Ch- Human memory

Notes
The Concept of Human Memory
The first topic of CBSE Class 11 Psychology chapter 7 human memory
is learning about the basic concept. Human memory can be clearly
defined as a process comprising of three independent yet
interrelated stages which are explained as follows:
1. Encoding – It is the first stage of human memory in which
information is recorded and registered for the first time so that
it becomes usable by our memory system and substantial
meaning is derived from the incoming information
2. Storage -It is the second stage of human memory in which the
encoded information is retained and held over a period of time
so that it can be utilized later
3. Retrieval – It is the third stage of memory in which the stored
information can be recovered from our memory as and when
the situation demands
Information Processing Approach (Stage Model)
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of memory is also known as the stage
model of memory. This proposes the existence of three separate but
sequentially linked memory systems:

1. Sensory memory- It Contains a fleeting impression of a sensory

stimulus(sight, sound).it has a large capacity. It is of a very short
duration that is less than a second
2. Short-term memory – A limited recollection of recently
perceived stimulus(telephone number, order of food). It holds a
small amount of information for a brief period of time which is
less than 30 seconds
3. Long-term memory- It is defined as a permanent store of
memories for later retrieval. here, information is encoded
semantically and the storage capacity is unlimited.

Maintenance Rehearsal vs Elaborative Rehearsal

 Types of Long-Term Memory
1. Declarative Memory- All information pertaining to facts,
names, dates like a car has four wheels,14th February is
Valentine’s day is part of the declarative memory. Facts retained
in the declarative memory are amenable to verbal descriptions
2. Procedural Memory – It refers to the memories relating to
procedures of accomplishing various tasks like how to drive a
car, bake cakes, etc. Contents of procedural memory cannot be
described easily as they are more practical and application-
based
Declarative Memory
Declarative memory is further classified into two categories
Episodic and semantic memory. Let’ ‘s explore in-depth:
Episodic Memory
It comprises biographical details of our life. Its memories relate
to our personal life experiences and its contents are emotional
in nature. Example- First marriage anniversary
celebration, birthday party with friends.
Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is defined as the memory of general
awareness and knowledge. All concepts, ideas, and rules of
logic are stored in semantic memory. Example- 7*8 is 56, STD
code of New Delhi is 011, etc.
 Nature and Causes of Forgetting
Moving on to the next topic in CBSE Class 11 Psychology
chapter 7 human memory is nature and causes of forgetting.
Forgetting occurs when information is not retrieved from our
long-term memory, and the reasons behind forgetting are as
follows:
1. The information we commit to our long-term memory is
somehow lost
2. The information to be learned was not memorized well enough
3. Improper encoding of the information
4. The information to be learned is not stored properly.
• Hermann Ebbinghaus came up with his theory of forgetting as
per which rate of forgetting is maximum in the first 9 hours,
 particularly during the first hour. After that, the forgetting rate
slows down and not much is forgotten even after many days
• Trace theory of forgetting is also termed as the disuse theory
which states that memory leads to modification in the central
nervous system which is akin to physical changes in the brain
called memory traces. If the memory traces are not used for a
long time, they simply fade away and become unavailable. The
trace theory has been called baseless and inadequate by many
psychologists as it is impractical
Interference
Forgetting also happens because of the interference between
various pieces of information that the memory store contains.
Interferences come about at a time of retrieval when these sets
of associations compete with each other for retrieval. Two
types of interference are explained below:
Proactive Interference
It means what one has learned earlier interferes with the recall
of subsequent learning. Past learning interferes with the recall
of later learning. For example- a person well-versed in English
may find difficulty in learning French.
Retroactive Interference
It refers to difficulty in recalling what one has learned earlier
because of learning new material. Later learning interferes with
the recall of past learning. For example- if one cannot recall
English equivalents of French words that one is currently
memorizing then it might be because of retroactive
interference. Forgetting can also occur because at the time of
recall either the retrieval cues are absent or they are not
appropriate as per the need. Retrieval Cues are aids that help
us in recovering information stored in the memory.
 Enhancing Memory
There are various techniques to enhance your memory. Here
are some of the ways to improve your memory:
Mnemonics Using Images- It requires us to create vivid and
interactive images of the material that we wish to remember.
Under this type, there are two techniques which are explained
as follows:
Keyword Method- In this method, an English word that sounds
similar word that sounds similar to a word of a foreign language
is identified. This English word will function as a keyword. It is
considered as a simple method as compared to rote learning
Method Of Loci– It helps in learning in a serial order. It first
requires an individual to visualize places/objects that they know
well in a specific order. Imagine the objects to be memorized
and then associate them one by one to the physical locations
Mnemonics Using Organization
Mnemonics Using Organization- Organization refers to
imposing certain orders on the material to be remembered.
Techniques under this category are explained as follows-
• Chunking- It helps in increasing short-term memory. To form
larger chunks, we combine several smaller units, and it is
important to discover organizational principles that can link
these smaller units together in order to create chunks
• First Letter Technique- In this method, we need to actively pick
up the first letter of each word to be remembered and then
arrange them logically to form another word or sentence. For
example, we learn colors of the rainbow as VIBGYOR(Violet,
Indigo, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red)
• Deep Level Processing- As per craik and Lockhart processing
information in terms of meaning that they convey leads to
better memory as compared to attending to their surface
features. It involves asking as many questions as possible
related to the information that is to be learned
• Give Oneself Retrieval Cues- Giving one self-sufficient retrieval
cues will make it easier to remember the information as it will
help in linking it to the retrieval cues
 Chapter- Emotions and Motivation
Nature of Motivation

Motivation is one of the important determinants of behaviour and

instincts, drives, goals, and needs are included in the broad concept of
motivation.
Motivation Cycle

1. A need is defined as a lack of some necessity

2. Need further leads to drive which is defined as a state of arousal which
energizes us to take action that will help us in accomplishing our goal
3. After the accomplishment of a goal, there is a reduction in drive and at
last, the organism achieves a balanced state as the needs are fulfilled.

Types of Motives
Motives are broadly categorized into two types. Biological and psychological
motives. Let us explore more about these topics mentioned in motivation and
emotion class 11 notes:
Biological Motives
They are present from birth and are universal in nature. Its main focus is on
innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones, neurotransmitters, and
 brain structures(Limbic System, Hypothalamus). Some examples of biological
motives are mentioned below:

Hunger
1. Changes in the metabolic functions of the liver lead to a feeling of hunger
2. The liver sends signals to the hypothalamus and the two regions involved in
hunger are the Lateral Hypothalamus and Ventromedial Hypothalamus the
first region’s stimulation causes hunger and the second region inhibits
hunger.

Thirst
1. Drinking water is necessary to wet a dry mouth and along with dry mouth, it is
the body processes within which leads to a feeling of thirst.
2. Motivation to drink water is mainly triggered by conditions such as loss of
water from cells, reduction of blood volume and the anterior hypothalamus
containing nerve cells called osmoreceptors which generate nerve impulses
in case of cell dehydration.

Sex
1. One of the most powerful drives in the case of animals and human beings is
called the sex drive
2. Sexual activity, unlike thirst, hunger is not necessary for the survival of human
beings and it develops with age.

Psychosocial Motives
They evolve with age and are influenced by culture. Its main focus is on
psychological, social, and environmental factors and how these factors interact with
one another which leads to a feeling of motivation. Examples include the need for
achievement, affiliation, power, etc.
Need for Affiliation
1. Seeking other human beings and wanting to develop a close relationship with
them is termed affiliation.
2. People who are high on this need, to develop friendly relations with others and
have the urge to be a part of all the social groups.
Need For Power
1. It is defined as the ability of a person to produce intended effects on the
behaviour and emotions of another person.
2. Various goals of power motivation are to influence, persuade others and
enhance one’s own goodwill in the eyes of others
Need for Achievement
 1. This need refers to the desire of a person to meet standards of excellence
2. It energizes and directs behaviour as well as influences our perception of the
situations we face
Curiosity and Exploration
1. It doesn’t have a specific and identifiable goal or target
2. It basically includes seeking new experiences, learning new things, and
enhancing one’s knowledge.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow came up with his theory of motivation which clearly portrayed all human
needs in a hierarchical manner:

Source-simplypsycholog
1. Physiological needs include all the basic needs like food, water, and warmth
which are necessary for survival
2. Safety needs include staying safe from any kind of danger and it includes job
security as well which ensures financial security
3. Belongingness needs which focus on seeking out cordial relationships with
others and companionship
 4. Esteem Needs to focus on developing a feeling of self-worth and pride which
gives a boost to self-confidence and self-esteem
5. Self-Actualization Needs mainly focus on unleashing one’s potential to the
fullest and a self-actualized person is self-aware, socially responsive, face
difficulties and challenges, etc
Nature of Emotions
Emotions involve arousal, subjective arousal, and cognitive interpretation of the
given situation. They move us internally and involve both psychological and
physiological reactions. There are 6 basic emotions which are mentioned below in
the motivation and emotion class 11 notes:
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Surprise
4. Disgust
5. Surprise
6. Joy
Managing Negative Emotions
Negative emotions need to be managed in an effective manner to reduce our stress
and improve our well-being. Here are a few steps to manage your negative emotions:
1. Enhance Self-Awareness – Being aware of one’s emotions and delving into
the hows and whys of one’s emotions help in managing negative emotions
2. Appraise the situation objectively- The problematic situation faced should be
appraised in an objective manner which means that it should be viewed
without any bias and that will help us in seeing things from a proper
perspective.
3. Participate In Community Service- Being active in community service and
charitable endeavours helps in reducing stress and management of negative
emotions
4. Be creative- Involving oneself in a creative hobby like writing, or painting gives
a direction to our energy and hence, we are able to manage our negative
emotions easily.
5. Have Empathy- Stepping into others’ shoes and seeing the situation from their
point of view not only builds a great relationship with the other person but
also reduces stress and anger.
Anger Management
Anger Management is not easy. Here are a few tips and tricks mentioned in
Motivation and Emotion class 12 notes to manage your anger:
• Give yourself time to recognize destructive behaviour and thinking patterns
and come up with a positive alternative to the same
• Don’t have irrational beliefs about people and events
• Recognize the power of thoughts
• Look inward not outward for anger control
• Find constructive and rational ways of expressing anger
Enhancing Positive Emotions
Enhancing positive emotions is crucial for our physical and mental well-being and
some of the effective ways of enhancing positive emotions are as follows:
1. Personality traits like optimism, confidence, and hopefulness are important
2. Looking at the positive side of a problematic situation
3. Having cordial relationships with family members and friends
4. Being engaged in work and attaining mastery of work
5. Having a strong purpose in life instils a sense of positivity in our lives