009) confirmed the presence of
ricinoleic acids, oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid and
Shea nut fat dihydroxylstearic acid; this is an indication of good quality
that can be modified so as to be useful in cosmetics. This
Shea nut solid fat (butter or stearin) is ideal for use in oil differs from all other commercial oils in being rich in
making cosmetics, soap and detergents (Fintrac, 1990). ricinoleic acid (~90%, 12-hydroxyoleic). Compared with
 Warra 141

Table 2. Some physical and chemical characteristics of oils extracted from sesame seed grown in Jigawa State,
Nigeria* (Mohammed and Hamza, 2008).

S/N Analysis/physical and chemical characteristics W R

1 Colour White Red
2 Iodine value (gI2 /100 g) 103 116
3 Oil content (%) 48 50
3
4 Specific gravity (g/cm ) 0.915 0.923
5 Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.5 0.45
6 Peroxide value (Meq KOH/g) 8 7.45
7 Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 189 191
8 Cyanide test Negative Negative
*The values are mean of three replicates.

the common vegetable oils, castor oil is more viscous, Nigeria has a substantial role in the global sesame trade.
less soluble in hexane, and more soluble in ethanol, all Annual exports of sesame from Nigeria are valued at
as a consequence of the presence of the hydroxy acid. about US$20 million and Nigeria is the primary supplier of
This hydroxy acid has several interesting properties by sesame seed to the world’s largest importer, Japan
which it can be converted to useful products. (Chemonics International Inc., 2002). The seed has been
CH3(CH2)5CHOHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH [ricinoleic acid called “queen of the oil seed crop” because of the high
(12-hydroxyoleic acid)]. Sulfation converts the hydroxyl yield of oil and its quality. Apart from its uses in cosmetics
group to a sulfate (-OSO2OH) with improved surfactant and perfume, it is also used for the manufacture of soap
properties. Apart from soap, it is the earliest anionic (Gandhi and Taimini, 2009). The hot-expressed oil is
surfactant (Gunstone, 2005).One of its uses is in the used chiefly for soap making (Jamieson and Baughman,
manufacture of transparent soaps (Kochhar, 1998). The 1924). The work of Mohammed and Hamza (2008)
inferior qualities of the oil are frequently employed in justified some quality characteristics of Nigerian variety of
India for soap making (Grieve, 2009). In Nigeria, castor sesame seed oil (Table 2).
bean was cultivated on over 6,000 ha across most of the
states. The crop grows in the wild even where it is not
cultivated. Benue, Gombe, Yobe, Cross Rivers, Kogi, TECHNOLOGY
Ebonyi, Kwara, Zamfara and FCT are the promising
producers where the bulk of the hectares are cultivated. There are five major steps for soap making process:
The output is estimated at twelve thousand metric tonnes
(12,000 mt) (Raw Materials Research and Development (a) Saponification,
Council, 2009). (b) Soap washing or glycerol extraction,
(c) Fitting,
(d) Moulding,
Neem seed oil (e) Drying.
Oil extracted from its seeds composed primarily of Although in some simple hard soap making, the steps
triacylglycerols of oleic, strearic, linoleic, and palmitic can be classified further into seven main steps:
acids. The seeds yield 40% of a deep yellow oil, the well-
known ‘Margosa oil’ (Girish and Shankara, 2008). Of all
(1) Getting the right mixture of oil/fat and alkali, called
other industrial uses in India, neem oil has been a major
“proving”,
ingredient in soaps for at least 50 years (National
(2) “Boiling down” – removing the unwanted water, and
Research Council, 1992). The indigenous neem seed oil
checking for “doneness”,
is presently obtainable at Saberg International Ltd.,
(3) Treating with salt to remove water, impurities, and
producers of proudly Nigerian Naija Neems (Neem oil) at
glycerin a process called ‘graining’ this step makes a
Technology Incubation Centre, Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State,
good solid soap for washing clothes,
Nigeria.
(4) Adding colouring agents (colourants) and perfumes,
(5) Pouring into moulds, called “setting”,
Sesame seed oil (6) Breaking the “green” soap out of the mould and
splitting it into finished sizes and,
Sesame is an important export crop in Nigeria, and (7) Drying and airing the “green” soap.
142 Afr. J. Pure Appl. Chem.

Figure 1. Saponification reaction. R is the long chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Concise chemistry of soap making by air-drying for 24 h to obtain the soap bars, according
to the method reported by Warra (2009) and the soap
Chemical reactions in soap making (that is, bars can then be observed for colour, texture, lathering
saponification) and cleaning power.

In saponification reactions, esters are split into alcohols

and salts of carboxylic acids (Figure 1). The word Moulding and cutting
“Saponification” is derived from the latin word “saponins”,
meaning’soap’ though the word has a wide application, In this step, melted soap is poured into shaped-mould for
for example, in papermaking, many components of wood it to “set” and harden in. Sometimes, the soap is “broken
pitch may become saponified under alkaline papermaking out” of the mould and “split” down to required sizes with a
conditions (Mini-encyclopedia, 2008). Saponification is wire. The soaps are cut using cutting machine which can
also widely used in more general term to refer to alkaline be made locally into different designs and size.
hydrolysis of any type of ester.
The overall reaction of triacylglycerol saponification can
be thought of occurring in two steps. The first step is the Stamping
hydrolysis of the ester linkages to produce glycerol and
three fatty acid molecules: Fat or oil + 3H2O3 fatty acids + This is the use of special stamp (either electric or
glycerol. The second step involves a reaction between manual) and trade marks on the products (soap
the fatty acid molecules and base (usually NaOH) in the products). Murjanatu Muhammad Abba illuminated the
alkali solution. This is an acid-base reaction that growing role of stamping in selling products in Nigeria
produces water plus salts: 3 fatty acids + 3NaOH 3 when she wrote “This is very vital in selling products in
fatty acid salts + 3H2O Nigeria as most Nigerians buy name not the quality of the
product” (Abba, 2008). Wooden or plastic, handmade
stamp and stamp box or manual stamping machine are
Indigenous technology saponification used.

Mixing the fat or oil with base (alkali) can be done using a
specially designed mixer. Small scale soap makers in Drying
Nigeria mostly use manual mixer.
Soap is normally obtained as having moisture content.
Drying is required to reduce this water content of the
Simple cold-process soap making procedure soap to a carefully defined and controlled level, especially
for toilet soap bars. Soap at control moisture content will
3
For each soap formulation, pour directly 200 g/dm NaOH generally produce, after, subsequent processing, a bar of
solution into the stainless steel container (pot) containing the required appearance. This cannot be achieved until
the fat and oil in the ratio 1:1 (v/v). Warmed gently the the soap has been aired for hours or up to about 1 month
fats/oil and pour into the stainless steel soap making pot in the case of dry hard soap that takes longer to use up.
followed by the alkali solution to form an intimate mix and
then stir frequently for 10 to 15 min using wooden stirrer.
Perfume and other ingredients can be added as additives Packaging
at the last time before pouring the saponification mixture
into moulds. After pouring, the soap is allowed to harden This is the use of special materials to package products
 Warra 143

to the market. The products are finally packed in cartons. handling of these chemicals.
Wrapping the soaps into nice paper or clean polythene
will add greatly to its sales value. The cost associated
with packaging material is an important factor in the cost Workplace safety
of production. The cost packaging could be high for
consumer products. Therefore, it is always important for a Workplace safety means having ingredients properly
soap producer to estimate his packaging cost in order to labeled and stored, maintaining a clean, orderly, well-lit,
represent his operating expenses which have great and well ventilated work area for making soap restricting
impact on the selling prize and profit or gain. the access of children and pets to the storage and work
areas, having easy access to personal protective
equipment: a telephone, a fire extinguisher, and running
Safety precautions/hazards water.

1) Wear your gloves and goggles throughout the entire

soap making. Complaint file
2) If sodium hydroxide touches the skin, immediately
rinse the affected area with running water This is a file that contains a record of a customer
3) If a spill happens, take care of your skin first; rinse the complaint, the date of the complaint, and the action taken
area with cool water. Then apply vinegar to the area and by the soap maker.
rinse again.
4) Do not attempt to pour vinegar into your eye. Seek
medical attention for any sodium hydroxide spill that had Batch code
entered your eye.
5) Avoid contact with hot oils, as they can burn the skin. This is a numbered record of each batch of soap. The
Consult a professional for assistance. batch code sheet lists the company of manufacture, the
6) Avoid contact with essential and fragrance oils. Wear name of the soap maker(s), the date made, the
gloves and goggles while using them. ingredients, weight numbers, any variation from the
7) Flush the affected area with water. normal soap making procedure, the cure date or “do not
use before” date, the expiration date, and any additional
comments.
Safety data and record keeping

Any soap making industry being it large or small scale Ways of improving soaps quality
should have documented information on safety
categories and record keeping. The following parameters The use of glycerine
are some of the important references used.
The presence of several polar-OH groups makes it
strongly attracted to water, a feature that makes glycerine
Material safety data sheet (MSDS) useful as a skin softener in products such as lotions,
cosmetics, shaving creams, and liquid soaps.
This is a reference that contains pertinent information
related to the following safety categories for specific
material: Manufacturer or vendor information, chemical The use of sequestrants
composition, hazards and potential health effects, first aid
measures, fire fighting measures, spill measures, Many manufacturers use chelating molecules in their
handling and storage, exposure and protection, physical commercial soap products, often EDTA derivatives are
and chemical properties stability and reactivity, used which helps to bind with any free calcium or
toxicological information, environmental information, magnesium ions to prevent soap scum (a process called
disposal considerations, transportation information, and sequestration). These also help to reduce fragrance loss,
regulatory information. MSDS are usually available from discolouration and rancidity.
chemical manufacturer, a commercial source, or a private
library developed by the chemical plant.
According to Crowl and Louvar (2002), the industrial Checking the soap pH
hygienist or safety professional must interpret the
physical and toxicological properties to determine the Checking the pH of soap is necessary not only for the
hazards associated with a chemical. These properties are purpose of improving soaps quality but to regulate the pH
also used to develop a strategy for the proper control and level which shall not contribute to the harshness of hands
144 Afr. J. Pure Appl. Chem.

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